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 Chapter - 6
Remote Sensing and GIS Technologies in use of Soil and
Water Conservation
Satish Kumar Singh, Neha Singh Kushwha and Anurag Patel

Abstract
Soil and water is the most precious gift of nature with natural resource.
It is the main constituent part of life-supporting system for human beings,
vegetation and animals. As the pressure on availability of freshwater
resources increases in water deficient regions we need to conserve water by
using conventional water resources methods more efficiently as future
increases in agricultural production will have to depend heavily on existing
water resources. So, proper planning and management for optimal utilization
of this vital natural resource is very important in agricultural production. The
agricultural sustainability and productivity has the highest priority in all
developed or developing countries, but it’s totally depends upon the good
soil health and water purity with quantity. Aero-space Remote Sensing and
GIS technology are gaining importance as useful tools in sustainable
watershed management and development. This chapter discusses the
integrated use of Remote Sensing and GIS technology in several areas for
soil and water conservation development and management.
Keyword: Remote sensing and GIS, Soil and water conservation, Land use
and land cover
Introduction
The availability of water is extremely uneven, both spatially and
temporally and so will be the case in future (Raheja and Taneja, 2000). With
continuous increase in population, the demand on land and water resources
has been increasing for enhancing agricultural production. Contribution of
surface water is so significant that more than 70 percent of population uses it
for its domestic needs and also more than half of irrigation needs are met
from this source (Raheja and Taneja, 2000). In a world of climate and land
use change, fertile soils are one of the most essential resources to sustain
humankind. In a recent review (Amundson et al., 2015) the soil is discussed

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comprehensively as the essential resource for human security (including
climate and food security) in the 21st century with the main threat to soils
being soil erosion by wind and water ever since humankind had started with
agriculture. To date, most of the world's soils are only in fair, poor or very
poor condition as was stressed by the latest publications of the United
Nations, i.e. Status of the World's Soil Resources (FAO, 2015) where soil
erosion was identified as one of the major soil threats. In the early nineties, it
was already estimated that 56% of the global land being degraded and
showed light to severe forms of soil erosion by water (Oldeman, 1992).
Since water erosion is strongly exacerbated by the conversion of natural
vegetation to agricultural land, with nearly 40% of Earth's land currently
utilized for agricultural production (Foley, 2017, Alewell et al. 2019),
accelerated forms of soil erosion became a widespread phenomenon
representing a major challenge to achieving the United Nations Sustainable
Development Goals (Keesstra et al., 2016). The fact that soil erosion is a
threat to one of the most essential resources of humankind is as old as Cain
and Abel (Panagos et al., 2016c).
In India, the geologists have to be given credit for initiating
researches in geomorphology. The works of Dunn (1929), Wadia
(1937), Chatterjee (1945), Radhakrishna (1952), Auden (1954),
Arogyaswamy (1967) are noteworthy. Geographers like Bagchi (1960), and
Chibber (1953) have pioneered works in geomorphology. The
geomorphological studies pertaining to the highlands of Chota Nagpur, in
general, have been initiated by geologists along with geographers.
Detailed geological pieces of information have been recorded by eminent
geologists notably Oldham (1893), Fox (1934), Gee (1932), Pascoe
(1950) and Wadia (1975).
Dunn (1939) at first interpreted the evolution of the four erosion
surfaces in Chota Nagpur plateau. He propounded that uplifts were the
root causes of the different erosional surfaces and supported his next
works in 1941, 1942. He was of the opinion that the different erosional
surfaces of the area are peniplains uplifted during the Himalayan
movements.
Mache and Peshwa (1978) made an interesting photo-geological
interpretation of the controls on drainage in Gondwana and Bijawaras
of the Son Valley, Shahdol District, Madhya Pradesh. Davi (2000) has
published a book on river basin morphology. In this book she has done
several aspects of quantitative geomorphic analysis. However, a general
quantification of these effects is still a research task. Recent advances in the

