Protecting Turbomachinery From Self-

J. S. ALFORD
Designing Engineer,
Large Jet Engine Department,
G e n e r a l Electric Company,
Excited Rotor Whirl
Cincinnati, Ohio. M e m . ASME
Aerodynamic exciting forces have caused severe rotor whirl of axial compressors and
turbines. One disturbing force investigated is due to circumferential variation of static
pressure acting on the cylindrical surface of rotor, particularly within labyrinth seals.
Another aerodynamic disturbingforce is due to eccentricity of rotor causing circumferen-
tial variation of blade-tip clearance, and a corresponding variation of local efficiency
and unbalanced torque. Seal deflectio?i criteria and torque deflection criteria are
presented as design guides for stable rotor systems. These criteria, the form of which
comes from analysis of rotor dynamics, correlate design parameters of four examples of
unstable rotor systems which exhibited whirl.

Introduction est amplitude of whirl. The frequency increased during the

W H I R L I N G has been troublesome on several different
designs of aircraft turbines. The engines which whirled had rela-
tively large flexibility of rotor, as demonstrated by low critical
speed of rotor and support system. The observed rotor whirl
occurred at more or less constant frequency independent of rotor
speed. T h e whirl frequency was identified as the fundamental
natural flexural frequency of the rotor and rotor support system,
which was from 35 to 50 percent of the actual rotation speed.
The rotor whirl was in the direction of rotation. The observed
instances of large amplitudes of whirl have usually been most
prominent during operation at a high pressure and power level.
In all or nearly all cases, stability has been achieved by increasing
the stiffness of the rotor, the rotor support, or both.
This paper considers two kinds of disturbing forces, both of
aerodynamic origin. One is due to a circumferential variation of
static pressure acting on the cylindrical surface of rotor, par-
ticularly within labyrinth seals. Another exciting force is due to
eccentricity of rotor causing circumferential variation of blade-tip
clearance. There results a corresponding variation of local ef-
ficiency and unbalanced torque.
Whirl occurs in the direction of rotation, but at the system
critical frequency, rather than at the actual speed of rotation.
For example, in a jet engine operating at an actual speed of 7700
rpm, or 128 cycles per sec (cps), the whirl frequencies varied from
51.8 to 54.7 cps, with the higher frequency occurring at the high-
Contributed b y the G a s Turbine Power Division and presented at
the Winter Annual Meeting, N e w York, N . Y., N o v e m b e r 2 9 - D e c e m -
b e r 3 , 1 9 6 4 , of T H E AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL E N G I N E E R S .
Manuscript received at A S M E Headquarters, August 5,
Paper N o . 6 4 — W A / G T P - 4 .
buildup periods and decreased during the decay periods. In a
later test the frequencies were in the range of 54.5 to 57.5 cps with
the higher frequencies occurring at the high amplitudes. In
another configuration of the same jet engine tested later when
sustained whirl could not be induced, the frequencies during the
brief, intermittent periods of detectable whirl were in the range of
62 to 65 cps at low amplitudes. The whirl speed was thus about
40 to 50 percent of rotation speed.
The amplitude of radial displacement of the 18-stage compres-
sor rotor periodically increased and decayed. Figs. 1, 2, and 3
show typical paths traversed by the center of stage 8 of the rotor
during whirl. These plots were derived from clearance measure-
ments at the 12 o'clock and 3 o'clock positions. These probes
provided measurements of the instantaneous clearance between
the casing and tips of rotor blades.
Large power inputs to the compressor rotor appear to increase
the hazard of whirl. The vibration problem was encountered
only at the full 100 percent power rating of the engine. The most
severe instances of whirl occurred when the compressor-inlet tem-
perature was about 30 deg F, or lower. Compressor airflow and
power required increase as temperature of inlet air is decreased.
The whirl problem was resolved by increasing the rigidity of
the rotor system. This was accomplished initially by introduc-
ing a more rigid turbine frame, and the final solution was to be a
more rigid turbine frame and a more rigid compressor rotor. The
initial solution was tested and proved to be effective. Rotor in-
stability was not completely eliminated, but the magnitude of the
compressor-rotor whirl was reduced to a low level. The more
1964.
rigid compressor rotor was designed, but not tested because of
program cancellation.

