1

Polymers or Macromolecules:- These are high molecular weight compounds formed by

inter-linking of large of number of simple units (monomers) via covalent bonds.
Polymer – Poly + mer, Poly mean many and mer means member/ unit
Polymerization:- The process of formation of high molecular weight compounds is k/a
polymerization.
Monomer:- The simple repeating unit of a macromolecule is called monomer eg. CH 2=CH2 (ethane) is
monomer of polyethene.
 Polymers may be natural, synthetic or semi-synthetic.
 Due to properties like light weight, corrosion resistance, cheapness etc. have replaced materials
like metals, wood, paper etc.
 But improper and excessive use of polymers imposed threats to environment & life.
 The polymers do not degrade or decompose easily, so stay for long time in environment.
 As the raw materials for most of the synthetic polymers are petrochemicals, so upon degradation
they discharge harmful chemicals.
1. Vinyl Plastics
Polyethylene (PE):- PE is a polyolefin made from the polymerization of ethylene (or ethene)
monomer having chemical formula is (C2H4)n. It is one of the most popular and most widely
used plastic within the polyolefin family.It has a rubber-like flexibility.
Common Types of Polyethylene
Depending on its density and branching, different polyethylene grades can have very different
performance from one another. PE grades are therefore classified as follows.
1. Low-density polyethylene (LDPE).
2. High-density polyethylene (HDPE)
3. Linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE)
4. Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE)
(i). Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE)
Low-density Polyethylene (LDPE) is a semi-rigid polymer. It has a higher degree of short and
long side-chain branching. The branched PE chains can’t be compactly packed and hence yields
lower density (0.91 to 0.92 g/cm3).

A. Preparation:- It is produced at high pressure (1000-3000 atm.) at 80-300°C via free radical
bulk or solution polymerization process using O2, peroxides, hydroperoxide or azo compounds as
initiator.
1000-3000 atm
CH2=CH2 LDPE
80-300°C

B. Properties of Low-Density Polyethylene

1.Density of LDPE: 0.91–0.92 g/cm3
2.LDPE Melting point: 105 to 125°C
3.40% Crystalline.
4.Chemical resistance of LDPE:
o Excellent resistance to acids, dilutes alkalis, alcohols & esters.
o Good resistance to aldehydes and ketones.
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o Low resistance to aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, mineral oils, oxidizing agents and
halogenated hydrocarbons.
o Insoluble in all sovents at room temperature.
o Soluble in CCl4, toluene, xylene and decaline at elevated temperature.
5. Temperature resistance up to 80°C continuously and up to 95°C for shorter times.
6. High impact strength at low temperature.
7. Excellent electrical insulating properties & corrosion resistance.
8. Very low water absorption.
9. Thin and transparent film forming ability.

Applications of Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE)

1. LDPE majorly used for manufacturing of plastic bags, containers, dispensing bottles, wash
bottles, tubing, plastic bags for computer components, and various molded laboratory
equipments.
2. Packaging – Due to its low cost and good flexibility, LDPE is used in packaging industry
for pharmaceutical and squeeze bottles, caps and closures, tamper evident, liners, trash
bags, films for zip lock bags food packaging (frozen, dry goods, etc.), laminations etc.
3. Pipes and Fittings – Low-Density Polyethylene is used to manufacture water pipes and
hoses for the pipes and fittings industry due to its plasticity and low water absorption.
4. Consumer goods - House wares, flexible toys, agricultural films,
5. Wiring & Cables - Insulation & cable jacketing.
(ii). High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)

High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) is a rigid polymer with high degree of crystallinity (> 90%)
which is formed by linear PE chains without branching. The linear PE chains can be more
compactly packed as compared to branched chains and hence yields higher density (0.93 to 0.97
g/cm3).

A. Preparation:- It is manufactured at low temperature (70-300°C) and pressure (10-80 bar) via
co-ordination polymerization. The polymerization carried in presence of Ziegler-Natta catalyst
[Al(C2H5)3. TiCl4] or metallocenes or metal oxides( chromium or molybdenum oxide) supported
over Silica-Alumina base as co-ordinating agents/ catalysts.

