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Biology Essay Questions
Biology Essay Questions
Outline the use of human embryonic stem cells hESC to treat Stargardt’s disease:
Explain the importance of surface area to volume ratio as a limit to cell size.
a. as volume of a cell increases, the ratio of its surface area to volume decreases;
b. rate of exchange of materials/gas/energy is a function of its surface area;
c. food/oxygen enters through the surface of cells;
d. wastes leave through the surface of cells;
e. more metabolic activity in a larger cell means more food and oxygen required;
f. rate of production of heat/waste/resource consumption is a function of its volume;
g. at low surface area to volume ratios, exchange of materials takes longer/reduced
efficiency of exchange / vice versa;
h. large volume means longer diffusion time;
i. large volume means more wastes produced;
j. excess heat generated will not be lost efficiently with low surface area to volume ratio ;
k. eventually surface area can no longer serve the requirements of the cell;
l. this critical ratio stimulates mitosis;
m. thus the size of the cell is reduced and kept within size limits;
Describe the characteristics of stem cells that make them potentially useful in medicine.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the use of adult stem cells.
Advantages:
a. adult stem cells can divide endlessly / can differentiate
b. adult stem cells can be used to repair/regenerate tissues
c. fewer ethical objections than with embryonic stem cells
d. adults can give informed consent for use of their stem cells
e. adult source is not killed / source would not have grown into new human / no death of
embryos used to provide stem cells
f. no rejection problems / patient’s own cells used
g. less chance of cancer/ malignant tumor development than from embryonic stem cells
h. most tissues in adults contain some stem cells
Disadvantages:
i. difficult to obtain/collect/find in adult body/very few available
j. some adult tissues contain few/no stem cells
k. adult stem cells differentiate into fewer cell types than embryonic cells /OWTTE
Explain how the properties of phospholipids help to maintain the structure of cell membranes.
Describe how the structure of the membrane allows the formation of vesicles.
State a reason for using an electron microscope to view this virus rather than a light
microscope.
Electron microscope has a greater resolution and viruses are too small to be viewed under a light
microscope.
Ribosomes on the Rough ER synthesize polypeptides for secretion and use outside of the cell.
The golgi apparatus performs the function of modifying or altering the proteins. These proteins
are secreted out of the golgi in vesicles, which transport them to the protein membrane.
State three structural differences between the cells of an onion and a honey bee.
Plant cells have no lyosomes, animal cells have lyosomes.
Plant cells have starch granules also which are absent in animal cells.
Explain how materials are transported within a cell between structures X and Y.
Hydrophilic regions are attracted to and are soluble in water whereas hydrophobic regions are
neither attracted nor soluble in water. Phospholipids have a hydrophilic phosphate head and a
hydrophobic hydrocarbon tail. They form a phospholipid bilayer in membranes, with the
hydrophilic heads facing outwards and the hydrophobic tails facing inwards. Cholesterol being
amphipathic but mainly hydrophobic is located in the hydrophobic region of the membrane.
Hydrophobic proteins are present in the phospholipid bilayer whereas hydrophilic proteins are
present on the membrane surface. Integral proteins are embedded in membranes; they have a
hydrophobic middle region and hydrophilic tails.
However, peripheral proteins are completely hydrophilic and thus are present on the membrane
surface among the hydrophilic heads. The carbohydrate part of glycoproteins is hydrophilic and
protrudes outside the membrane. The pore of channel proteins is polar.
a. polar amino acids have hydrophilic R groups, non-polar have hydrophobic R groups;
b. distribution of amino acids influences the position of proteins in membranes ;
c. non-polar amino acids in centre of water-soluble proteins stabilise their structure;
d. non-polar amino acids cause proteins to remain embedded in membrane;
e. polar amino acids on surface of proteins make them water-soluble;
f. polar amino acids create hydrophilic channels/protein pores in membranes;
g. enzyme active site specificity depends on polarity of amino acids present and
h. nonpolar amino acids can play a role in substrate interactions at the active site as they
affect the tertiary and quarternary structure of proteins.
State the property of amphipathic phospholipids that enables them to form a bilayer
a. interphase is the longest phase; metabolically active phase between cell divisions
b. interphase includes G1, S and G2;
c. growth phase/G-1: synthesis of proteins/cytoplasm/organelles;
duplication of organelles
d. synthesis phase/S-phase: replication of DNA;
e. second growth phase/G-2: continued growth of cytoplasm/molecular synthesis/duplication of
organelles;
a. growth of cells;
b. transcription/protein synthesis/translation;
c. DNA replication / genetic material copied;
d. production of organelles/mitochondria/chloroplasts;
e. named normal activity of cell eg active transport, movement, secretion;
Explain, using one example, how non-disjunction in meiosis can lead to changes in
chromosome number.
a. pair of homologous chromosomes moves in same direction/does not separate during anaphase
I / chromatids move in same direction/do not separate during anaphase II;
b. leaving a cell with an extra chromosome and another with a missing chromosome;
c. e.g. Down syndrome where there is an extra chromosome number 21
Chapter 2
Digestion is the breakdown of large molecules into smaller molecules. This aids in making the
food soluble and allows it to be easily absorbed into the bloodstream and consequently into cells
of the body. Hydrolysis is the chemical breakdown of molecules due to their reaction with water.
Hydrolysis requires water and is aided by enzymes. Through hydrolysis, polysaccharides can be
hydrolysed to monosaccharide and disaccharides, proteins can be hydrolysed into amino acids
and triglycerides can be hydrolysed into fatty acids and glycerol. Later, these small molecules
can be joined to form the organism’s unique macromolecules.
Distinguish between anabolism, catabolism and metabolism.
Anabolism is the synthesis of polymers or complex, large molecules from monomers or small,
simple molecules.
Catabolism is the breaking down of complex molecules into small, simpler ones or monomers.
State one disaccharide and the two monomers from which it can be synthesized.
Draw labelled diagrams to show a condensation reaction between two amino acids.
Both are unsaturated fatty acids and have two carbon atoms joined by a double bond.
In cis-fatty acids the two H atoms are on the same side while in trans-fatty acids they are on
opposite sides. Cis fatty acids are healthier than Trans fatty acids. Cis-fatty acids have a lower
boiling/melting point than trans fatty acids. Cis fatty acids have a kink in the chain but trans fatty
acids do not.
State the type of chemical reaction that occurs when lactose is digested into glucose and
galactose.
Hydrolysis
Suggest reasons for using lactase at relatively low temperatures.
The enzyme is less likely to denature and lasts longer. The reaction rate and products can also be
controlled. Further, it is economical as less energy is required to drive the reaction at low
temperatures.
For lactase, a lower temperature reduces bacterial growth and reduces milk spoilage.
Cell respiration is metabolism because enzymes control the reactions. Energy is released from
complex molecules to make ATP. Respiration is catabolic and complex molecules become
smaller. C6H12O6 to CO2 + H2O
Outline the role of condensation and hydrolysis in the relationship between fatty acids,
glycerol and triglycerides.
Hydrolysis is the breakdown of larger molecules into smaller molecules with the addition of
water. Fatty acids are formed by the hydrolysis of triglycerides, wherein ester bonds are broken
and glycerol is released.
Condensation reactions are when molecules or subunits are joined to form a larger molecule. In
this reaction, water is formed and then removed, ester bonds are formed and up to three fatty
acids are linked to each glycerol.
Water takes a lot of energy to evaporate and therefore is useful as a coolant. It is cohesive so it
can be pulled up and moved under tension in xylem. Due to its polarity, it is an excellent solvent
and dissolves many different substances which makes it an excellent medium for transport in
blood or xylem and phloem.
Water is also a medium for metabolic reactions which happen dissolved in water. Surface tension
due to cohesion allows organism to live on the water’s surface. A lot of organisms can also stride
across the water’s surface.
Water has a high heat capacity which means a lot of energy is required to change its temperature.
Ice floats so oceans do not freeze and animals living in water are able to continue life. Stable
habitat as the temperature changes very slowly. Water is used in chemical reactions,
photosynthesis and hydrolysis.
Its transparency is useful for photosynthesis and for vision in animals. Light passing through
water allows organisms to live beneath water.
Distinguish between active and passive movements of materials across plasma membranes,
using named examples.
Unlike active movement of materials, Passive movement of materials does not require energy or
any protein pumps. This is because the molecules pass down the concentration gradient.