•Nomenclature-
Ao, Ah
= coefficients in Routh's stability equation
/„ =natural frequency,' cps 2
0 = acceleration of gravity, in. per sec
A2, A3
Z?I = Cf,S,„N2 hp = horsepower developed by rotor
B2 = CptpiNi - CnPtNt H = average blade or bucket height, in.
c = coefficient of viscous damping, lb per in. per sec k = elastic spring constant for rotor and rotor-support
Cru Cfi = flow coefficients for entrance and discharge teeth, system, lb per in.
respectively F
K = — = spring constant for aerodynamic force caused
D, = seal dia, in. x
Dp = average pitch dia of compressor or turbine by unbalanced torque, lb per in.
blades, in. F
k. =
e = base of natural logarithms = 2.71828 - " = spring constant for aerodynamic force
1
Fq — net aerodynamic force caused by unbalanced caused by circumferential variation of static
torque, lb L = pressure, lb per in.
F, = net aerodynamic force caused by circumferential axial length between initial and final teeth of seal,
variation of static pressure in seal, lb M =
in.
/ = oj/27T = frequency, cycles per sec (cps) mass of rotor
(Continued on next page)

Journal of Engineering for Power OCTOBER 1 9 65 / 333

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 30

UP

20 D I R E C T I O N OF
D I R E C T I O N OF
\ ROTOR ROTATION ROTOR ROTATION

20 30 MILS

RIGHT

u
3 0 MILS - 3 0 MILS
Fig. 1 Beginning of high vibration period Fig. 3 Near end of high vibration period

amplitude of 20 mils of a rotor weighing 720 lb, calculates to be

DIRECTION OF
\ ROTOR R O T A T I O N
START
30 MILS
RIGHT
30 MILS
Fig. 2 Typical during high vibration
Estimate of Force Causing Whirl
The rate of change of engine vibration amplitude with engine
speed is one means of estimating the overall damping of the rotor
system. Using this method, the amplification factor a t resonance
has been estimated for representative compressor rotors, and
appears to be in the range of about 6 to 20. The amplification
factor at resonance, which is denoted by the symbol Q has been
determined by the assumption that the damping is primarily
hysteretic. If the amplification factor is taken as 10, the equiva-
lent static unbalance required for a forced vibration average
209 lb. If the method of calculation, shown in Table 1, is ap-
proximately correct, the exciting force appears to be small.
Excitation arising from circumferential variation of static pres-
sure within seals has caused repeated instances of flexural vibra-
tion and fatigue of the cylindrical walls of seals. Fatigue failures
of the walls of these seals occur frequently where resonance exists.
A resonant condition exists when the angular speed of the rotating
seal is equal to the angular speed of propagation of a flexural cir-
cumferential wave train in the thin cylinder. Resonance is il-
lustrated by the Campbell diagram in Fig. 4, reproduced from
reference [ 1 ] T y p i c a l fatigue failures are shown in Figs. 5 and 6.
Nonuniformities in the seal result in unequal radial clearances
at entering and discharge teeth, and are significant when the
mean clearance is maintained as small as pi'acticable. For ex-
ample, if the misalignment is as shown in Fig. 7(a), radial motion
of the rotor toward stator causes the discharge flow area to de-
crease more rapidly than the inlet area. This causes the static
pressure within the seal to increase toward initial pressure. In
the limiting case of contact, the static pressure, p2, within the seal
is equal to inlet pressure. If the misalignment is as shown in
Fig. 7(6), reducing radial clearance causes the inlet-flow area to
decrease relatively more rapidly than exit area. In the limiting
case of contact, the static pressure, p2, within the seal is the same
as the discharge pressure.
Providing grooves on the active "land" of stator may increase
nonuniformity of flow areas between the entrance and discharge
teeth, as shown in Figs. 8(a) and 8(6). Honeycomb facing on the
active face of the stator may have a similar effect, and further
1
N u m b e r s in brackets designate References a t end of paper.

•Nomenclature-
n = number of circumferential waves; (2n) is number of s = roots of complementary differential equation of
circumferential nodes motion
Ni, AT2 = restriction factor for airflow through initial and
S = cross-sectional area for circumferential flow in an-
discharge teeth, respectively
nular passage between initial and discharge
Pi, p2, Ps = absolute static pressure a t entrance to initial tooth
teeth, and inner and outer wall, sq in.
between teeth, and of region into which seal
flow discharges, respectively, psia I = time, sec
pi, p2, p3 = mean or average values of absolute static pressures, T = total absolute temperature, deg R
psia
V = volume of labyrinth-seal annular chamber be-
p = static pressure within seal volume between initial tween initial and final teeth, and inner and outer
and discharge teeth of seal, measured as devia- walls, per unit circumference, cu in. per in. of
tions from average or mean value, p2, psi circumference
Q = dimensionless measure of freedom from damping,
and magnification factor at resonance Wa = weight of air stored in seal volume, V, lb per in. of
q = net torque force per unit of rotor displacement circumference
i'i = radius of small and large circle, respectively, in. W = weight of rotor, lb
R = gas constant in pV = WaRT
to11, w,o = instantaneous total rate of airflow through initial
rpm = rotor speed, revolutions per minute (Continued on next -page)