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analysis of landform morphometry through the availability of high-
resolution Digital Elevation Models (DEMs), powerful Geographic
Information System techniques (Lawrence, 1985; Tarboton, 1997 and
Tarboton et al., 1991) and Remote Sensing applications (Babar 2001,
2002a, b, Pandey et. al 2011) enhanced the research efforts.
Hence, in this chapter, information about various themes such as land
use/cover, drainage, soil and slope were integrated in the GIS environment
using a set of decision rules in order to identify suitable sites for soil and
water conservation measures on a holistic approach.
Remote Sensing and GIS
Remote sensing is the science of monitoring emitted and reflected
radiation to obtain information about an object or phenomenon. The first form
of remote sensing device is a passive system, which records elective magnetic
radiation (EMR) that is reflected (e.g., blue, green, red and near-infrared
light) or emitted (e.g., heat infrared energy) from the earth's surface. The
second advantage is that active remote sensing devices are not reliant on the
Sun's EMR or the earth's thermal characteristics.
Remote sensing is the art and science of making measurements of the
earth using sensors on airplanes or satellites. These sensors collect data in the
form of images and provide specialized capabilities for manipulating,
analyzing and visualizing those images. Remote sensed imagery is integrated
within a GIS.
GIS stands for geographic information system and it is a computer-based
tool for mapping and evaluating feature events on the planet. GIS technology
combines typical database functions with maps, such as querying and
statistical analysis. GIS organises location-based data and provides tools for
displaying and analysing statistics such as population demographics,
economic development potential, and vegetation types. GIS allows you to
create dynamic displays by linking databases and maps. It also includes
capabilities for visualising, querying, and overlaying databases in ways that
ordinary spreadsheets cannot. These capabilities set GIS apart from other
information systems, making it useful for explaining events, forecasting
outcomes and strategizing across a wide spectrum of public and commercial
companies.
Process of remote sensing
Detect Detecting and recording radiant energy reflected or emitted by
objects or surface material is what detection and discriminating of objects or

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surface features entails (Fig. 1). The study of obtaining information about the
Earth's surface without actually coming into contact with it is known as
remote sensing. This is accomplished through the detection and recording of
reflected or emitted energy, as well as the processing, analysis, and
application of that data". The interaction between incident radiation and the
targets of interest is a common feature of remote sensing.
• Emission of electromagnetic radiation or EMR or Energy
Source (1): The first requirement for remote sensing is to have an
energy source which illuminates or provides electromagnetic energy
to the target of interest.
• Radiation and the atmosphere (2): As the energy travels from its
source to the target, it will come in contact with and interact with
the atmosphere it passes through. This interaction may take place a
second time as the energy travels from the target to the sensor.
• Interaction with the target (3): Once the energy makes its way to
the target through the atmosphere, it interacts with the target
depending on the properties of both the target and the radiation.
• Recording of Energy by the Sensor (4): After the energy has been
scattered by or emitted from the target, we require a sensor (remote-
not in contact with the target) to collect and record the
electromagnetic radiation.
• Transmission, Reception and Processing (5): The energy
recorded by the sensor has to be transmitted, often in electronic
form, to a receiving and processing station where the data are
processed into an image (hardcopy or digital).
• Interpretation and Analysis (6): The processed image is
interpreted, visually or digitally or electronically, to extract
information about the target which was illuminated.
• Application (7): The final element of the remote sensing process is
achieved when we apply the information we have been able to
extract from the imagery about the target in order to better
understand it, reveal some new information, or assist in solving a
particular problem.

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 Fig 1: Components of Remote Sensing
Electromagnetic energy
Electromagnetic energy travels in waves and covers a wide range of
wavelengths, from long radio waves to short gamma rays (Fig. 2). Only a
small fraction of this spectrum, known as visible light, can be detected by the
human eye. A radio detects a distinct part of the spectrum, whereas an x-ray
equipment uses a different part of the spectrum. NASA's scientific
instruments examine the Earth, the solar system, and the cosmos beyond
using the entire electromagnetic spectrum.

Source: https://science.nasa.gov/ems/01_intro.
Fig 2: Electromagnetic Spectrum
This chapter goes through the materials utilised for prioritising the study
area for scientific planning and successful management, as well as the