Examples of this would be diffusion such as oxygen across alveoli , osmosis and facilitated
diffusion.
In active movement, the molecules pass across the concentration gradient and thus require ATP
as well as protein pumps. Examples of this would be exocytosis, pinocytosis, phagocytosis,
active transport for eg. glucose absorption in ileum and ion pumps.
Outline the role of proteins in active and passive transport of molecules through membranes.
Compare simple diffusion with facilitated diffusion as mechanisms to transport solutes across
membranes.
The function of starch is to store glucose / energy in starch and is particularly useful as it is a
storage form that does not draw water.
A particular yeast growing in natural milk contains lactase. This yeast can be cultured and the
enzyme lactase can be extracted from the yeast. Natural milk contains lactose and when added
directly to milk, lactase converts lactose into glucose and galactose. The same effect can be
achieved by milk being passed over immobilized lactase. Simpler forms of sugar glucose and
galactose can easily be absorbed by the small intestine.
The enzyme lactase is produced by the small intestine. Some people are lactose-intolerant and
cannot digest lactose in milk. A commerical market exists selling lactose-free milk. This milk is
sweeter than milk containing lactose. It has been ultrafiltered over immobilized beads to remove
lactose. This milk allows lactose-intolerant individuals to be nourished by milk without any
discomfort abdominal cramps / diarrhoea . Many asians are lactose-intolerant whereas this is less
common among other groups. Biotechnology produced in one part of the world may be useful in
another.
Explain how chemical bonding between water molecules makes water a valuable coolant in
living organisms.
Two water molecules are attracted to each other by intermolecular forces termed as “hydrogen
bonds”. These bonds are very strong. Breaking these bonds requires energy. These bonds must
break when water evaporates, and as heat is used to break the bond it makes the water as a
coolant for the organisms.
Describe four properties of water that are due to hydrogen bonding and polarity.
Hydrogen bonding causes it to have a high specific heat capacity requiring large energy to raise
the temperature, a high boiling point and cooling effect as hydrogen bonds need to be broken for
a change of state. Water molecules on the surface are resistant to foces due to the surface tension.
Water is more dense at 4 degrees celsius due to more regular hydrogen bonding.
Due to polarity, water molecules are cohesive and adhesive. They stick to each other through
cohesion which is useful in transport of water in xylem. They also stick to other polar molecules
through adhesion and are a good solvent of polar organic molecules.
Water moves across membranes by the process of osmosis. It passes from a region of high water
potential to a region of low water potential across a selectively permeable membrane.
Water molecules are split by light energy; this is known as photolysis. This process releases
hydrogen which helps to power the fixation of Carbon into organic molecules. Oxygen is formed
as a by-product.
Draw a second water molecule to show how bonds can form between water molecules,
including the name of the bond.
Oxygen of one molecules faces the hydrogen of another molecule. One hydrogen bond is drawn
as a dotted line b/w two water molecules.
Water has important solvent properties. Explain these properties using an example to illustrate
your answer.
Water molecules are polar with weak negative charges on the oxygen molecule and weak
positive charges on the hydrogen molecules. It formshydrogen bonds with polar substances. The
hydrogen side of water is attracted to negative ions. Sodium chloride dissolves in water as the
ions are attracted to water.
Outline the properties of water molecules that permit them to move upwards in plants.
Water molecules are polar and can form hydrogen bonds. Cohesion between water molecules
allows cotinuous water columns and allows a transpiration stream to form in xylem. Adhesion of
water to the walls of the xylem vessel helps it to rise. At environmental temperatures water
evaporates allowing a transpiration pull.
Water has a higher melting points, a higher boiling point and a greater latent heat of vaporization
than methane.
Water is polar because of the oxygen atom being more negative and the hydrogen atom being
more positive. This causes strong hydrogen bonding between water molecules and these bonds
require more energy to break. These strong bonds thus increase the melting point, boiling point
and latent heat of vaporization of water.
Condensation reactions nvolve the joining together of two amino acids in order to form a
dipeptide. The carboxyl group of one amino acid reacts with the amine group of another amino
acid causing water to be eliminated and a peptide bond to be formed. This reaction occurs at the
ribosomes. Many amino acids are joined together by condensation to form a polypeptide.
Functions of Proteins
Storage Albumin
Amino acid polarity is an important factor in determining the functions of proteins. Explain
the importance of polar and non-polar amino acids in membrane proteins.
Polar amino acids are soluble in water, extracellular fluids and cytoplasm. Polar amino acids on
the surface of proteins make them water-soluble. On the other hand, non-polar amino acids are
soluble and have stable reactions in the lipid bilayer. They cause proteins to remain embedded in
membranes.
Polar amino acids are strongly hydrophilic and form hydrophilic channels or protein pores in the
membrane. Transmembrane proteins usually have polar amino acids on either side. Non-polar
amino acids are repelled by water and are hydrophobic.
DNA codes for a specific sequence of amino acids. The DNA code for one protein is a gene.
DNA is transcribed into mRNA. mRNA moves to a ribosome where it is translated into a
polypeptide. Originally it was thought that one gene always codes for a polypeptide. Some genes
do not code for a polypeptide. Some genes code for a transfer RNA and some sections of DNA
code for regulators that are not polypeptides. Change in the gene structure will affect the primary
structure of the polypeptide.
Describe the relationship between genes, polypeptides and enzymes.
Describe the genetic code and its relationship to polypeptides and proteins.
a. the genetic code is based on sets of three nucleotides/triplets of bases called codons;
b. bases include adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine in DNA / adenine, guanine, cytosine and
uracil in RNA; do not accept ATCG
c. each codon is code for one amino acid;
d. some codons are start or stop codons;
e. DNA is transcribed into mRNA by base-pair matching/complementary base pairing;
f. mRNA is translated into a sequence of amino acids/polypeptide;
g. each gene codes for a polypeptide;
h. polypeptides may be joined/modified to form proteins;
Distinguish between fibrous and globular proteins with reference to one example of each
protein type.
Insoluble Soluble
Keratin/fibrin/collagen/actin/myosin/silk Insulin/immunoglobulin/hemoglobin
protein
Tertiary is the specific 3D structure giving rise to the specific shape of the active site. The
tertiary structure enables enzymes to bind effectively to substrate. It determines whether some
enzymes have broad or narrow specificity. Inhibitors can affect tertiary structure and thus
function.
Chapter 7
Explain why DNA must be replicated before mitosis and the role of helicase in DNA
replication.
two genetically identical nuclei/daughter cells formed during mitosis so hereditary information in
DNA can be passed on ;
two copies of each chromosome/DNA molecule/chromatid needed;
helicase unwinds the DNA/double helix;
to allow the strands to be separated;
helicase separates the two complementary strands of DNA;
by breaking hydrogen bonds between bases;
Functions of DNA:
a. regulate gene expression
b. act as promoter
c. role in chromosome pairing/crossing over/recombination
d. introns
Explain the significance of complementary base pairing for replication, transcription and
translation.
Explain why DNA must be replicated before mitosis and the role of helicase in DNA
replication.
a. found in eukaryotes;
b. consists of DNA wrapped around proteins/histones;
c. histones are in an octamer/group of eight;
d. are held together by another histone/protein;
e. in linker region;
f. help to supercoil chromosomes / to facilitate DNA packing;
g. function is to regulate transcription / gene expression;
Explain how DNA is used to pass on genetic information to offspring accurately but also
produce variation in species.
Distinguish between the sense and antisense strands of DNA during transcription.
