KIN 270 Michael Gaetz Ph.D.

Open Stax Chapter 12

Fundamentals of the Nervous System and Nervous Tissue
Unit 2 Part 3

*Generating an Action Potential (cont.)

• Repolarization resets electrical conditions, not ionic conditions
• After repolarization, Na+/K+ pumps (thousands of them in an axon) begin to restore the resting
membrane potential
• *Most other sources now state that K+ leakage channels are the primary mechanism behind
restoration of the resting membrane potential

Figure: Generating a resting membrane potential depends on (1) differences in K+ and Na+
concentrations inside and outside cells, and (2) differences in permeability of the plasma membrane
to these ions

12.4 Propagation of an Action Potential

• Propagation: the AP moves from the axon hillock down the entire axon length toward the axon
terminal
• Na+ influx through voltage gates in one membrane area cause local currents that cause opening of
Na+ voltage gates in adjacent membrane areas
• This leads to depolarization of that area, which in turn causes depolarization in next area
f
Propagation of an Action Potential (cont.)
• Once initiated, an AP is self-propagating
• In non-myelinated axons, each successive segment of membrane depolarizes, then
repolarizes
• Propagation in myelinated axons differs
• Since Na+ channels closer to the AP origin have ion channels that have not been reset, the AP
travels down the axon and away from the hillock

Figure: Propagation of an action potential (AP)

A&P Flix™: Propagation of an Action Potential

Coding for Stimulus Intensity

• All action potentials are alike
• The CNS can tell the difference between a weak stimulus and a strong one by frequency of APs
• Frequency is number of APs received per second
• Higher frequencies mean stronger stimulus

Figure: Relationship between stimulus strength and action potential frequency

Refractory Periods
• Refractory period: the time for which a neuron cannot trigger another AP at a specific location on
the axolemma
• During this period, voltage-gated Na+ channels are not reset so the neuron cannot respond to
another electrical stimulus
• Two phases:
• Absolute refractory period
• Time from opening of Na+ channels until resetting of the channels
• Enforces one-way transmission of nerve impulses
Refractory Periods (cont.)
• Relative refractory period
• Occurs in an area of the axolemma that has just completed the absolute refractory
period
• Na+ channels are returning to their resting state
• Some K+ channels still open
• Repolarization is occurring
• Threshold for AP generation is elevated in voltage-gated Na+ channels, therefore
only an exceptionally strong stimulus can cause an AP

Figure: Absolute and relative refractory periods in an AP

Conduction Velocity
• In neurons, APs occur only in axons (not other cell areas)
• AP conduction velocities in axons vary widely
• Rate of AP propagation depends on two factors:
• Axon diameter
• Larger-diameter fibers have less resistance to local current flow, so have faster
impulse conduction
• Degree of myelination
• Two types of conduction depending on presence or absence of myelin
• Continuous conduction
• Saltatory conduction

Conduction Velocity (cont.)

• Continuous conduction: slow conduction that occurs in nonmyelinated
axons
• Requires opening and closing of voltage-gated Na+ channels in series
• Saltatory conduction: occurs only in myelinated axons and is about
30 times faster
• Myelin insulates and prevents leakage of charge
• Voltage-gated Na+ channels are located at myelin sheath gaps known
as nodes of Ranvier
• At each node, the AP is boosted slightly due to the loss of ions via
diffusion under the myelin sheath

Figure: Action potential propagation in non-myelinated and myelinated axons

Conduction Velocity (cont.)

• Nerve fibers are classified according to diameter, degree of myelination, and speed of conduction
• Fall into three groups:
• Group A fibers
• Largest diameter
• Myelinated somatic sensory and motor fibers of skin, skeletal muscles, and joints
• Transmit at 150 m/s (~300 mph)

Conduction Velocity (cont.)

• Group B fibers
• Intermediate diameter
• Lightly myelinated fibers
 • Transmit at 15 m/s (~30 mph)
• Group C fibers
• Smallest diameter
• Unmyelinated
• Transmit at 1 m/s (~2 mph)
• B and C groups include ANS visceral motor and sensory fibers that serve visceral organs

12.5 The Synapse

• Information flows from neuron to neuron
• Neurons can be functionally connected by synapses: junctions that mediate information transfer
• From one neuron to another neuron
• Or from one neuron to an effector cell

12.5 The Synapse

• Presynaptic neuron: neuron conducting impulses toward synapse (sends information)
• Postsynaptic neuron/cell: neuron transmitting electrical signal away from synapse (receives
information)
• In the PNS the postsynaptic cell may be a neuron, muscle cell, or gland cell

Figure: Synapses

12.5 The Synapse

• Synaptic connections
• Axodendritic: between axon terminals of one neuron and dendrites of others
• Axosomatic: between axon terminals of one neuron and soma (cell body) of others
• Less common connections:
• Axoaxonal (axon to axon)
• Dendrodendritic (dendrite to dendrite)
• Somatodendritic (dendrite to soma)
• Two main types of synapses:
• Chemical synapse
• Electrical synapse

Figure: Axodendritic, axosomatic, and axoaxonal synapses

Chemical Synapses
• Most common type of synapse
• Specialized for release and reception of chemical neurotransmitters
• Typically composed of two parts
• Axon terminal of presynaptic neuron: contains synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitter
• Receptor region on postsynaptic neuron’s membrane: receives neurotransmitter
• Usually on dendrite or cell body
• Two parts separated by fluid-filled synaptic cleft
• Electrical action potential changed to chemical across synapse, then back into electrical

Chemical Synapses (cont.)

• Information transfer across chemical synapses involves 6 steps:
• AP arrives at axon terminal of presynaptic neuron
• The AP causes voltage-gated Ca2+ channels to open - Ca2+ enters the axon
terminal
• Ca2+ flows down electrochemical gradient from ECF to inside of axon
terminal
Figure: Chemical synapses transmit signals from one neuron to another using neurotransmitters

Chemical Synapses (cont.)

• Ca2+ entry causes synaptic vesicles to release neurotransmitter
• Ca2+ causes synaptotagmin protein to react with SNARE proteins that control fusion
of synaptic vesicles with axon membrane
• Fusion results in exocytosis of neurotransmitter into synaptic cleft
• The higher the impulse frequency, the more vesicles exocytose, leading to a greater
effect on the postsynaptic cell

Figure: Chemical synapses transmit signals from one neuron to another using neurotransmitters

Chemical Synapses (cont.)

• Neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to specific
receptors on chemically-gated ion channels
• Binding of neurotransmitter opens chemically-gated ion channels, creating
graded potentials
• Binding causes receptor protein to change shape, which causes ion channels to open
• Causes a graded potential in postsynaptic cell
• Can cause either excitation or inhibition

Focus Figure: Chemical synapses transmit signals from one neuron to another using
neurotransmitters

Chemical Synapses (cont.)

• Neurotransmitter effects are terminated
• As long as a neurotransmitter is bound to receptor, graded potentials will continue, so
the process needs to be regulated
• Within a few milliseconds, neurotransmitter effect is terminated in one of three ways:
• Reuptake by astrocytes or axon terminal
• Degradation by enzymes
• Diffusion away from synaptic cleft

Figure: Chemical synapses transmit signals from one neuron to another using neurotransmitters