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advanced procedures and approaches used to meet the research proposal's
stated objectives. The procedures for creating a Digital Elevation Model
(DEM), as well as automatic extraction of study area characteristics like
study area boundary, field slope, flow direction (aspect), drainage network,
channel slope, and various maps (Soil map, Geology map, Geomorphology
map, and so on) using GIS, are discussed. There are also detailed techniques
for creating land use/land cover (LU/LC) maps utilising satellite digital data.
The materials and method are broken down into the sections below.
Use of remote sensing
Most earth sciences, such as hydrology, geology, meteorology,
oceanography, geography, glaciology, ecology, and land surveying, as well
as applications in intelligence, military, economic, commercial, planning,
and humanitarian fields, use remote sensing technology in thousands of
different use cases. Here are a few examples of remote sensing applications:
• GIS remote sensing: Geographic Information System (GIS) is a
system designed to capture, store, manage, analyze, manipulate, and
present geographic or spatial data-satellite remote sensing provides
an important source of spatial data. Remote sensing and GIS work
to gether to gather, store, analyze and visualize data from virtually
any geographic position on Earth.
• Irrigation and soil moisture monitoring and management are major
components of remote sensing in agriculture.
• Doppler radar measures meteorological events such as wind speed
and direction within weather systems as well as precipitation
intensity and location. Another application is aerial traffic control.
• Advanced very high-resolution radiometer (AVHRR) and MODIS
satellites use thermal sensing and mid infrared sensing to monitor
active volcanoes.
• INSAR (Interferometric synthetic aperture radar) uses
interferometry remote sensing technique to predict and provide
early warnings for potential landslides.
• A primary application of light detection and ranging (LiDAR) is
vegetation management and monitoring, however it is also applied
in cases of weapon ranging and laser illuminated homing of
projectiles. LiDAR may also be used to detect and measure the
concentration of various chemicals in the atmosphere.

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 • Stereographic pairs of aerial photographs are used to model
terrestrial habitat features and make topographic maps by imagery
and terrain analysts in traffic ability and highway departments for
potential routes.
• Spectra Polari metric Imaging is used by researchers at the U.S.
Army Research Laboratory for target tracking purposes by
identifying man made items by their polar metric signatures, which
are not found in natural objects.
• Remote sensing satellites provide before-and after-remote sensing
images in order to quantify post-earthquake damage, which
provides vital data for rescue workers.
• Data from laser and radar altimeters on satellites, sonar and
ultrasound measurements can be used for coastal mapping and
erosion prevention, to better understand how to manage ocean
resources, to assess the impacts of a natural disaster and create
disaster response strategies to be used before and after a hazardous
event and to minimize the damage that urban growth has on the
environment and help decide how to best protect natural resources.
• Remote sensing for oil and gas is an integral tool for upstream and
downstream gas and oil operations through evaluation of
infrastructure for well-site planning. Spectral analysis is vital for the
evaluation of surface outcrops and surface hydrocarbon seepage.
Application of remote sensing to climate change
Application of remote sensing in the studies of climate change has
provided major advances in understanding the climate system and its
changes, by quantifying spatio-temporal states and processes of the
atmosphere, oceans, and lands. Satellite sensors have aided in the detection
and measurement of the cooling effects of increased stratospheric aerosols
and the spatial pattern of sea-level rise, which otherwise went unobserved by
conventional climate models observations. Global climate change research
uses big data from Earth observation platforms, in which remote multi-
satellite, multi-sensor and long-term time series data methods are
implemented. This has facilitated the detection of climate sensitivity factors,
advanced the study of the spatial variability of terrestrial ecosystems and
aided in the development of global climate change response strategies.
Advantages of remote sensing
Microwave remote sensing includes both passive and active remote
sensing, with wavelengths ranging from one centimeter to one metre. The

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microwave's longer wavelength is advantageous in remote sensing because it
penetrates haze, rain, dust and cloud cover more effectively than visible and
infrared light.
As a result, microwave remote sensing of the environment is unaffected
since the longer wavelengths are not sensitive to atmospheric scattering.
Under most environmental conditions, microwave energy can be detected
and data collected. Sea ice monitoring and worldwide soil moisture mapping
are two examples of applications.
Limitations of remote sensing data
Human operators manage remote sensing in the end, making critical
decisions about which sensors should be used to collect data and when,
resolution specifications for the collected data and sensor calibration and the
platform that will carry the sensor, all of which expose this method to human
error.
The electromagnetic spectrum radiation released by powerful active
remote sensing equipment, which might be intrusive and alter the target
phenomenon being researched, can also add inaccuracy. If the hardware
system becomes uncelebrated, remote sensing equipment may contribute
erroneous, uncelebrated data. There may also be financial constraints. It is a
costly method that necessitates considerable, specialized image analysis
training.
Data base
SOI toposheet
Survey of India, is the Survey and Mapping Organization of the country.
It is the oldest scientific organization under Govt. of India. It bears a special
responsibility to confirm that the country’s domain is explored and mapped
appropriately, give base maps for time saving and integrated development.
SOI publishes maps at different scales. For this research work Survey of
India Topographical sheets at 1:50,000 scales were used. The most common
tool used for the detection of underground water using RS is satellite image.
Satellite images have become standard tool to aid the study of underground
water. Extraction of different thematic layers like LU/LC, Lithology,
Geomorphology, Soil Map, etc. was done through satellite imagery.
Satellite data
Cloud free digital data of the study area were obtained from National
Remote Sensing Center (NRSC), Hyderabad. For generating the land
use/land cover information, satellite data of LANDSAT-8 images were used.