B. Properties of High Density Polyethylene

1. Density of HDPE: 0.93 to 0.97 g/cm3

2. Melting point: 140-150°C
3. Highly crystalline (> 90%).
4. High Density Polyethylene Chemical resistance:
o Excellent resistance to most solvents
o Very good resistance to alcohols, dilute acids and alkalis
o Moderate resistance to oils and greases
o Poor resistance to hydrocarbons (aliphatic, aromatic, halogenated)
5. High density polyethylene is flexible, translucent/waxy, weather resistant, and displays
toughness at very low temperatures.
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6. Continuous temperature: -50°C to +60°C, relatively stiff material with useful temperature
capabilities
7. Higher tensile strength compared to other forms of polyethylene
8. Low cost polymer with good processability
9. Excellent electrical insulating properties
10. Very low water absorption.

C. Applications of High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)

Excellent combination of properties makes HDPE an ideal material in diverse applications across
industries. Some of the major uses of high density polyethylene include:
1. Packaging Applications – High Density Polyethylene is used in several packaging
applications including crates, trays, bottles for milk and fruit juices, caps for food
packaging, jerry cans, drums, industrial bulk containers etc.
2. Consumer Goods – Low cost and easy processability make HDPE a material of choice in
several household/ consumer goods like garbage containers, housewares, ice boxes, toys
etc.
3. Fibers and Textiles – Due to its high tensile strength, HDPE is widely used for agricultural
applications, such as in ropes, fishing and sport nets, nets as well as industrial and
decorative fabrics.
4. Other applications of HDPE- include pipes and fittings (pipes for gas, water, sewage,
drainage, sea outfalls, industrial application, cable protection, steel pipe coating, large
inspection chambers and manholes for pipe sewage etc.) due to its excellent resistance to
chemical and hydrolysis, automotive – fuel tanks, wiring & cables – sheeting of energy,
telecommunication cables.

(iii). Linear Low-Density Polyethylene (LLDPE)

A linear polymer (polyethylene), with significant numbers of short branches, commonly made
by copolymerization of ethylene with longer-chain olefins like butene, hexene, or octene.
A. Preparation:- The production of LLDPE is initiated by transition metal catalysts,
particularly Ziegler or Philips types of catalyst at high temperature and pressure (350 - 660°C &
3500 atm). The actual polymerization process can be done either in solution phase or in gas
phase reactors. Usually, octene is the comonomer in solution phase while butene and hexene are
copolymerized with ethylene in a gas phase reactor.

B. Properties of LLDPE
1. Density 0.92-0.94 g/cc.
2. Melting point: 121-122°C.
3. It is 35-60% crystalline (semicrystalline).
4. Translucent plastic with natural milky color.
5. LLDPE has greater tensile strength than LDPE.
6. It has a higher impact and puncture resistance than does LDPE.
7. It is exact flexible and stretches under stress with good resistance against stress cracks.
8. It has enhanced environmental stress cracking resistance related to LDPE.
9. Shows good chemical resistance.
10. It may be used to create thinner films.
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11. It has good electrical insulation properties.

12. Shows good barrier properties against water vapor and alcohol.

Applications of LLDPE: Suitable for a variety of film application such as:

1. It is used for plastic bags and sheets (where it allows using lower thickness than comparable
LDPE),
1. Plastic wrap, stretch wrap, garment packaging.
2. Pouches, toys, covers, lids, pipes, buckets and containers,
3. Cable jacketing.
4. Pipes, flexible tubing
5. Geomembranes
2. Ultrahigh-Molecular-Weight Polyethylene (UHMWPE)

Ultrahigh-molecular-weight polyethylene or UHMWPE is special type of HDPE having

extended chain length with high molecular weight about 10 times higher (usually between 3.5
and 7.5 million amu) than regular HDPE. When it comes to HDPE vs UHMWPE, they both have
a similar appearance, but UHMWPE is an extremely tough, abrasion-resistant, low-cost plastic
thus better suited for industrial or manufacturing applications where friction or wear may be a
concern.

Preparation:-UHMWPE is synthesized using Ziegler-Natta and metallocene catalysts and

ethane units resulting is structure where ethane units are bonded together resulting in UHMWPE
structure typically having 100,000 to 250,000 monomer units per molecule.