Only the antisense strand is transcribed / the antisense strand is transcribed to mRNA and the
sense strand is not transcribed/has the same base sequence as mRNA with uracil instead of
thymine
paternity testing use e.g. DNA obtained from parents in paternity cases;
biological father if one half of all bands in the child are found in the father;
genetic screening;
presence of particular bands correlates with probability of certain phenotype / allele;
other example;
brief description of other example;
a. PCR is process by which a small sample of DNA can be amplified/copied many times
b. PCR involves repeated cycling through high and lower temperatures to promote melting and
annealing of DNA strands
c. mixture is heated to high temperatures to break hydrogen bonds between strands of DNA/to
separate the double-stranded DNA
d. Taq DNA polymerase can withstand high temperatures without denaturing
e. primers bind to targeted DNA sequences at lower temp
f. Taq DNA polymerase forms new double-stranded DNA by adding complementary
bases/nucleotides when cooling
g. with the use of DNA polymerase and primers ;
h. process/heating and cooling cycle is repeated until enough DNA is obtained ;
Chemical: DNA contains deoxyribose and RNA contains ribose which has one extra oxygen
molecule
The four nitrogenous bases of DNA are adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine whereas RNA
has uracil in place of thymine
Most of the DNA of a human cell is contained in the nucleus. Distinguish between unique and
highly repetitive sequences in nuclear DNA.
a. mRNA conveys genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes where it guides polypeptide
production
b. gene expression requires the production of specific mRNA through transcription
c. most genes are turned off/not being transcribed at any one time/regulated
some genes are only expressed at certain times
d. some genes are only expressed in certain cells/tissues
cell differentiation involves changes in gene expression
e. transcription factors/proteins can increase/decrease transcription
f. hormones/chemical environment of cell can affect gene expression
g. example of cell environment
eg: auxin/insulin/cytoplasmic gradient in embryo
h. transcription factors/proteins may prevent or enhance the binding of RNA polymerase
i. nucleosomes limit access of transcription factors to DNA/regulate gene
expression/transcription
activate or silence genes
j. DNA methylation/acetylation appears to control gene expression as epigenetic factor
methylated genes are silenced
k. some DNA methylation patterns are inherited
l. introns may contain positive or negative gene regulators
gene expression can be regulated by post-transcriptional modification/splicing/mRNA processing
Outline the roles of the different binding sites for tRNA on ribosomes during translation.
Protein structures:
Quaternary structure is the linking of two or more polypeptides to form one protein;
Polysomes are groups of ribosomes that are translating the same mRNA, which indicates that the
cell needs multiple copies of one particular polypeptide.
much protein of one type needed/produced by polysomes;
mRNA is being repeatedly translated;
hydrogen bonds;
between the turns of the helix rather than between R-groups ;
bonds between carboxyl and NH groups/C-O---H-N;
Role of tRNA:
Outline how the structure of the ribosome is related to its function in translation.
translation is protein/polypeptide synthesis;
a small subunit and a large one;
formed by ribosomal RNA and proteins in both subunits; both needed
about 20nm/30nm / 80S in eukaryotes;
70S in prokaryotes / 80S in eukaryotes;
can be free / bound to RER in eukaryotes ;
organized into a tertiary structure/globular shape;
three binding sites for tRNA on/in large subunit;
Aminacyl/A, Peptidyl/P and Exit/E;
binding site for mRNA on surface/in small subunit;
two tRNA can bind at the same time;
ribosomal RNA catalyses formation of peptide bond;
Role of ribosomes:
Translation occurs in living cells. Explain how translation is carried out, from the initiation
stage onwards.
Chapter 8
Both competitive and non-competitive enzyme inhibition slow down reaction rate.
In competitive enzyme inhibition, the inhibitor is similar to the substrate molecule. Therefore it
binds to the active site of the enzyme thereby preventing the substrate to bind to it. Increasing the
substrate concentration would diminish the effect of the inhibitor as the substrate would be more
likely to bind to the active site. An example would be succinate dehydrogenase inhibited by
malonate.
In non-competitive enzyme inhibition, the inhibitor is usually different from the substrate. It
binds to an allosteric site away from the active site. By doing so, it changes the shape of the
active site thereby preventing the substrate from binding to it. A change in substrate
concentration would not diminish the inhibition as the active site would still be different in
shape. An example would be respiratory enzymes inhibited by cyanide.
A metabolic pathway is a chain of enzyme-catalysed reactions. The end product inhibitor which
is always the final product of the metabolic pathway inhibits the first enzyme in the pathway. It is
an example of non-competitive inhibition, as the end product inhibitor binds to an allosteric site
of the enzyme a site away from the active site .
By binding to the allosteric site, it changes the shape of the active site. End-product inhibition
prevents intermediates from building up, prevents formation of excess product as it switches off
the whole metabolic pathway. The binding of the end product is reversible and the pathway
restarts if the enf product detaches.
An example of end-product inhibition would be the threonine to isoleucine pathway. The end
product threonine binds to the first enzyme isoleucine when a sufficient amount of isoleucine has
been produced.
Enzymes increase the rate of chemical reactions and remain unchanged at the end of the reaction.
They lower the activation energy of the reaction. Activation energy is needed to overcome the
energy barrier that prevents the reaction. The substrate bonds to an active site on the enzyme to
form an enzyme-substrate complex. The substrate binding to the enzyme brings reactants closer
to facilitate chemical reactions. The formation of an induced-fit model or change in enzyme
conformation makes the substrate more reactive. The enzyme changes shape once bound /
enzyme moulds to substrate/ hand in glove. The change in shape strains bonds/facilitates bonds
breaking/product formation;
Enzymes increase the rate of reaction. A specific enzyme exists for every reaction. If an enzyme
is inhibited or absent, the metabolic pathway is blocked. End-product inhibition can control
metabolic pathways. Cells produce different enzymes during differentiation causing differences
in metabolism.
Explain why oxygen consumption is used as a measure of metabolic rate.
Oxygen is used for aerobic respiration which releases ATP. Metabolism is the measure of total
energy produced and consumed by the body. Oxygen consumption is proportional to metabolic
rate.
Many cell functions, like synthesis of macromolecules and transport, require energy in the
form of ATP. Explain how ATP is generated in animal cells.
Explain the process of aerobic cell respiration after glycolysis has occurred.
The pyruvate formed in glycolysis enters the mitochondrial membrane. It undergoes the link
reaction and is decarboxylated, losing CO2and NADH + H+. Acetyl CoA is formed which will
take part in the Kreb’s cycle, in which 2 molecules of CO2, one molecule of ATP from ADP +
Pi, one molecule of FADH and three molecules of NADH+H+ for every molecule of pyruvate.
The NADH+H+ provides electrons circulating in the electron transport chain on the inner
mitochondrial membrane, allowing H+ to accumulate in the intermembrane space and come back
to the matrix through ATP synthase to produce ATP through chemiosmosis. The presence of O2
required as the final electron acceptor for the electron transport chain produces water with H+.
The protein hemoglobin transports oxygen to cells. Describe the processes that occur in the
mitochondria of cells when oxygen is present.
When pyruvate enter the mitochondrion, it is decarboxylated and NADH+H+ is formed. A
two-C molecule reacts with reduced coenzyme A to form acetyl CoA. Acetyl CoA enters the
Kreb’s cycle. 2 CO2 molecules are removed as waste. Electron-rich NADH+H+ and FADH2 are
formed. For each pyruvate, 3 NADH+H+ and 1 FADH2 are formed as well as one ATP
molecule. Reduced NADH+H+ and FADH2 enter electron transport chain.
Oxidative phosphorylation uses energy released by ETC to synthesise ATP. As electrons move
across the ETC, H+ moves into the intermembrane space. It creates an H+ gradient across the
membrane allowing H+ to come back to the matrix through ATP synthase to produce ATP
through chemiosmosis. The presence of O2 required as the final electron acceptor for the
electron transport chain produces water with H+.
Explain how chemical energy for use in the cell is generated by electron transport and
chemiosmosis.
Some of the water carried to the leaves of a plant is used in photosynthesis. Explain the role of
water in the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis.
In terms of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis, water only plays a role in non-cyclic
phosphorylation. Chlorophyll absorbs light energy and activates the electrons of Photosystem II.
This is known as photoactivation. These active electrons from Photosystem II are passed to
carriers. Photolysis is the splitting of water and it forms O2 and H+. O2 is released as waste
while the electrons produced by the splitting of water replace the electron lost in photoactivation.
The electrons from photosystem II pass through carriers to photosystem I. The electrons from
photosystem I pass to NADP+ in stroma. The NADP+ accepts the H+ from water to form
NADPH. The electron flow also causes protons pumped across the thylakoid membrane into the
thylakoid space creating a proton concentration gradient. Chemiosmosis couples electron
transport to ATP synthesis and protons pass through ATP synthase. The NADPH is passed to the
light-independent reactions to fix carbon.
During photosynthesis plants use water in the conversion of light energy to chemical energy.
This is called photolysis / light-dependent reactions / photophosphorlyation. Explain how
water is used in photosynthesis.
The light energy is used to split water into H+ ions, electrons and oxygen. The electrons from the
water are used to replace the ones released during photoactivation the electron that was lost from
Photosystem II . This allows for the process to continue as the electron has been replaced and
thus when excited it will continue to pass down the electron transport chain. As the electron
flows down the electron transport chain, it releases energy which pumps hydrogen ions from the
photolysis of water across the thylakoid membrane to produce an electrochemical gradient.