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The details of the satellite data are given in Table 1 and prepared False Color
Composite (FCC) of study area as shown in Fig. 3. For the present research
work LANDSAT-8 imagery has been used. Landsat-8 is associate degree
America Earth observation satellite launched on February eleven, 2013.
Originally known as the Landsat information Continuity Mission (LDCM),
it's collaboration between independent agency and the United States
Geological Survey (USGS). Deep blue band for coastal/aerosol studies, a
shortwave infrared band for cirrus detection and a Quality Assessment band
includes in OLI device used in Landsat-8. The following Table 1 gives the
technical overview of LANDSAT-8. In Landsat-8, Sensor spatial resolution
is 30 m for multi-spectral bands while it is 15m for the panchromatic band.
For this study pan-sharpening or resolution merging was done to create 15m
multi-spectral data. Landsat eight OLI and TIRS images comprise 9 spectral
bands with a spatial resolution of 30 m for Bands one to seven and nine.
New band one (ultra-blue) is helpful for coastal and aerosol studies. New
band nine is helpful for cloud detection. The resolution for Band eight
(panchromatic) is 15 m. Thermal bands ten and eleven square measure
helpful in providing a lot of correct surface temperatures and square measure
collected at a hundred meters. Approximate scene size is a 170 km north-
south by 183 kilometer east-west (106 mi by 114 mi). The path and row of
the Landsat-8 image used for the research work is path 143 and row 43. High
Resolution images (available in public domain) were also used for the
quality control of the different thematic maps created, using Landsat-8
images.
Meteorological data
For estimation of the rainfall erosivity and weather generator file in
SWAT, the rainfall and other parameters such as temperature, relative
humidity, precipitation etc. were recollected from meteorological
observatory at India Meteorological Department.

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 Fig 3: False color composite (FCC) map of the study area (Satellite Image)
Table 1: Types of spectral band, wavelength, resolution and swath of Landsat-8

Wavelength Resolution
Bands
(micrometers) (meters)
Band 1-Coastal aerosol 0.43 - 0.45 30
Band 2-Blue 0.45 - 0.51 30
Band 3-Green 0.53 - 0.59 30
Landsat 8
Band 4-Red 0.64 - 0.67 30
Operational Land
Imager (OLI) and Band 5-Near Infrared (NIR) 0.85 - 0.88 30
Thermal Infrared Band 6-SWIR 1 1.57 - 1.65 30
Sensor (TIRS)
Band 7-SWIR 2 2.11 - 2.29 30
Launched February
11, 2013 Band 8-Panchromatic 0.50 - 0.68 15
Band 9-Cirrus 1.36 - 1.38 30
Band 10-Thermal Infrared
10.60 - 11.19 100 * (30)
(TIRS) 1
Band 11-Thermal Infrared
11.50 - 12.51 100 * (30)
(TIRS) 2
Swath 185 kilometer
Temporal Resolution 16 Days
Altitude 705 Kilometer
*TIRS bands are acquired TIRS bands square measure non-inheritable at a hundred-
meter resolution; however square measure resample to thirty meter in delivered
information product.

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Use of technologies
Geographical Information System (GIS) software used for preparation of
thematic map Software available at Remote Sensing and GIS lab of
MGCGVV Chitrakoot Satna, Madhya Pradesh were used for the preparation
of thematic maps and analysis of data. Details of software used are presented
in Table 2. A GIS is an integrated software package specially designed for
use with geographic data that performs a comprehensive range of data
handling tasks. These tasks include data input, storage, retrieval and output,
in addition to a wide variety of descriptive and analytical processes. The
object's attributes or specific characteristics are also contained within the
data model. Attributes such as length, area and count are important to
distinguish among data models. Current GIS software is capable of storing
complex spatial information into separate thematic layers as represented in
Fig. 4. ERDAS Imagine is a raster-based Image processing software package
designed specifically to extract information from imagery. It includes a
comprehensive set of tools to create accurate base imagery for inclusion into
a GIS and ESRI Geo-data base. ERDAS imagine provides a variety of tools
such as image rectification, mosaic king, re-projection, classification and
interpretation that allow the user to analyze image data and present it in
formats ranging from printed maps to 3D models.
Table 2: Details of software and their distinctive features