334 / OCTOBER 1965 Transactions of the A S M E

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 o 2400

£ 2000

1500

FIGURES ON CURVES ARE

FULL WAVES IN
1000
CIRCUMFERENCE

ROTOR SPEED RANGE

] 1

ROTOR SPEED, REVOLUTIONS PER SECOND

Fig. 4 F r e q u e n c y d i a g r a m of stator c o m p o n e n t of l a b y r i n t h a i r s e a l a t
compressor discharge

Table 1 Force e x c i t i n g w h i r l

As an Equivalent Static Unbalance, to excite

R
v » , (Rotor Weight) res ......
i-inches unbalance = r — r , — — ^ — » where
4.41 U

R o t o r w e i g h t i s in p o u n d s
Fig. 5 Initial fatigue failure of stator
D o u b l e a m p l i t u d e of v i b r a t i o n of t h e r o t o r a t t h e
f i r s t r u n n i n g c r i t i c a l s p e e d , in m i l s , ( t h o u s a n d t h s
of i n c h ) .

The amplification factor at r e s o n a n c e , and a convenient

m e a s u r e of t h e f r e e d o m of t h e s y s t e m f r o m d a m p i n g .

F o r a r o t o r weighing 720 p o u n d s , and having an a m p l i f i c a t i o n f a c t o r ,

Q Of 10, t h e u n b a l a n c e r e q u i r e d f o r a n a v e r a g e v i b r a t i o n a m p l i t u d e of 20 m i l B

^ x — 326 g r a m inches = 0.72 lb-inches

A t t h e w h i r l s p e e d of 53 c y c l e s p e r s e c o n d o r 3 2 0 0 r . p . m . , the c e n t r i f u g a l

f o r c e is

m r (D2 0.72 . 3200 .2 ...

= x {
—— isr To~x 2
*> = 209 pounds

increase circumferential variations of static pressure within the 17 * f

0
seal. / if /
Locating the seal a t a station of maximum transverse flexibility | | V
' . « u ;
increases t h e hazard of instability. In a two-bearing rotor, the
maximum deflection occurs if a given transverse force is applied a t
or near midspan. For cantilever support, maximum deflection
1
occurs if the force is applied a t the free end. _-»•
For example, a two-bearing jet engine had critical wear Fig. 6 s h i f ( in p o s i M o n of fa,.gue f*|(jre af)er add.(ion of do(jb|er
problems with the labyrinth seal a t compressor discharge, located reinforcement

-Nomenclature-
and discharge teeth, respectively, lb per sec per _ CV2(pi — P3)Nz
ill. of circumference 01
~ 2(Cf 1? j,/V, - C n p z N t )
«"ii «'« = mean or average value of airflow through initial @ = change of thermodynamic efficiency per u n i t of
and final teeth, lb per sec per in. of circum-
rotor displacement, expressed as fraction of
ference
blade height
ioi, tt'2 = airflow through initial and discharge teeth, JJ„, = average or mean thermodynamic efficiency
measured as deviations from average or mean = local thermodynamic, efficiency a t angle, 6
values, tSi and iC'2, respectively, in lb per sec per 4> = phase angle between displacement and aerody-
in. of circumference. namic force, deg
x = displacement in horizontal direction, in. t = total torque, in-lb
y = displacement in a vertical direction, in.
Tg = local torque, in-lb per radian
5 = radial clearance, in.
r,„ = average or mean torque, in-lb per radian
5, = e l e c t i v e flow area per unit circumference, sq in. per p = density, pci
unit of circumference Subscripts
8m = mean or average clearance, in. t = total
d = angle determining position of a point on wall, deg x, y = refer to quantities whose line of action is parallel to x
wn = natural frequency, radians per sec (rps) and y-axes, respectively

Journal of Engineering for Power O C T O B E R 1 9 65 / 3 3 5

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 Smi STATOR &m2 °mi STATOR °m2
vzz&zzzzzzzzdtzzi 1
SEAL CROSS-SECTION
ASSUMED 0.2"X 0.3" = 0.06 SQ.IN.
p,TA p2 T f l ^ p j p r A T p2 ATP 3

ROTOR

Smi < Sm2 TRANSVERSE VIBRATION FREQUENCY

CPS ~4J00CPS
7b

Fig. 7 Radial motion of rotor relative to stator changes static pressure

w i t h i n labyrinth seal

STATOR STATOR 0.001 . 0 0 2 .004 .006 .008 0.010

MEAN RADIAL CLEARANCE 8 M INCHES
-fl p2 fl p3 pi fl pz J1~*P 3
Fig. 9 Phase angle b e t w e e n pressure w a v e w i t h i n labyrinth seal a n d
rotor displacement

ROTOR

Fig. 8 Radial motion of rotor relative to stator changes static pressure

w i t h i n labyrinth seal
ft ROTATION

approximately midway along the span between the bearings.