Explain the relationship between the absorption spectrum for chlorophyll and action spectrum
of photosynthesis for green plants.
Chemiosmosis occurs during aerobic reactions. Oxidative phosphorlyation occurs during the
electron transport chain. Hydrogen is passed between carriers releasing energy. The electron
finally joins with oxygen to form water in the cristae of the mitochondria. Chemiosmosis is the
movement of hydrogen ions against the concentration gradient into the space between the two
membranes. The protons flow back to the matrix through the ATP synthase. Energy is released
which produces more ATP by combining ADP and Pi.
Explain the process of photophosphorylation in chloroplasts.
e. using energy from light to provide energy;
f. absorbing light/photoactivation produces an excited/high energy/free electron;
g. absorption of light in photosystem II gives electron to chain of carriers;
photolysis;
h. H+ pumped across thylakoid membrane;
i. protons pass through ATP synthetase/synthase;
j. producing ATP;
k. chemiosmosis;
l. chlorophyll/antenna of photosystem I absorbs light;
m. cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation;
n. in non-cyclic photophosphorylation photolysis of water produces H+/O2/e–;
o. in cyclic photophosphorylation electron returns to photosystem I;
a. increase the surface area of inner mitochondrial membrane; note: mitochondria is in the stem
b. allow electron transport because of embedded protein electron carriers;
c. facilitate proton pumping because of high surface to volume ratio/increased surface area;
d. increase ATP production because of ATP synthase/synthatase embedded in membrane;
Explain the link reaction that occurs between glycolysis and the Krebs cycle.
a. pyruvate from glycolysis enters a mitochondrion;
b. enzymes in the matrix remove one carbon dioxide and hydrogen from the pyruvate;
c. hydrogen is accepted by NAD/forms NADH;
d. removal of hydrogen is oxidation;
e. removal of carbon dioxide is decarboxylation;
f. the whole process/link reaction is oxidative decarboxylation;
g. the product is an acetyl group which reacts with CoA/coenzyme A;
h. acetyl CoA enters Krebs cycle;
Explain the processes by which light energy is converted into chemical energy.
Explain how any two structural features of the mitochondrion are related to its function.
Cristae for increasing surface area and a small inter-membrane space for rapid build-up of
concentration gradient. A matrix with chemical concentration to support unique chemical
reactions. Matrix has enzymes for Kreb’s cycle/Link reaction. ATP synthase generates ATP from
ADP + Pi. DNA for protein synthesis and replication. ETC for generating a proton gradient.
LDR happen on the stroma of the chloroplast. Explain the relationship between the structure
of the chloroplast and its function.
Thylakoids have a large surface area for light absorption. Thylakoids also have a small space for
the accumulation of protons and a fluid stroma for enzymes in Calvin cycle / the
light-independent reactions. The arrangement of photosystems allow the electron transport to
take place. The double membrane on the outside allows for separation from the cell. Chloroplast
also has DNA and ribosomes present for protein synthesis. Starch grains store carbohydrates
from photosynthesis.
Blue and red light are absorbed in high amounts by chlorophyll, with blue light being absorbed at
a comparatively greater amount. Green light is reflected.
Chapter 3 and 10
Outline the processes that occur during the first division of meiosis.
Allele IA and the allele IB are (co)dominant as they are both expressed in the
heterozygote/AB type blood
(the tRNA) adds the wrong amino acid to the polypeptide chain;
some base changes do not change the amino acid coded for;
structure of polypeptide /protein may be altered;
example given:
allele: one specific form of a gene (occupying the same gene locus as other alleles
of the same gene)
State one type of environmental factor that may increase the mutation rate of a
gene.
a. radiation
b. chemical mutagens/carcinogens/papilloma virus/cigarette smoke
Base substitution/insertion/deletion/frameshift
Genes
a. mutation changes genes/causes genetic differences
b. genes can have more than one allele/multiple alleles
alleles are different forms/versions of a gene
c. different alleles «of a gene» give different characters
variation in alleles between individuals
d. eye colour/other example of «alleles of» a gene affecting a character
e. alleles may be dominant or recessive
dominant alleles determine trait even if recessive allele is present
f. both alleles influence the characteristic with codominance
reference to polygenic inheritance
g. all members of a species are genetically similar/have shared genes
certain genes expressed in all members of a species
h. reference to epigenetics/methylation/acetylation / not all genes are expressed «in
an individual»
i. genes are inherited from parents/passed on to offspring/passed from generation to
generation
Chromosomes
j. same locus/same position of genes
same sequence of genes/same genes on each chromosome «in a species»
k. same number of chromosomes «in a species»/all humans have 46
chromosomes/differences in chromosome number between species
l. some individuals have an extra chromosome/Down syndrome/other example of
aneuploidy
polyploidy divides a species/creates a new species
m. X and Y/sex chromosomes determine the sex/gender of an individual
n. meiosis/independent assortment/fertilization/sexual reproduction give new
combinations «of chromosomes/genes»
Explain how a base substitution mutation, such as GAG to GTG, can lead to a
disease like sickle-cell anemia.
distorted hemoglobin molecule alters red blood cell shape/reduces ability to carry
oxygen;
gene transfer takes a gene from one species/organism and inserts it into another;
mRNA/gene coding for the factor extracted from the cell or tissue
using plasmid/viral vector/ballistic impregnation/electroporation;
use of reverse transcriptase to obtain gene from mRNA; copied to DNA
restriction enzyme/endonuclease used to cut out/excise gene;
(same) restriction enzyme used to cut open plasmid;
sticky ends used to link DNA/link gene to plasmid;
DNA ligase used to seal nicks/splice;
seals sugar-phosphate bonds
recombinant plasmid/plasmid containing desired gene taken up by bacteria;
h. isolate/clone the recombinant/transformed bacteria;
i. bacteria cultured/grown in fermenter to produce factor IX;
bacterium takes in plasmid / plasmid transferred to bacterium/plant/host cell;
valid documented example (e.g. human insulin from bacterium/yeast / salt-tolerant
tomato plant / carotene/vitamin A in rice /
herbicide/Roundup/glyphosate resistance in crop plants / factor IX/clotting factor
in sheep milk / low phosphate feces in pigs;
genes that are located on just one of the sex chromosomes/X or Y are sex-linked;
affected males have only one copy of the gene / have carrier daughters but cannot
pass the condition on to sons;
l. colour blind female could be born to colour blind father and carrier mother;
Describe the role of sex chromosomes in the control of gender and inheritance of
hemophilia.
allele: one specific form of a gene occupying the same gene locus as other alleles
of the gene;
A mule was born at the University of Idaho in the USA with 64 chromosomes.
Suggest a mechanism by which this could happen.
Non-disjunction
22 types/pairs of autosomes;
one (homologous) chromosome is from the mother and one from the father;
due to crossing over the two chromatids of metaphase I chromosomes are not
identical;
Deduce with reasons for your answer, whether the chromosomes are autosomes
or sex chromosomes.
Deduce with reasons for your answer, whether the chromosomes are
homologous or non-homologous.
State at what stage in the cell cycle the cells would be when this photograph was
taken.
f. embryo (from cell with donor nucleus and egg from surrogate) implanted in
uterus of surrogate mother;
g. normal pregnancy and birth is completed;
argument in favour:
b. (to many people) any procedure that reduces pain and suffering is
ethically/morally justified;
c. stem cells can be used to replace organs/tissues that have been lost/damaged in a
patient;
e. cells can be removed from embryos that have stopped developing and would
have died anyway;
f. cells are removed at a stage when no pain can be felt by the embryo;
argument against:
h. embryonic stem cells are no longer needed as adult stem cells can be used
without causing loss of life;
k. more embryos may be produced than can be used and so some would be killed;
l. (to many people) any procedure that harms a life/kills is unethical/morally
wrong;
specific example; (eg human skin color (due to differing amounts of melanin))
human skin colour can vary from pale to very dark / amount of melanin varies;
skin colour/melanin controlled by (alleles from) at least three/several genes;
I – Bacterial Cell
II – Plasmid
III – Desired gene from donor cell
IV – Host cell with a recombinant plasmid
Gel electrophoresis
Male 1 is the father as all bands/alleles match either mother or Male 1
a. named example of verified genetically modified crop; eg, Bt corn / golden rice;
b. specific gene added / new protein synthesized by the crop plant / specific
modification; eg gene from Bacillus thuringiensis / cry protein;
c. biological effect of the modification; eg, makes the plant toxic to (herbivorous)
insects / insect pests / corn borers;
d. a benefit of specific genetic modification; eg, increased crop yields / less land
needed;
e. a second benefit of this specific modification; eg, reduced need for use of
chemical pesticides;
f. a harmful effect of specific genetic modification; ingestion of toxin by nontarget
species;
g. another specific harmful effect; eg, concerns about contamination of
neighbouring non-GMO crops affecting trade;
Outline natural methods of cloning in some eukaryotes.