Properties:-

1. Density 0.94-0.97 g/cc

2. M.pt. 132-138°C
3. 39-75% crystalline
4. It has excellent mechanical properties such as high abrasion resistance, impact strength
and low coefficient of friction.
5. The material is almost totally inert, therefore it is used in the most corrosive or aggressive
environments at moderate temperatures.
6. Even at high temperatures, it is resistant to several solvents, except aromatic, halogenated
hydrocarbons and strong oxidizing materials, such as nitric acid.
7. These special properties allow the product to be used in several high-performance
applications.
Applications:-
1. UHMWPE is suitable for high wear applications such as tubes, liners, silos, containers
and other equipment.
2. Chemical storage containers.
3. Corrosion resistant coatings.
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4. Narrow molecular weight distribution UHMWPE used for injection moldings or flat
yarns.
5. Wide molecular weight distribution UHMWPE used to make film products, hollow
plastic products and pipes.
6. It can replace LDPE and HDPE as per requirement.

Comparison between main types of Polyethylene:-

LDPE LLDPE HDPE

Polymer Full Linear Low

High Density
Name Low Density Polyethylene Density
Polyethylene
Polyethylene

High Degree Linear (or Low

Structure High Degree of short chain branching +
of short chain degree of short
long chain branching
branching chain branching)
Ziegler-Natta
catalyst in:
Using - Single-stage
Catalyst and Ziegler-Natta polymerization
Using radical polymerization using tubular
process catalyst or - Multi-stage
method or auto clave method
metallocene polymerization or a
catalyst Cr or Phillips-type
catalyst
0.91-0.94
Density 0.910-0.925 g/cm3 0.941-0.965 g/cm3
g/cm3

Semi- High crystalline

Crystallinity Low crystalline and high amorphous (less crytalline, and low
than 50-60% crystalline) level between amorphous (>90%
35 to 60% crystalline)
o Excellent
As compared Chemical
o Flexible and good transparency to LDPE, it Resistance
o Good moisture barrier properties has: o High tensile
Characteristics o High impact strength at low temperature o higher tensile strength
o Excellent resistance to acids, bases and strength o Excellent moisture
vegetable oils o higher impact barrier properties
and punctureo Hard to semi-
resistance flexible
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13. Molecular weight

distribution is
High relatively narrow,
performance has applications in
bags, injection moldings
cushioning
or flat yarns, and
films, tire
separator the latter type
General Shrink wrap, films, squeezable bottles
films,
Applications garbage bags, extrusion moldings, and
industrial
laminates
liners, elastic14. Molecular weight
films, ice distribution is
bags, bags for wide, is used to
supplemental make film
packaging and products, hollow
garbage bags plastic products
and pipes
Commercial LLDPE
LDPE Grades HDPE Grades
Products Grades

2. Condensation Polymers:- These are the polymers which are formed by condensation
polymerization eg. Nylon, bakelite, glyptal and polyesters etc.
(i) Nylon:- The term nylon points towards a polymer family known as linear polyamides. It is
the first fully synthetic fibre made by man without using any natural raw material. The
first form of nylon, (nylon 66), was synthesized using diamines on February 28, 1935,
by Wallace Hume Carothers at DuPont's research facility at the DuPont Experimental
Station. Nylon was first used commercially in a nylon-bristled toothbrush in 1938. Nylon
is a silk like thermoplastic polymer ie which can be melted by heating. Molten nylon is
forced through the tiny holes in a spinneret to make fibres or cast into desired shapes.

There are two approaches to making nylon for fibre applications.

In the first approach, the molecules that consist of an acidic group (COOH) on every end
react with molecules that contain amino (NH2) groups at each end. The resulting nylon
gets a name based on the number of carbon atoms that separate two amines and two acidic
groups. Hence, nylon 6,6 is widely used as fibres made from adipic acid and
hexamethylenediamine. The salt which is formed by two compounds is known as nylon
that has an exact ratio of 1:1 acid to base. This salt is dried and then heated under vacuum
to remove water and form the polymer.