The long span between bearings made the rotor relatively
flexible. This labyrinth seals against high pressure, and the
diameter was large to balance out axial forces on the rotor. A
great deal of difficulty was experienced with excessive wear and
leakage through the labyrinth seal. A third bearing was finally
added to the rotor close to the compressor discharge. This modi-
fication was successful in maintaining acceptable seal wear and
low leakage.
An example of whirl of turbine rotor occurred on a three-bearing
jet engine, where the No. 3 bearing was supported a t the end of a
thin cylindrical shell cantilevered from the frame a t compressor
discharge. A large-diameter labyrinth sealed against the pressure
drop between the two turbine stages. Net transverse forces
arising from circumferential variation of pressure within the
labyrinth seal, and also unbalanced torque forces on buckets, were
thus applied near the end of a cantilever beam support, a position
causing maximum moment and radial deflection a t the turbine.
The whirl was eliminated by increasing the radial rigidity of the
No. 3 turbine-bearing support.
Phase Relation of Force Caused by Unbalanced Pressure
Within Seal
The static pressure within the seal cavity is proportional to the
amount of air in it. Let the rotor vibrate about some average
position. In this average position the outflow through the exit
tooth is equal to the inflow through initial tooth, assuming no
circumferential flow within the seal. Consider the labyrinth-seal
configuration, as in Fig. 7(a), where radial motion causes a much
larger relative change in flow area at discharge tooth than at inlet
tooth. While the rotor clearance is greater than the average
position, the outflow is greater than the inflow. Consider the
rotor in the neutral or average position in process of moving away
from stator over that part of circumference, shown in Fig. 7(a).
During the next two quarter-cycles-of vibration, the outflow ex-
ceeds the inflow and the static pressure within the seal diminishes.
After the two quarter-cycles, when the rotor is in the neutral
position but moving toward the stator, the pressure is at a mini-
mum. In the same manner it can be shown that, when the rotor
is in the middle of its motion away from stator, the pressure is at a
maximum. Thus the pressure does work on the vibration.
A more complete analysis of the flow through seal shows the
NET TRANSVERSE FORCE Fs
DUE TO CIRCUMFERENTIAL
VARIATION OF PRESSURE
WITHIN LABYRINTH SEAL
Fs FOR 6 m i > S m 2
DIRECTION OF
WHIRL
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
Fs FOR 6 m i < Sm2
DAMPING FORCE
ELASTIC RESTORING FORCE
Fig. 10 Phase relation of force caused by circumferential v a r i a t i o n of
pressure in seal
force arising from circumferential variation of static pressure
within the seal to lag the rotor displacement by an angle, <fi, which
varies from zero to 90 deg. The phase angle, 0, is primarily a
function of mean seal clearance and vibration frequency. These
relationships are shown in Fig. 9 for the case of the seal with
minimum area at exit. Calculations for a reiiresentative seal are
given in Table 2.
The net force, F„, can be resolved into a component in phase
with displacement, and another perpendicular to displacement.
This latter component, which is equal and opposite to damping
force, tends to excite whirl in the same direction as rotation. The
component of unbalanced force parallel with displacement acts in
phase with elastic spring force, and thus increases the sj^stem
natural frequency. Recall the experimental observation t h a t the
whirl frequency increased during the amplitude buildup period,
and decreased during the decay period.
The phase relationship of the forces acting on the rotor is shown
in Fig. 10. To avoid considering the effect of the weight of the
rotor, the axis is assumed to be vertical. It is assumed that the
shaft is supported rigidly in two bearings. The shaft is assumed
to carry one disk with a labyrinth seal. The mass of the shaft is
neglected in comparison with t h a t of the disk and seal.
If the minimum flow area moves from discharge tooth to initial
tooth, as in Fig. 7(b), the phase relationship of exciting force is

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 Table 2 Calculation of phase angle between rotor displacement and resulting pressure unbalance
1. 88 V ul
TAN 0 =
N R i F
F2 m

(1) Mean Radial Clearance 6 Inch Assumed 0. 002 0.010 0. 002 0.010
m
>
(2) Vibration Frequency f cyc/sec Assumed 50 100

(3) Circular Frequency 0} r a d / s e c 2tt (2) 314- 628-

(4) Teeth height h Inch Dwg. D a t a 0.3.