Explain benefits and risks of using genetically modified crops for the
environment and also for human health.
Environment benefits:
Environment risks:
g. non-target organisms can be affected
h. genes transferred to crop plants to make them herbicide resistant could spread to
wild plants making super-weeds
i. GMOs (encourage monoculture which) reduces biodiversity
j. GM crops encourage overuse of herbicides
may be released into natural environment;
may affect food chains / unintended effects on other organisms;
may affect consumers e.g. allergies/health risks;
unfair to smaller farmers who cannot compete;
long-term effects are unknown; risk of cross-pollination;
risk of long-term contamination of soil;
Health benefits:
k. nutritional value of food improved by increasing nutrient content
l. crops could be produced that lack toxins or allergens
m. crops could be produced to contain edible vaccines to provide natural disease
resistance
Health risks:
n. proteins from transferred genes could be toxic or cause allergic reactions
o. antibiotic resistance genes used as markers during gene transfer could spread to
«pathogenic» bacteria
p. transferred genes could cause unexpected/not anticipated problems
health effects of exposure to GMO unclear
Discuss the benefits and possible harmful effects of altering species by one
example of genetic modification.
Explain the reason for linked genes not following the pattern of inheritance
discovered by Mendel.
Compare the information that could be deduced when the genotypes are
presented as AaBb or
Describe one type of barrier that may exist between gene pools.
named barrier;
e.g.:
behavioural barrier;
allele frequencies become different in the two gene pools/separates gene pools /
sympatric speciation;
Explain how polyploidy can contribute to speciation.
Polyploidy:
a. having more than 2 (complete) chromosome sets/description of polyploidy;
b. happens through chromosome mutation / non-disjunction;
c. occurs more frequently in plants than animals;
Contribution to speciation
d. polyploids cannot reproduce with original species / meiosis fails / chromosomes
cannot pair;
e. creates reproductive barrier;
f. but can self-fertilize / reproduce with similar individuals;
g. thus forming a new species;
h. new species formed by sympatric speciation;
State the name given to the situation where two alleles of a gene persist
indefinitely in a population.
Balanced polymorphism
The total frequency of both alleles will be 100% – in other words: p + q = 1
Substituting these numbers for frequencies and applying them to the original
population shows that:
Decomposer / recycle nutrients / break down organic material into inorganic material
autotrophs make their own food/organic molecules/organic matter and heterotrophs feed
on/obtain their food/organic molecules from other organisms;
autotrophs use/require inorganic molecules/CO2 and heterotrophs require (complex) organic
molecules;
Explain the shape of the pyramids of energy that are constructed by ecologists to represent
energy flow in an ecosystem.
energy flows up from one trophic level to the next (in a community);
energy is lost at each stage by waste products/feces/not all the organism is consumed;
each level on the pyramid is about 10% – 20% of the size of the one below it / 80% – 90%
energy lost between levels;
labelled diagram of pyramid of energy (indicating trophic levels);
Suggest one advantage and one disadvantage for blood sampling rather than weighing birds to
assess food quality at stopover sites.
Advantage:
need to capture bird only once to get data / no need to mark and catch birds again;
more informative data can be gathered; (do not accept unqualified “more precise”)
Disadvantage:
nutrients from food eaten at these sites may not have been absorbed yet;
passed to detritivores/saprophytes/decomposers;
a. to be in same species two organisms must have the same genes arranged on the same
chromosomes or must have the same number of chromosomes
b. members of same species produce fertile offspring and a mule is not fertile
Discuss the need for international cooperation to solve the problems of declining coral
populations.
Most of the surface of the Earth is covered with a wide diversity of ecosystems. Outline two
general characteristics of all ecosystems.
a. light energy of Sun is converted by plant/autotroph to chemical energy «in carbon compounds
through photosynthesis»
b. detritivores/saprotrophs decay plant material «that accumulates in the soil» to obtain energy
c. consumers release energy from the carbon compounds by cell respiration energy lost as heat
d. energy is used by organisms for metabolism
e. energy is transferred between organisms/trophic levels through the food chains/web
For mp e, accept specific example such as energy is transferred from primary to secondary
consumer etc.
f. energy is lost at each trophic level «so lengths of food chains/web are restricted»
approximately 80/90 % of energy is lost «between trophic levels»
Ecologists sometimes display data from an ecosystem using a diagram called a pyramid of
energy. Describe what is shown in pyramids of energy.
a. pyramid of energy shows the flow of energy from one trophic level to the next (in a
community);
b. units of pyramids of energy are energy per unit area per unit time/kJ m–2 yr –1;
c. bar width is proportional to the energy stored (in the biomass) in that trophic level;
d. the first/lowest trophic level is producers;
e. second level is primary consumers/herbivores;
f. third level of secondary consumers/carnivores;
g. only a small amount (10 to 20 %) of energy of one level is passed to the next;
h. bar width/energy stored in the trophic level decreases (proportionally) as you go up each level;
i. pyramid shows that there is a limit to the length of food chains;
more energy available if feeding at an earlier stage in a food chain
energy moves through/enters and leaves ecosystems / need a constant source of energy;
energy is not recycled
nutrients are recycled by saprotrophs/returned to environment and reused;
while energy (enters as light and) is dispersed as heat;
nutrients cycled between biotic and abiotic environment/in cycles such as C/N;
only 5 to 20% transferred from one trophic level to next / never 100% efficient;
after death, saprotrophic bacteria and fungi (decomposers) breakdown complex organic matter;
a. food chain shows transfer of nutrients/energy in an ecosystem / arrows from one trophic level
to the next in examples;
b. between different trophic levels / shown in a correct chain or web;
c. starting with a producer;
d. followed by at least two levels of consumers / shown in a correct chain or web;
e. food web is the (branched) interaction of multiple food chains / cross arrows in examples;
f. using (multiple) producers as a source;
g. transferring nutrients/energy to consumers from different food chains;
h. same consumer could be at different trophic levels in a food web;
Explain the relationship between rises in concentration of atmospheric gases and the
enhanced greenhouse effect.
a. water vapour;
b. carbon dioxide;
c. methane;
d. oxides of nitrogen;
e. all (of these gases) occur naturally;
f. and human activity has increased the normal level of these gases in recent years;
g. incoming shorter wave radiation from the Sun;
h. is re-radiated as longer wave radiation/infrared;
i. (mainly) in the form of heat;
j. captured by greenhouse gases;
k. which increases the atmospheric/ocean temperature;
l. at a higher rate than normal / creating a positive imbalance;
m. which threatens ecosystems/climatic patterns/ocean patterns;
n. Earth’s history had many fluctuations in gas levels/global temperature / some scientists are
skeptical about enhanced greenhouse effect;
global warming happened during same time/period as CO2 rise;
CO2 concentration correlated (positively) with global temperature / global temperature increases
as CO2 concentration increases;
(causal) link accepted by most scientists;
no proof that man-made increases in CO2 have caused global warming;
State one reason that the population of mountain lions is smaller than the populations of other
animals in the food web.
Mountain lions/highest trophic level receives less energy as energy is lost at each level /
Mountain lions are larger than other animals and require more (smaller) individuals for food.
Discuss the processes in the carbon cycle that affect concentrations of carbon dioxide and
methane in the atmosphere and the consequences for climate change.
Explain how the emission of gases, both naturally and through human activity, can alter the
surface temperature of the Earth.
human use of fossil fuels has increased levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide;
melting of ice caps/glaciers/permafrost / sea level rise / floods / droughts / changes in ocean
currents / more powerful hurricanes / extreme weather events / other abiotic consequence;
Explain how the process of photosynthesis affects carbon dioxide concentrations in the
atmosphere during a typical year and the likely consequences on Earth of the yearly rises in
carbon dioxide concentrations.