Name of
Description
Software
Arc GIS is the extensible used GIS tool, It includes all the
functionality of Arc View and Arc Editor and adds advanced geo
processing and data conversion capabilities. Professional GIS users
use Arc info for all aspects of data building, modeling, analysis, and
map display on screen and output. Arc Catalog is mostly used for
creating, dieting and editing the spatial data file (ESRI).
Arc GIS • Administrative boundary demarcation.
(Version 10.3) • Creation of base map.
• Creation of different thematic maps.
• Data creation and multi-criteria data evaluation.
• Weightage assignment.
• Morph metric analysis of the watershed.
• Creation of groundwater potential map.
• Evaluation of groundwater potential at village level.
The ERDAS IMAGINE software provides the functions of both
ERDAS image processing and geographic information systems (GIS). These
IMAGINE functions include importing, viewing, altering, and analyzing raster
(Version 9.2) and vector data sets.
• Importing, enhancement and pre-processing of satellite images.

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 • Extract AOI from the satellite image.
• Digital Image Processing for LU/LC mapping.
• Raster to vector conversion.
• Creating thematic map.
Other Window base software such as-MS-Office were used to build
software database and analyses them.
GPS • Field validation of thematic maps.
Leica SR 20 • Collection of data from the field.

Fig 4: Example of GIS data layer organized into separate themes

Field verification
Three field-trips were organized during the entire course of the research
work. The first fieldwork was carried out to get acquainted with the research
area, understand the topography and lithology, understand the soil type in
different parts of the study area and also to collect general information about
the depth to groundwater table through measurements of depth of water in the
dug well and also by talking to the local residents of the area. Subsequent
field works were carried out to validate the different thematic maps created
using interpretation and processing of satellite images.
The task carried out during the field survey may be summarized as
below-
• Well inventory survey.
• Thematic maps verification.
• Collection of field photographs.
• Study the lithology along with their primary and secondary porosity
and their groundwater potential zone.
• Navigation in the field was done with the help of GPS.

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Methodology
Main objectives of the present study are to study the water stressed
situation, assessment of surface water potential and identification of surface
water harvesting sites. Most of the studies are made through geomorphic
resource characterization, analysis and land use land cover analysis.
Remote Sensing and GIS technologies have been used intensively to get
the desired objectives. We also intended to propose new seasonal land use
land cover plan (case study) for some specific selected areas.
Generation of GIS data base
GIS data base like base map, drainage map, digital elevation model map,
delineation of sub-watersheds, soil group map and land use map were
prepared with the help of software Arc GIS 10.3 and ERDAS 9.3 for true
representation of study area.
i) Base map
A base map or boundary of the watershed has been prepared with the
help of toposheet. The area of Rewa block fall in SOI toposheet of scale
1:50,000. These toposheet were scanned and mosaicked. After mosaicking,
boundary of was precisely delineated manually with polygon tool in ArcGIS.
ii) Process flow
In the Rewa district, variation in the water table was observed at
different dug wells and bore wells. Hence it was important to study and
prognosticate vulnerable locations where major variation in water level may
take place. For that purpose, assessment of underground water potential
involved generation of maps and database on the natural and physical
resources of the watershed, such as topography, landforms, lithology,
landuse/landcover, soil, drainage, lineament etc. to carryout spatial analysis
using multi- criteria evaluation techniques. Steps adopted for assessment of
groundwater potential of the study area are given Fig. 5.
Data pre-processing
i) Geo-referencing of toposheet
Scanned maps were Geo-registered with respect to grid base using
ERDAS Imagine software in order to have real world co-ordinates. The 16
intersecting points of longitude and latitude were considered as ground
coordination points (GCPs). Each toposheet on 1:50,000 scales was geo-
registered separately. Technically SOI toposheets are based on Everest
Datum and Polyconic Projection. Therefore for the current work they were
geo-registered in native format.