In the other approach, a compound that contains an amine at one end and acid at the other
are polymerized to produce a chain with repeating units of (-NH-[CH2]n-CO-)x. The
nylon is referred to as nylon 6 if n = 5 which is another common form of this polymer.
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The commercial production of nylon 6 starts with caprolactam that use an open-
ring polymerization.
Properties of Nylon

1. Density 1.15 g/cc

2. M.pt. 190-350°C
3. Electrical conductivity 10 -12 S/m
4. Nylon fibres are very strong, fairly elastic, inflammable, lightweight and lustrous.
5. Nylon fibres absorb very little water, so clothes made of nylon are easy to wash and
dry.
6. Nylon is wrinkle resistant.
7. Nylon fibres have high abrasion resistance, so they are very durable.
8. Nylon is not attacked by moths and ordinary chemicals.

Types of Nylon:-

i. Nylon 6:- It referred as PA 6 or Nylon 6 prepared by ring opening polymerization of

caprolactam.

ii. Nylon 6,6 :- It is obtained by condensation polymerization of adipic acid and

hexamethylene diamine.
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iii. Nylon 5,10 :- It is obtained by condensation polymerization of sebacic acid and

pentamethylene diamine.

iv. Nylon 6,10 :- It is obtained by condensation polymerization of sebacic acid and

hexamethylene diamine.

Uses of Nylon

1. It is used for making textiles like sarees, shirts, neck-ties, socks etc.
2. It is used in making curtains, sleeping bags, tents.
3. It is used in making ropes, car seat-belt, fishing nets, tyre cord, strings for
sports racket and musical instrument and paint brushes.
4. It is used for making parachutes and ropes for rock climbing.
5. It is used as a plastic for making machine parts.
6. Industrial uses – Conveyer and seat belts, parachutes, airbags, nets and ropes,
tarpaulins, thread, and tents.

(ii) Bakelite-Phenol formaldehyde resin:- It is a thermosetting resin, formed from

a condensation reaction of phenol with formaldehyde. It was developed by the Belgian
chemist Leo Baekeland in Yonkers, New York, in 1907.
Preparation:- Phenol formaldehyde resins are prepared by reaction of
phenol with formaldehyde in acidic or basic medium. The process involves formation of o-
Methylol Phenol and p-Methylol Phenol which then undergoes condensation reaction to yield
novalac (a linear polymer) and further heating gives bakelite (a crosslinked polymer).
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Bakelite

Properties:-

1. Density 1.3 g/cc.

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2. Thermosetting plastic.
3. Rigid and infusible.
4. Shape formation and retention.
5. Electric insulator.
6. Heat, Scratch resistant and solvent resistant.
7. Hard and insoluble at room temperature.
Uses:-

1. Used for making ratio and TV moulded parts.

2. For decorative wal laminates.
3. Electerical goods.
4. Soft bakelite for glue.
5. Ion exchange resins.

(iii) Glyptal:-

Preparation:- Glyptal is prepared by condensation reaction ethylene glycol and phthalic acid in
presence of zeolite as heterogeneous catalyst or p-Toluenesulphonic acid (PTSA) as homogenous
catalyst.

Properties:-

1. Density 1.08g/cc.
2. Thermosetting plastic.
3. Hard and insoluble at room temperature

Uses:-

1. Fabric applications.
2. Used for paints and coatings.
3. Binding applications.
4. Metal coatings.
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5. Cement blending.

3. Specialty Polymers:

i. Engineering Thermoplastics: There are five major groups of engineering

thermoplastics:
Polyamides:-
The Polyamides (nylons) were the first materials to be recognized as engineering
thermoplastics. Polyamides are polymers characterized by the amide group (CONH) as a
part of the main polymer chain. Aliphatic polyamides such as nylons 6, 6-6, 6-10 and 5-
10 are linear polymers and thus thermoplastic.