Consequences:
j. ocean acidification;
l. changes/loss of habitat;
Aquatic and other environments are being affected by a global rise in temperature. Outline the
consequences of this on arctic ecosystems.
The enhanced greenhouse effect can cause a rise in atmospheric temperature. Outline one
effect of a temperature rise on plants.
a. increased carbon dioxide/methane in the atmosphere / carbon dioxide emissions from burning
of fossil fuels / other specific source of a named greenhouse gas
b. increased greenhouse effect / more heat/long wave radiation trapped in the atmosphere
c. heat transfer from atmosphere to ocean / ocean absorbs heat from atmosphere
The short-tailed albatross (Phoebastria albatrus) nests and breeds on remote low-lying coral
islands in the Pacific Ocean. Predict how global warming may threaten the survival of such
an ocean bird.
a. rising ocean levels/more extreme weather «due to global warming» may destroy
breeding/nesting sites
OR
rising sea level may put island underwater causing young birds/chicks to drown
b. populations may not find/adapt to new colony sites
c. warming seas may affect the food supply
Using the diagram, explain the interaction of short and long wave radiation with greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere.
Short wave radiation/UV «shown as» having its origin in the Sun gives off light as short
radiation
Short wave radiation/UV «shown as» passing through the greenhouse gases «some reflected»
Some short wave radiation/UV is absorbed by the Earth and some is reflected
The reflected radiation is long wave radiation «reflected as heat»
Long wave radiation/IR «shown as» being unable to pass through/being absorbed/reflected by
the greenhouse gases
a. greenhouse gases present (at Z)
b. greenhouse gases «CO2, methane, nitrous oxide, water vapour» absorb
long-wavelengths/infrared
OR
long wavelengths/infrared waves blocked from leaving the atmosphere
c. (long-wavelengths/infrared absorbed and) reradiated/re-emitted (heat Earth)
the potential niche / the niche the organism could occupy under ideal conditions / the full mode
of existence given the adaptations of the species
Realized niche:
the actual niche / the niche restricted by competition and environmental variables / the niche
resulting from the limits placed on the species
Explain why carnivores tend to be more affected by biomagnification than organisms lower
down the food chain.
chemicals that undergo biomagnification are stored/not broken down (in the bodies of the
organisms that consume them);
chemicals are passed (unaltered) from one trophic level to the next;
chemicals become more concentrated in the bodies of each (subsequent) trophic level;
organisms higher up the food chain consume larger amounts of the chemical;
Distinguish between mutualism and parasitism, providing another example of mutualism and
another example of parasitism.
Distinguish between the exchange of matter and energy with the surroundings in a closed
mesocosm.
Outline one way in which reef-building corals are affected by increasing atmospheric carbon
dioxide.
Alternative 1
Corals have parts/shells/«exo»skeleton made of calcium carbonate
Calcium carbonate «shells» dissolve in acid conditions
Acid/high CO2 conditions reduces availability of calcium carbonate «for forming shells»
OR
negatively affects enzymes involved in calcification
Alternative 2
CO2 is «significant» greenhouse gas causing rise in ocean temperatures
Higher ocean temperatures/acidification leads to rejection of zooxanthellae
OR
higher ocean temperatures/acidification leads to coral bleaching
a. meaning of species has changed over time / no longer just based on morphological
features/phenotype;
c. but species can evolve and features change/species gradually split up;
e. gene flow among populations of the species maintains the species’ uniqueness;
A species is often defined as a group of similar individuals that interbreed in nature and
produce fertile offspring. Discuss some problems with the use of this definition.
a. not all organisms can be defined in this way / does not take into account hybrids/
microorganisms/plants;
b. (even if able to interbreed) may have differences in DNA/protein;
c. does not apply to bacteria/other organisms that reproduce asexually;
d. in sympatric/allopatric isolation members of the same species do not interbreed;
e. (in some species) significant differences in morphology can occur within the same species eg:
sexual dimorphism/metamorphosis/ring species;
Outline the abiotic factors that affect the distribution of plant species in an ecosystem
Mesocosm experiments using water from Narragansett Bay were completed in the laboratory
during a six month period. Discuss advantages and limitations of carrying out mesocosm
investigations.
Describe how methane can be made from biomass. Explain the principles involved in the
generation of methane from biomass.
sewage trickled over bed of rocks with (biofilm of) saprotrophs and oxygen added;
saprotrophic bacteria feed on/break down organic matter (found in sewage);
transforming it into harmless/re-usable products/ CO2CO2, H2OH2O, ammonia;
a. more (offspring) than the environment can support / carrying capacity reached;
b. increased mortality/lower life expectancy/more deaths;
c. competition (for resources) / struggle for survival;
d. food/mates/nest sites/territory/other example of resource shortage / example of greater need;
e. variation between members of population / example of variation;
f. better adapted more likely to survive / converse; (reject Lamarckian statements such as those
who adapt survive)
g. better adapted reproduce / pass on (favourable) genes/traits / converse;
h. natural selection / (survival of fittest) leads to evolution;
variation/characteristic must be heritable;
best fitted individuals survive to reproduce;
advantageous variation/characteristic/allele passed on;
over time advantageous variation/characteristic/allele increases in the population;
a. the sequence in which fossils appear matches the expected sequence of evolution;
b. comparisons with fossils and living organisms (morphology) shows change in characteristics
from an ancestral form / OWTTE;
Vestigial organs and homologous structures are acceptable answers.
c. fossils of extinct species show that (evolutionary) change has occurred;
d. fossils can be dated with radioisotopes / geological depth/strata indicates (relative) age/date of
organism;
e. can yield DNA for molecular clock analysis;
f. example of any of the above can earn one mark (eg: reptiles follow amphibians);
Explain how evolution may happen in response to environmental change with evidence from
examples.
a. variation in population;
b. (variation is) due to mutation/sexual reproduction;
c. valid example of variation in a specific population;
d. more offspring are produced than can survive / populations over-populate;
e. competition / struggle for resources/survival;
f. example of competition/struggle for resources;
g. survival of fittest/best adapted (to the changed environment)/those with beneficial adaptations
/ converse;
h. example of changed environment and adaptation to it;
i. favourable genes/alleles passed on / best adapted reproduce (more) /converse;
j. example of reproduction of individuals better adapted to changed environment;
k. alleles for adaptations to the changed environment increase in the population;
l. example of genes/alleles for adaptations increasing in a population;
m. evolution by natural selection;
n. evolution is (cumulative) change in population/species over time / change in allele frequency;
Outline the types of evidence that can be used to support the theory of evolution.
b. fossils show different species existed in the past/species changed over time;
d. selective breeding shows that (artificial) selection can cause rapid change;
Describe, using one example, how homologous structures provide evidence for evolution.
Do not award the last mark if the change is explained using Lamarckism rather than natural
selection.
Example:
Do not accept examples where the evidence of evolution comes from fossils, or where the
variation is not heritable.
Define evolution.
List two factors that could cause an increase in the size of an animal population.
b. immigration;
d. expanding habitat;
Outline how antibiotic resistance in bacteria can arise in response to environmental change.
alleles for resistance can be passed from one cell to another by exchange of
plasmids/conjugation;
increased exposure to antibiotics is the environmental change that selects for resistant varieties;
for example, in hospitals / animal feed / inappropriate prescriptions / not finishing prescriptions;
bacteria without resistance die / resistant bacteria survive and pass on genes to next generation;
a. jointed appendages
b. «chitinous» exoskeleton
c. segmented body / bilateral symmetry
or mouth and anus
or paired appendages
a. «scientists would accept» hypothesis A as the better one as mutations are random
b. scientists would reject hypothesis B because characteristics acquired during the lifetime of the
individual being inherited is Lamarckian/not part of the evolution by natural selection theory/not
all mutations are heritable
c. «the resistance» mutation would be present in the population initially and not caused by the
shampoo «as hypothesis B states»
d. both hypotheses include variation in the population of lice «resistant and non-resistant»
e. variation is necessary for natural selection to occur
f. frequency of the best adapted increases and these individuals reproduce/pass on resistance to
their offspring, so the resistant population increases «so hypothesis A is better»
Mollusca have a mouth and anus while Cnidaria have only one opening;
Plants are a diverse group of eukaryotic organisms. Describe the different characteristics of
the bryophyta, filicinophyta, coniferophyta and angiospermophyta.
State all the organisms shown above that belong to the following phyla.