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ii) Geo-referencing of satellite image
There was a good positional match between the geo- registered SoI
toposheets and Landsat-8 image of the Rewa district. No re-georeferencing
of Landsat-8 image was performed.
iii) Projections
Projection is the process of transformation of three-dimensional space
into the two-dimensional space. Toposheets already geo-registered in the
native projection system were re-projected into UTM Projection system with
the following details-
• Projection-UTM.
• Spheroid-WGS 84.
• Datum-WGS.
• Zone-44.
All the layers generated from rectified toposheets updated from satellite
image through digitization or image processing, were projected into real
world coordinates by adopting standard projection procedure for the purpose
of integration during the spatial analysis.
iv) Transformation
After projection of vectors to real world coordinates by standard
projection procedure, all features like polygons and lines were transformed
to real world coordinates by transform process.
Satellite image enhancement
Diverse image enhancement procedures were embraced to enhance the
contrast between the distinctive features on the satellite image and to
improve the image interpretation. Complexity extending of individual bands
was powerful in enhancing interpretability of various features. Different
standard digital image processing techniques for example, pan-sharpening,
PCA, decorrelation stretch, and so forth., were connected to Landsat 8
information to improve and separate data.
Map generation
In the first step scanning of existing maps was done to bring them into
digital format. Remote sensing data were already in digital formats. All data
were geo-referenced and resampled using the nearest neighborhood method.
Second step involved generation of different thematic layers. In most of the
cases, hybrid classification was adopted to generate various thematic layers.

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The following paragraphs discuss in details, the methodology adopted for
generation of different thematic layers required for the assessment of
groundwater.

Land use and land cover (LU/LC) Map

The satellite images purchased from NRSC, Hyderabad were used for
preparation of LU/LC map of the area. The satellite image of Landsat-8 was
first rectified and then applied the supervised classification with maximum
likelihood algorithm for preparation of LULC. In this classification an area
or group of pixels belonging to one or more categories of specific land use/
land cover were identified. The land uses were classified into five classes
namely agriculture, water bodies, dense forest, fallow land and urban
settlement. For information on vegetation/ground cover, the land use/ land
cover map of the study area was prepared with the help of ERDAS
IMAGINE a popular image processing software.
An understanding of the land-use pattern is very important in
groundwater studies. Spatial distribution of landuse/landcover information is
necessary to understand the possible groundwater recharge and assessment
of the area. Therefore, a detailed land-use/land-cover map was prepared
through the satellite imagery (Flowchart showing in Fig. 6). The various land
use /land cover classes were interpreted on the basis of different spectral
signature in terms of color, tone, texture and pattern. The topography and
vegetation have a great influence on the land use pattern of the study area.

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The land is largely distributed for agriculture, grazing, forest and settlement.
The various land use land cover classes adopted for this study have been
listed below Table 3. The landuse/landcover map was prepared adopting
digital interpretation techniques in conjunction with collateral data such as
topographical map sheets, GPS points collected during field survey, etc.
Initially satellite image was enhanced by using enhancement techniques for
better visual interpretation. The GPS points collected from the field were used
as signatures for the classification purpose. The LU/LC data was generated in
three layers:
• Habitation layer: All built-up were captured
• Water layer: All surface water including River, Canal, surface
water bodies were captured
• Vegetation layer: Various vegetation classes like forest,
agriculture, etc.
Table 3: The various LU/ LC classes adopted for this study

S. No. Level-I Class Level-II Class

Urban
1. Built UP Land
Rural
2. Agriculture Crop Land
Dense Forest
3. Forest
Forest plantation
River/Stream/Canal
4. Waterbody
Lake/Reservoir/Pond
Barren Rocky/Stony Wast
5. Others
Road

For the individual layers quality checks were done and finally all these
three layers were integrated. The compiled data was further refined for the
final Land use Land cover map in raster form and converted into vector data
(format: shape file).
Geomorphology and geomorphic resource characterisation
For geomorphic resource characterization and study we used SOI
topographical sheets as a base data base at 1:50000 scale. Physical
information was extracted from every one square kilometer grid. Features
like contours, spot heights, bench marks, drainage lines and surface water
bodies (pond, tank, lake) were taken into consideration for characterization
of the physical resources of the region. These phenomena were measured
and analysed to generate information on Absolute Relief (AR), Relative