Properties:- Good combination of mechanical properties like Fatigue creep strength,

stiffness, toughness and resilience, Good abrasion resistance, Self-lubricating
characteristics, Suitable for prolonged, service temperature from – 400oC to 1200oC,
Good electrical insulator, but the electrical properties are influenced by moisture content,
Resistance to fuels, oils, fats, most solvents and chemicals, Low permeability to gas and
vapours, Non-toxic, Easy processable by conventional processing techniques like
injection, extrusion, blow and rotational moulding.
Applications:- Radiator fan, Radiator grill, Instrument housings, Speedometer gears,
Fuel, oil filter housing, Electrical junction box, Head/Tail lamp housing, Front fork bush,
Steering column bush.
Polyesters: Engineering polyesters are engineering thermoplastics based on PET
(Polyethylene terephthalate) and PBT (Polybutylene terephthalate).

PET PBT
Properties:-
 Extreme low water absorption, in particular comparison to Nylon (Polyamides)
 Exceptional dimensional stability, due to the low water absorption.
 Excellent electrical properties.
 Excellent resistance to chemical attack and high environmental stress crack
resistance,
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in particular in comparison to polycarbonates, due to the semi-crystalline nature of

polyesters.
 Very good heat and heat ageing resistance.
 Very low creep, even at elevated temperatures.
 Very good colour stability.
 Excellent wear properties.

Applications:- Vehicle bonnet parts, exterior parts (window wiper holders and exterior
mirror housing) connectors, circuit breakers, switches and housing for the home
appliance market (surface appearance and chemical resistance i.e. detergent). in mobile
phone casings. Other applications may include building, textile bobbins, meter housings
and small niche applications.

o Acetals : Acetal polymers are properly called polyoxymethylene (POM). These resins are
linear unbranched molecular chains derived from the monomer formaldehyde.
-CH2-O-CH2-O-CH2-O-
Acetal Chain
Properties:- Excellent combination of toughness, rigidity, fatigue, strength and yield
strength (spring like qualities), Good wear resistance, Low co-efficient of friction,
Service Temperature Range 90 – 1200 oC, Good dimensional stability over wide
temperature - 400 oC to 650 oC, Good moisture and chemical resistance, Good electrical
insulation, Easy processable with conventional technique, Excellent dimensional
accuracy and post moulding stability.
Applications:- Gears, Bearing boxes and bushes, Switch relays, terminal blocks and coil
formers, Blower fans, ventilation fans and pump parts, Parts for office machines, house
hold appliances and bathroom fittings, Hinges, Springs, snap fittings, screw, Curtain rail
runners, Aerosol nozzles, Nuclear engineering applications, Plumbing fittings and
components for pneumatic systems, Automobile components such as radiator heater
tapes, water filter bodies, fuel contact applications, In irrigation system used in the areas
of compression fittings, jets and sprayers, Clock and watch parts
o Polycarbonates:-Polycarbonate is a linear polyester of carbonic acid in which dihydric
phenols are lined through carbonate groups. The commercial grades of polycarbonate is
manufactured from bisphenol-A and phosgene. The structure of polycarbonate is:

Properties:- high impact strength • excellent strength retention at elevated temperatures •

high tensile, shear, and flexural strength • high modulus of elasticity • low deformation
under load • excellent creep and cold flow resistance • low coefficient of thermal
expansion • good electrical insulation properties • easy to fabricate & machine .
Applications:- Polycarbonate exhibits a broad range of outstanding properties for
applications in: • electrical connectors • brush holders • coil bobbins & forms • insulators
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• relay components • dialysis equipment parts • medical tubing • gamma sterilizable

reusables • instrument covers • covers • handles • rollers • machine guards • fittings

o Polyphenylene Oxide (PPO) :- The chemical formulation is based on the oxidative

coupling of substituted phenols and the elimination of a molecule of water. The full
chemical name of PPO is poly [1, 4 – (2, 6-dimethyl phenyl) ether].

PPO is used in blends with other Polymers such as PPO/PS blend and PPO/PA blend.
The neat Polymer is not suitable for injection moulding because of its high melt viscosity.
Properties:- High Heat Resistance •Excellent Impact Strength •Exceptional dielectric
and dissipation characteristics •Flame Retardancy •Exceptional low moisture absorption.
Applications:- Automobile applications such as Fenders, dash- boards, • Head lamp
systems, • Instrument and Control Panels, • Mud-guards, • Wheel Covers & • Fuse
Blocks etc

o Conducting polymers: Polymers which can conduct electricity are called conducting
polymers. Ordinary polymers obtained by usual methods are nearly insulators. However,
some specific polymers may act as conductors Polyacetylene, polypyrrole and
polyaniline, polythiophene etc.