Filicinophyta: Fern
Mollusca: Snail
Living organisms have been placed in three domains: archaea, eubacteria and eukaryote.
Distinguish archaea from eubacteria.
List two types of evidence used to determine which species belong in the same clade.
Based on the taxa shown, deduce a difficulty in gathering data to study turtle ancestry.
Some taxas are extinct / convergence «of body form» could have occurred (confusing
interpretation of the data)
Suggest one type of additional evidence that could provide strong support for Turtles 3 as the
evolutionary route for turtles rather than Turtles 1 or Turtles 2.
Taxonomists aim to place species into genera, families and higher taxa according to their
evolutionary origins. This is known as natural classification. Explain the usefulness of
natural classification in biodiversity research.
Using the cladogram, identify one diagnostic feature that characterizes the given groups of
vertebrates at A, B and C.
State the name of the domain to which these organisms belong: Eukaryotes
There has been a change of thinking; moving from gradualism to punctuated equilibrium
demonstrates the changing nature of science. Discuss these two ideas about the pace of
evolution.
fossil records of gradual change with intermediate forms support this theory;
in punctuated equilibrium evolution proceeds rapidly for short periods of time intermittent with
long periods of little change/stability;
gaps in the fossil record/lack of intermediate forms support the idea of punctuated equilibrium;
strata in the fossil record with appearance of many new species following a mass extinction
supports the idea of punctuated equilibrium;
analogous structure similar in appearance/function but with different evolutionary history e.g.
wing of bat and wing of bird;
homologous structures evolved from a common ancestor while analogous structures did not;
Analogous structures have the same function whereas homologous structures could have the
same or a different function. Analogous structures differ in fundamental structures whereas
homologous structures do not
Explain how the ability of a butterfly to escape from predators could increase by natural
selection.
over generations, the number of butterflies with best-escaping ability increases in the population
/ frequency of alleles/genes for better
State two characteristics that permit the classification of microbes into domains.
a species is a group of organisms with similar characteristics, which can interbreed and produce
fertile offspring;
sibling species may show similar characteristics but cannot interbreed (e.g. Pipistrelle bat in
Britain);
some pairs of species are different but can interbreed (e.g. ruddy duck and white headed
duck/many plant species);
State the names of the three domains, giving a microbial example of each.
Explain the reasons for the reclassification of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes into Eubacteria,
Archaea and Eukaryota.
studies of (base sequences of) rRNA provided evidence for three domain classification;
differences in cell walls / Archaea and Eukaryotes have no peptidoglycan in cell wall, Eubacteria
do have peptidoglycan in cell wall;
differences in membrane bonding compared to Eubacteria and Eukaryotes / Archaea have ether
bonds in lipid membranes whereas others do not;
presence or absence of histone proteins / histone proteins present in all Eukaryotes, present in
some Archaea, none in Eubacteria;
large diversity of the group categorized as prokaryotes prompted division into two domains;
similarities between Archaea more similar to Eukaryota than to Eubacteria;
facilitates study of origin/evolution of eukaryotes;
I. peptidoglycan;
II. outer membrane/layer of lipopolysaccharide and protein;
III. peptidoglycan;
Eubacteria have no proteins associated with DNA whereas Archaea have / vice versa;
introns are present in some genes of Archaea, but are rare/absent from Eubacteria;
c. each clade includes a (common) ancestral organism/node and all its descendents;
g. branch length (of clade) can indicate (relative) amount of genetic change/time;
k. problems arise when gene change varies (greatly) from one gene to the next;
On the cladogram, label with the letter C the point that shows the most recent common
ancestor of Pambdelurion and Fuxianhuia.
Explain the biochemical evidence for the common ancestry of organisms on Earth.
cladograms are (objective/accurate because they are usually) based on molecular differences;
Explain what the branching off points represent in the cladogram of these fungi.
a. represent common ancestors shared by the organisms that emanate from the point
b. indicates time since divergence
c. indicates number of differences in DNA
Chapter 6
Explain how the small intestine moves, digests and absorbs food.
a. contraction of muscle layers /peristalsis helps move food. The circular muscle contraction
prevents backward movement of food, longitudinal muscle contraction moves food along gut
b. peristalsis/muscle contractions mix food with intestinal enzymes
c. enzymes digest macromolecules into monomers
d. pancreatic enzymes/amylase/lipase/endopeptidase chemically digest food in the lumen of the
small intestine
e. pancreatic amylase digests starch
lipases digest triglycerides
endopeptidases/dipeptidases digest proteins/polypeptides
f. bile is secreted into the small intestine creates favorable pH for enzymes
bile emulsifies fat
g. some final digestion into monomers is associated with epithelial cells/epithelium of small
intestine
h. mucosa layer /lining of small intestine contains villi/finger-like projections
i. villi/microvilli increase surface area for better absorption
j. villi absorb products of digestion which are mineral ions / vitamins
k. glucose/amino acids enter blood capillaries
lipids enter lymph vessels/lacteals
l. absorption involves active transport/diffusion/facilitated diffusion
m. different nutrients are absorbed by different transport mechanisms
Discuss the roles of the enzymes secreted by the pancreas during digestion.
Explain how the structure of a villus in the small intestine is related to its function. Explain
how the structure of the villus is adapted for absorption.
Plants store carbohydrate in the form of starch. Explain the reasons for starch being digested
by the human digestive system.
Explain the importance of enzymes to human digestion. Outline the need for enzymes in the
digestive system.
a. food must be in a small enough form to leave the gut and enter the bloodstream;
b. physical breakdown is not enough / chemical breakdown is necessary;
c. enzymes are required for the chemical breakdown of food;
d. enzymes increase the rate of digestion;
e. enzymes are biological catalysts;
f. enzymes allow digestion to occur at body temperature;
g. enzymatic digestion is a sequential process e.g. from protein to peptide to amino acid;
h. specific location for each reaction with specific conditions/environments e.g. stomach
high acidity;
i. most enzymes work extracellularly / some enzymes work intracellularly;
j. variations in pH throughout digestive tract promote the activity of different digestive
enzymes / different enzymes have different optimal pHs;
k. amylases digest carbohydrate to monosaccharides;
l. proteases digest proteins to amino acids;
m. lipases digest fats to fatty acids and glycerol;
n. make soluble products/molecules small enough to be absorbed;
Reabsorb water/vitamins
Temporary storage of faeces
Outline a mechanism used to transport products of digestion from the lumen of the ileum into
the blood.
Facilitated diffusion;
substance moves from high to low concentration/ down concentration gradient;
protein channels needed;
does not require ATP/energy / passive;
valid example; eg amino acids / glucose / fructose / water soluble vitamins
Active transport;
substance moves from low to high concentration / against concentration gradient;
membrane pumps needed / Na/K pump, Ca++Ca++;
ATP/energy required;
valid example; eg amino acids / glucose / mineral irons / iron
Endocytosis/pinocytosis;
droplets of intestinal fluid surrounded by membrane;
forms vesicle;
vesicles are released inside villus cell;
valid example; eg fat soluble vitamins
plasma/water;
erythrocytes / red blood cells;
leucocytes / white blood cells;
lymphocytes and phagocytes;
platelets;
hormones / named hormone s ;
amino acids / albumin / antibodies;
salts / minerals / ions
plasma proteins;
Blood absorbs:
Oxygen in the lungs
Hormones in the endocrine glands
Carbon dioxide in cells and tissues
The pumping of blood is a vital process. Explain the roles of the atria and ventricles in the
pumping of blood.
Explain how circulation of the blood to the lungs and to other systems is separated in humans
and what the advantages of this separation are.
Distinguish between the vein and the artery with reference to structures visible in the
micrograph.
Explain the relationship between structure and function of arteries, capillaries and veins.