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Relief (RR), Drainage Density (DD), Dissection Index (DI), Ruggedness
Index (RI), Slope and Frequency of surface water bodies. These geomorphic
resources are considered important parameters for their deterministic
role in seasonal land use land cover of the region. These resources are
directly or indirectly controlling and influencing the availability of surface
water resources which in turn dictate the land use land cover, water
stressed situation and agriculture resources in study area. The synoptic read of
satellite imaging facilitates higher appreciation of geophysical science and
facilitate in mapping of various landforms and their assemblages. Standard
computer aided photo interpretation along with genesis of landforms, nature
of rocks/sediments; associated geological structures etc. were used towards
the interpretation of geomorphology. From the satellite imagery, delineation
of landforms which are significant for hydro-geomorphological studies like
pediplain, alluvium, valley-fills, alluvial plains, fractured valley, buried
pediplains, and unconsolidated sediments was done. The general process flow
for geomorphological map creation, is shown in fig. 7.
Digital Elevation Model (DEM) Map
Digital elevation models are gridded elevation data representing the
height of the terrain. Several digital terrain models, such as SRTM, GDEM
and India DTM, created using satellite stereo pairs are available in public
domain. Digital elevation map of given latitude- longitude was downloaded
from ASTERGDEM of 30 m resolution. DEM of the study area was
prepared by superimposing base map on downloaded DEM. For the current
study DTM prepared by ISRO and available on Bhuvan Website was
downloaded and used. Difference in the absolute height was observed in the
DTM with respect to the contours in the SOI toposheet. A mathematical
model was written to correct the absolute height of the DTM.

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Fig 6: Showing process flow for creation of LU/LC map

Fig 7: Process flow for creation of geomorphic map

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Lithological map
The synoptic view and multi-spectral nature of satellite imagery helps in
discrimination & mapping of different lithological unit. Lithological mapping
is carried out mainly based on visual interpretation of satellite imagery
adopting deduction approach by studying image characteristics and terrain
information in conjunction with a prior knowledge of general geological
setting of the area. Within each geological unit (rock type), the groundwater
condition vary significantly, depending upon the relief, slope, depth of
weathering, nature of the weathered material, presence of structure, surface
water bodies, canals and irrigated fields etc. Various lithological units were
thus identified and demarcated on the base map on the basis of different
standard photo-interpretation element such as tone, texture, topography,
relief, shape, size, pattern and association etc. Where contrasting rock types
were occurring, the boundaries were seen very clearly on high resolution
satellite imagery with different tones and texture. In groundwater studies
texture of the rocks is vital importance because it defines the water holding
and sending capability of rocks vis-à-vis characteristics. These interpreted
details were modified with the help of ground truth data by field checks. For
preparation of lithological map overlay, information from the following
sources were collected-
• Existing geological/hydrological maps and literature.
• Interpretation of multi-spectral satellite imagery.
• Field check/surveys.
Lineament map
Geological structures definite the characteristics of various rock
formations, because the structurally weak planes act as conduits for
movement and incidence of groundwater, particularly within the hard rock
areas. A lineament could be a linear feature during an exceedingly in a very
landscape that is associate expression of an underlying earth science structure.
Lineaments representing the fault, fracture, shear zones etc. are the most
obvious structural feature interpretable on the satellite imagery. Lineaments
that could be inferred from the imagery have been marked.
GIS Analysis
GIS technology has the sophistication to go beyond mapping as simply a
data management tool. GIS is all about spatial data and tools for managing,
compiling and analyzing that data. The true power of GIS lies in analysis.
GIS analysis shows patterns, relationships and trends in the geographic data