Types of conducting polymers:-

C. Intrinsically conducting polymers: These types of polymers have a solid backbone

made up of extensive conjugated system, which is responsible for conductance. These are
of two types:

i. Conducting polymers having conjugated π-electrons in the backbone: These

polymers essentially contain a conjugated π-electron backbone responsible for
electrical charge transfer. Further, due conjugation of π -electrons over the entire
backbone results in the formation of valence bands as well as conduction bands.
Under the influence of electrical field conjugated π -electrons of the polymer get
excited, which can be transported through the solid polymer. eg. Polyacetylene,
polypyrrole and polyaniline, polythiophene etc.
ii. Doped conducting polymers: The conductivity of the polymers may be further
increased by creating negative or positive charge on the polymer backbone by the
process of oxidation or reduction. It is achieved by adding some charged transfer
agents either in gas phase or in solution phase and may be of two types:
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p-Doping : It is done by oxidation process. In this process, the conducting polymer is

treated with a Lewis acid.
n-Doping : It is done by reduction process. In this process, the conducting polymer is
treated with a Lewis base.
D. Extrinsically conducting polymers: These are the polymers which are non-
conducting in their virgin state but made conducting polymers by adding some
external conducting ingredients and so called extrinsically conducting polymers.
They are of two types:
(i) Conductive element filled polymers: In this type, polymer acts as a binder to
hold the conducting elements (non-polymer) together in solid entity. The minimum
concentration of the conductive filler required to induce conductivity is called the
percolation threshold.

(ii) Blended conducting polymers: These types of polymers are obtained by

blending a conventional polymer with a conducting polymer either physically or
chemically. Such polymers can be easily processed and possess better physical,
chemical and mechanical properties.
E. Coordination or inorganic conducting polymers: These polymers contain charge
transfer complexes and are obtained by combining metal atoms with polydentate
ligands.
Applications of conducting polymers: Conducting polymers are widely used in:

i. Rechargable batteries.
ii. Making analytical sensors for pH, O2, SO2, NH3 , glucose, etc.
iii. Preparation of ion exchangers.
iv. Controlled release of drugs.
v. Optical filters.
vi. Photo voltaic devices.
vii. Telecommunication systems.
viii. Micro-electronic devices.

6. Electroluminescent Polymers (ELP’s):- These are specialty conducting polymeric

materials that shows luminescence when electric current is passed through it such that the
charge carriers can combine at luminescent sites to give rise to electronically excited
states of luminescent group or molecule eg. Poly (p-phenylene vinylene) (PPV),
Polyfluorene, Polythiophene and polypheneylene etc.
Light Emission:- The Electroluminescent Polymers (ELP’s) possess:
i. Highly conjugated structure with delocalized mobile electrons throughout the chain
length.
ii. Small band gap between Highest Occupied Molecular Orbitals (HOMO) and Lowest
Unoccupied Molecular Orbitals (LUMO) of conduction band (1.5-3.5 eV) (fig.1)
 15

It results from radiative relaxation of excited states generated by recombination of charge

carriers of opposite signs (electrons and holes) injected in to the polymer thin film trough
electrodes (cathode and anode) from the external circuit (fig.2). The resulting device is a
Polymer Light Emitting Diode (PLED) or Organic Light Emitting Diode (OLED).

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

Properties of ELP’s:-
i. Diamagnetic in nature and also stable in air and light.
ii. Light weight and flexible.
iii. Insoluble in water.
iv. Soluble in organic solvents.
v. Semiconductor at room temperature.
vi. Conductivity can be increased by doping.
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Applications of ELP’s:-
i. It is used in organic solar cells and nanowires.
ii. As light weight and high resolution display based applications (LED) for mobile, TV,
laptop and all other digital items etc.
iii. Finger print scanners.
iv. Advertisement screens.