Arteries:
a. thick walls to withstand high pressure/maintain blood flow/pressure;
b. many muscle fibres to help pump blood;
c. many elastic fibres to stretch and pump blood after each heart beat;
d. collagen fibres/elastic fibres/connective tissue in outer layer give wall
strength/flexibility/ability to stretch and recoil;
e. smooth muscle layer contracts to maintain pressure;
f. narrow lumen maintains high pressure;
g. smooth endothelium for efficient transport/reduced friction;
h. no valves as pressure is high enough to prevent backflow;
Capillaries:
a. wall has one layer of cells allowing fast diffusion of substances;
b. only one red blood cell allowed to pass at a time for efficient oxygen uptake;
c. pores between cells of the walls so plasma can leak out;
d. pores between cells of the walls allow phagocytes/immune components to enter tissues;
e. extensive branching increases surface area for exchange of materials;
f. small diameter/narrow lumen to fit into small places/between cells;
g. small diameter allows them to fit between cells/perfuse tissue;
h. narrow diameter increases oxygen diffusion from RBC;
Veins:
k. thin walls allow skeletal muscles to exert pressure on veins;
l. thin outer layer of collagen/elastic/muscle fibres provide structural support;
m. wide lumen allows great volume of blood to pass;
n. valves prevent backflow;
a. gas exchange
b. oxygen diffuses from air to blood and carbon dioxide diffuses from blood to air
c. oxygen binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells
d. pressure inside/volume of alveoli increases as air enters and decreases as air exits alveoli
during ventilation
e. blood flow through capillaries
concentration gradients of gases/oxygen/CO2 maintained
f. type II pneumocytes secrete fluid/surfactant / secretion of surfactant to prevent sides of
alveolus adhering
a. tidal volume: volume of air taken in with each inhalation/out with each exhalation;
b. ventilation rate: number of inhalations/exhalations/breaths per minute;
Explain the processes that control changes in ventilation rate during exercise.
Active skeletal muscle requires a good supply of oxygen. Outline the mechanism of ventilation
in the lungs.
during inhalation:
a. external intercoastal muscles contract moving rib cage up and out;
b. diaphragm contracts becoming lower/flatter;
c. internal intercostal/abdomen wall muscles relax;
d. increase in volume and decrease in pressure of thorax ;
e. air flows into lungs as atmospheric pressure is higher than pressure in lungs
during exhalation:
e. internal intercostal muscles contract so ribs move in and down;
f. diaphragm relaxes and returns to domed shape;
g. decrease in volume and therefore increase in pressure of thorax;
h. air moves out until pressure in lungs falls/is equal to atmospheric pressure;
i. abdominal muscles can be used to make a stronger/forced exhalation;
j. recoil of elastic fibres that stretched during inspiration;
k. internal intercostal muscles contract during forced ventilation ;
All motor neurons use acetylcholine to activate skeletal muscle. Explain the effect of
neonicotinoid pesticides in insect synapses in the central nervous system.
Resistance to neonicotinoid pesticides has been observed in some insects. Describe briefly how
this resistance could have arisen in populations of insects.
Nerves connecting the brain and heart contain neurons that control heart rate. Explain how a
nerve message passes from one neuron to another neuron.
Chapter 11
Immunoglobulins function as antibodies. They have a variety of binding sites / variable regions
for binding which are specific to antigens on bacteria/viruses/pathogens. Their constant region
aids destruction of the bacteria/virus/pathogen as the macrophages recognise this region. It helps
phagocytes/macrophages to engulf pathogen more easily.
Antibodies aid in the destruction of pathogens by a number of different mechanisms:
Some blood proteins are involved in defence against infectious disease. Explain the roles of
named types of blood proteins in different defence mechanisms.
n. treatment expensive;
o. discrimination against victims;
p. moral obligation of wealthy countries to help poorer countries;
q. economic consequences / loss of wage earners etc.;
r. increase in the number of orphans;
s. comment on traditions/beliefs/behaviour; if not already awarded in transmission
Outline how monoclonal antibodies are produced.
B lymphocytes are produced in laboratory animal after injection with an antigen. These animal
cells/these cells are fused with tumour cells to form hybridomas which produce antibodies.
Immunity is the ability of an organism to resist infection due to presence of specific antibodies.
Immunity can be active or passive. Passive due to receiving antibodies from external
sources/across placenta/from breast milk/injection and active results from facing an infection
directly/through vaccination. The pathogen/foreign cell invades body, leads to clonal
selection/formation of B memory cells which produce specific antibodies. If same pathogen
enters body again memory cells activated/stimulated to divide and antibodies produced faster and
in greater amounts.
Benefits:
immunity results
can limit pandemics/epidemics/spread of infectious diseases;
diseases can be eradicated/smallpox eliminated;
reduces mortality/deaths due to disease;
can protect vulnerable groups/young/old/with other conditions;
decrease crippling effects of diseases such as polio ;
decreased health care costs;
Dangers:
may produce mild symptoms of the disease;
human error in preparation/storage/administration of vaccine;
individual may react badly to vaccine / defective immune system / hypersensitive/allergic
reaction;
immunity may not be life-long/booster required;
possible toxic effects of mercury-based preservatives/thimerosal;
An animal typically a mouse is injected with an antigen and produces antigen-specific plasma
cells. The plasma cells are removed and fused hybridised with tumor cells capable of endless
divisions immortal cell line . The resulting hybridoma cell is capable of synthesising large
quantities of monoclonal antibody.
Pregnancy testing
Treatment of tissues
a. sliding filament model / filaments/actin and myosin slide past each other;
b. action potential/depolarisation/nerve impulse arrives at end of motor neurone;
c. neurotransmitter/acetylcholine released causing action potential in muscle fibre ;
d. sarcoplasmic reticulum releases calcium ions;
e. calcium ions cause binding sites on actin/for myosin to be exposed;
f. myosin heads bind to sites on actin/form cross-bridges;
g. myosin head moves actin filament using energy from ATP;
h. actin moved towards the centre of sarcomere/M line/M band;
i. sarcomeres shortened;
j. binding of ATP causes release of myosin head from actin;
k. conversion of ATP to ADP and Pi causes myosin heads to change angle;
l. cycle of events repeated during muscle contraction ;
Role of ATP
List two structural features of a joint that reduce friction between bones.
1. Cartilage
2. Synovial Fluid
3. Joint capsule that prevents fluid from leaking
They connect bones to bones, enable joint movement and prevent dislocation.
Humerus: Anchorage for attachment of muscle
Cartilage: Acts as a shock absorber
Chapter 9
In hot, dry conditions plants lose water rapidly due to transpiration. Explain how the
structures and processes of the plant allow this water to be replaced.
Explain the processes by which minerals are absorbed from the soil into the roots.
Photosynthesis and transpiration occur in leaves. Explain how temperature affects these
processes.
Explain how abiotic factors affect the rate of transpiration in terrestrial plants.
(transpiration is) loss of water vapour from the leaves/stomata (and stems) of plants;
Angiospermophyta have vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) that bryophyta lack. Suggest
advantages that vascular tissue confers.
would make it easier to stand upright (against gravity)/structural support / allows
(angiospermophytes) to be bigger;
could put leaves higher in the air to get more sunlight;
transport of water supply/nutrients from roots to other tissues;
could (more efficiently) transport/translocate sugars/food from leaves for storage;
Outline how the glucose produced as a result of photosynthesis is transported and stored in
plants.
Outline the metabolic processes that occur in starchy seeds during germination.
c. gibberellin synthesized/produced/secreted;
d. stored as lipids/oils;
pollen grains grow a pollen tube down the style to the ovule;
male and female gametes/nuclei join/fuse (in the ovule/ovary) during fertilization;
example of seed dispersal; (e.g. pods split open to scatter seeds, e.g. animal eats fruit / ingests
and egests seed)
phytochrome;
Pr (red absorbing/660 nm) converted to Pfr (far-red/730 nm absorbing) in red or day light;
sunlight contains more red than far red light so Pfr predominates during the day;
in long-day plants, flowering induced by dark periods shorter than a critical length / occurs when
day is longer than a critical length;
enough Pfr remains in long-day plants at end of short nights to stimulate flowering;
at end of long nights enough Pfr has been converted to Pr to allow flowering to occur;
The flowers of angiospermophyta are used for sexual reproduction. Outline three processes
required for successful reproduction of angiospermophyta.
I Sepal
II Ovary
III Petal
Phylum is Angiospermophyta
Describe briefly how scientists obtained leaf phloem sap from the potato plants.
II is Xylem
Explain how aphid stylets can be used to study the movement of solutes in plant tissues.
Aphids tap into phloem with their stylets «to use sap as a food source»
Plants grown in radioactive CO2/14CO2 incorporate it into carbohydrate
Phloem contents/sap/fluid flows through the stylet
Aphid body severed/cut from stylet «after stylet inserted into phloem»
Analyze «sap/fluid exuded from stylet» for solutes/carbohydrates
OR
Radioactive-labelled carbon can be detected «in the phloem sap»
Stylets at different parts of the plant can show sequence/rate of movement