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that help to understand how the world works, make the best choice from
among options, or plan for the future. GIS will integrate georeference
imagination as knowledge layers and link them to alternative knowledge sets
to supply geospatial representations of data. In the current study two major
GIS analysis techniques were used frequently i.e. Interpolation Technique and
Weighted Overlay Analysis.
Interpolation technique
The interpolation can be performed either in the phase of data production
or when the data are used for spatial analysis. More and more phenomena can
be measured and might be involved in the spatial analysis. Multi-dimensional
special interpolation provides strategies for transformation of values
representing landscape phenomena measured at scattered points, to tow-
dimensional and three- dimensional grids that square measure appropriate for
modelling and visual illustration. The main strength of GIS is the common
analysis of compound spatial and attributive data. These attributes are
collected by samples. Interpolation could be a procedure accustomed predicts
the values of cells at locations that lack sampled points. Among others to
mention the DEM, soil parameters, rock types, groundwater characteristics,
vegetation data etc. were used. Depending on the computation power, fast
process and automation the Inverse Distance Weight (IDW) interpolation
technique of ArcGIS 10.2 was used to interpolate various data sets. This
technique is based on the extent of similarity of cells. IDW determines cell
values using a linear-weighted combination set of sample points. This
technique is simple and best suited for the current study.
Weighted overlay
A number of factors that tell how important a variable are for a particular
calculation. The larger the weight assigned, the more that variable will
influence the outcome of the operation, called the weighted based function.
All the following steps have been done on Arc GIS. Overlay analysis tools
permit applying weights to many inputs and mixing them into one output. The
foremost common application for Overlay tools square measure quality
modelling, water potential space identification etc. Two types of overlay
analysis tools are provided in Arc-GIS 10.3 namely Weighted Overlay and
Weighted Sum. In the current study the Weighted Overlay analysis tool was
used due to its simplicity and fast processing. In the current study this
technique of GIS analysis was used for identification of potential zones for
groundwater by analyzing several input raster layers like lithology,
geomorphology, drainage density, soil, slope, land use and land cover etc.

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Criteria followed for preparation of inputs before going for Weighted Overlay
analysis were:
• All input raster layers were converted into integer. The
Reclassification tool provides an effective way to do the conversion.
• An input raster was allotted a brand-new price supported an analysis
scale. These new values were reclassifications of the first input raster
values. A restricted price was used for areas that require to be
excluded from the analysis.
• Every input formation was weighted consistent with its importance
or its percentage (%) influence. The weight may be a relative
proportion, and therefore the total of the % influence weights should
equal one hundred percent. The weights to individual themes were
assigned based on the literature survey, local importance of different
classes in the layer and in consultation of the experts having lot of
experience in this field.
• Changing the remap assignment analysis value or the share
influences will amendment the results of the weighted overlay
analysis.
The present study was attempted to apply integrated approach of Remote
Sensing and GIS for generating new thematic data layers as well existing data
for delineating potential areas of groundwater potential in the entire study
area. The different thematic layers to be taken for the determination of
potential groundwater areas were Geomorphology, Geology, LU/LC, Slope,
Soil, Drainage Density, and Lineament Density.
Overlay analyses was done using Arc-GIS Spatial Analyst Extension
tools using Weighted Overlay method. Weighted Overlay only accepts integer
raster as input, such as a raster of land use or soil types. Continuous (floating
point) raster files were reclassified as integer before they could be used. The
values of continuous raster files were grouped into ranges, such as for slope,
and density outputs. Each vary was allotted one price before it's employed in
the Weighted Overlay tool. The separate tool permits for such formation to be
reclassified.
With the right analysis scale chosen the formation was merely
superimposed to the Weighted Overlay panel. The cells within the formation
were set consistent with quality or dominant think about groundwater
potential. The output formation was weighted by importance and
superimposed to supply an output raster. Prior to integration of the data sets,
each input raster is weighted, or assigned a percentage influence, based on its

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importance in controlling the groundwater potentiality. The total influence for
all the raster was made equal to 100 per cent. Along with the raster themes,
individual class within a raster was also given the ranking based on its
influence and importance in groundwater potentiality. The cell values for each
input raster in the analysis were assigned values from the evaluation scale
based on its class. This created it attainable to perform arithmetic operations
on formation that originally command dissimilar sorts of values. Every cell
was allotted a ranking price consistent with importance or quality.
Conclusions
Using Remote Sensing, GIS and weighed overlay analysis is found
efficient to minimize the time, labour and money and thereby is a valuable
tool for spatial and quick decision making and water resource management
for any region. The incorporation of the geospatial technique with advanced
techniques and extensive field survey is recommended for the regular
monitoring of region, the required thematic map for the ground water
prospecting zones of the study area were directly generated by Remote
Sensing data using the software ERDAS image and ARC-GIS. Satellite
imageries, topographic maps and conventional data were used to prepare the
thematic layers of Lithology, Lineament Density, Drainage Density, Slope,
Soil, LU/LC and Geomorphology. Hence the various studies carried out in
several areas of Soil and water conservation management/ development in
India by integrated use of aerospace data and GIS have clearly indicated that
Remote Sensing and GIS technology is very effective tools for suggesting
action plans/management strategies for agricultural sustainability and
productivity of any region.
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