7. Liquid Crystalline Polymers (LCP):- These are the specialty polymers that exhibits
properties of highly ordered crystalline solids (regular arrangement) and can flow like
liquid (amorphous disordered liquid over a well-defined temperature range). These
substances exists in crystalline solid, hazy liquid Or mesophase or liquid crystal and
liquid state which may be temperature and concentration dependent.
Solid (  Mesophase or Hazy Liq. Or LC  Liquid
Types of Liquid Crystal Polymers (LCP):-
Depending upon nature and structure of LCP these are of four types:
i. Thermotropic LCP’s:- These are the LCP’s in which liquid crystal phase is a function
of temperature. These are consists of central rigid core (aromatic) and flexible
peripheral (aliphatic).
These further of three types:
a. Nematic TLCP’s:- Thread like structure having ordered arrangement in long axis
only without positional order.
b. Smetic TLCP’s:- Soap like structure having ordered arrangement in long axis and
short axis with positional order.
c. Cholesteric TLCP’s:- Layered structures with different orientation in each layer
without positional order.
ii. Lyotropic LCP’s:- These are the LCP’s in which liquid crystal phase is a function of
concentration. These are formed by two component system where amphiphile is
dissolved in solvent.
iii. Discotic and CalamaticLCP’s:- These are the LCP’s having disc like (discotic) and
rod like (calamatic) structures.
iv. Metallotropic LCP’s:- When a metal salt behave like LCP’s is known as metallotropic
LCP eg. ZnCl2.
Depending on the location of the mesogenic moieties the PLC can be separated into
main-chain and side-chain.
(i) Main chain PLC:-The first ones have the mesogenic unit as a part of the main-
chain of the polymer molecule eg. poly(p-phenylene terephthalamide), PPD-T and
p-hydroxybenzoic acid, p,p'-biphenol, and terephthalic acid.
(ii) Side-chain PLC:- The mesophase unit as a part of the anisotropic molecular
segments of the side-chain.
Properties:-
 17

i. Thermoplastic.
ii. Chemically inert.
iii. Fire resistant.
Applications:-
i. Display based applications (LCD) for mobile, TV, laptop and all digital items etc.
ii. As telescope lenses.
iii. Liquid crystals are used in chromatography.
iv. Optical imaging.
v. Thermography based medical applications for detection of cancer.

8. Biodegradable polymers:- These are the polymers which are converted to simple
molecules by microorganism eg. Carbohydrates, starch, Cellulose, Polyesters, PLA
Plastic, PCL Plastic, PHB’s. The process may follow two different routes i.e.
(i) Bio-degradation:-

 Occurs by action of micro-organisms i.e. Bacteria & Fungi.

 Products of bio-degradation depends on the mechanism followed.
 Natural polymers such as starch, cellulose, PLA & PCL etc.

Cause of bio-degradation:- It occurs by two mechanisms:

(A) De-polymerisation or Chain cleavage:- Natural polymers are degraded by

the enzymatic action (micro-organisms produced enzymes). The enzymes
are capable to cleave polymeric chain giving back the monomers ( reverse
of polymerization).

(B) Mineralization or Composting:- Natural polymers are degraded by bacterial

oxidation. It is a controlled aerobic oxidation process in which the
biodegradables are converted to non-toxic residue of inorganic compounds
and biomass called compost. Along with compost some simple molecules
like H2O & CO2 are also produced

Factor’s affecting rate of bio-degradation are:

(a) Nature of polymer.
(b) Availability of suitable micro-organisms.
(c) Nature and stability of enzymes.
(d) Influence of inhibitors.
 18

(e) The kinetics of the process.

(ii) Hydrolysis and bio-degradation:-
 Occurs due to hydrolysis.
 Polymers having functional groups like amide, ester etc are readily
hydrolysed to simple molecules of carboxylic acid, amine and alcohols.
 Processes are generally auto-catalysed.
 Hydrolysis is generally followed by bio-degradation.

Factor’s affecting rate of Hydro-biodegradation are:

(a) Nature of polymer i.e. Hydrophilic or Hydrophobic.

(b) Crystalline polymers are less susceptible towards hydrolysis as compared
to amorphous polymers