(5) Axial Pitch L Inch Dwg. D a t a 0.2-

2
(6) Volume within seal V Inch (4)x(5) 0, 0 6 -

(7) Exit F l o w C o e f f i c i e n t C Assumed 0.7—

FZ
(8) P r e s s u r e ratio P Assumed 1. 8 o r g r e a t e r .
2/P3
(9) R e s t r i c t i o n factor for
f i n a l tooth
Ref (9) at (8) 1.0-
in-lb Thermodynamic 640_
(10) Gas constant R
lb - R p r o p e r t y of a i r

(11) Gas temperature T ° F abs. 1060-

(12) y Gas t e m p e r a t u r e T V°F abs

- 32. 5—
1 . 8 8 (3) (6)
(13) T a n g e n t of P h a s e Angle tan 1. 21 0. 243 2.43 0.486
<1)(7)(9)(10)(12)

(14) P h a s e Angle deg. a r c t a n (13) 50°30' 13°40' 67°30' 25°50'

changed by 180 deg. Over t h a t portion of arc where radial
clearance is greater than average, the inflow is greater than the
average outflow. Consider the rotor in the average position in the
act of increasing local clearance. During the next two quarter-
cycles of vibration, the inflow is greater than the average outflow,
and the pressure in the volume, V, increases. Thus, when the
rotor is in the average position moving radially toward the stator,
the pressure is at a maximum. In this manner it can be shown
that when the rotor is in the middle of its radially outward mo-
tion, the pressure is at a minimum. Thus the pressure removes
energy from vibration and the seal configuration is stable.
maximum pressure rise produced by a compressor stage increases
as the tip clearance is decreased. There is a variation of efficiency
and unbalanced torque. Experimental data on turbines indicate
t h a t efficiency is approximately a linear function of tip clearance.
If the clearance increases by 1 percent of blade radial height, the
efficiency decreases by about 1 percent. Eccentricity of rotor,
relative to Btator, thus results in a net unbalanced force on the
rotor. The phase relationship of forces on the rotor is shown in
Fig. 12. The line of action of the unbalanced force is perpendicu-
lar to the direction of rotor displacement relative to line of bearing
centers. The direction of the force is to cause the turbine rotor to
whirl in the direction of rotation.

Seal-Deflection Criteria
Analysis of the flow through seals shows that the circumferen-
tial variation of static pressure in labyrinth seals is directly pro-
portional to the radial deflection. The circumferential variation of
static pressure acting upon the projected area of the seal gives a
net radial force, F,. The ratio of the radial force to the radial de-
flection which controls it is the seal aerodynamic spring constant
kt. Analysis given in the Appendix shows the aerodynamic spring
constant, k„ to be a function of
Pressure drop across seal.
Diameter of seal.
Axial length between initial and final teeth.
Volume within seal.
Ratio of clearances at entrance and exit teeth.
Average or mean clearance at exit tooth.
Vibration frequency.
The hazard of whirl is directly proportional to the aerodynamic
spring constant, k„ and inversely proportional to the elastic spring
constant, k, determined when both radial force and deflection are
at seal. The seal-deflection criterion is related to the ratio of Ic,
to k. Table 3 lists the criteria for rotors having unacceptable
instability, such as excessive wear, roughness, or whirl. Stable
configurations are also listed for comparison. Procedure is given
for calculating the criteria. A factor to account for the position
of load along span is shown in Fig. 11.
Another aerodynamic disturbing force is due to eccentricity of
rotor causing circumferential variation of tip clearance. The
Phase Relation of Unbalanced Torque Force
The unbalanced torque force is approximately 90 deg ahead of
the displacement, and this causes the turbine to whirl in the
direction of rotation. The case for the multistage axial compres-
sor requires a brief explanation. The compressor has a uniform
pressure over the inlet face, and it also discharges into a region of
uniform static pressure. The output required of the compressor
is that the pressure rise must be the same for every portion of the
circumference. During rotor whirl the radial tip clearance of
blades varies circumferentially, and there is a corresponding
variation in efficiency. T h a t portion of the circumference having
large tip clearances must produce as large a pressure rise as that
portion of the annulus having small radial clearance. Large radial
clearances cause low efficiency which in turn requires increased
work input in the form of larger blade forces to produce the re-
quired static-pressure rise. As in the case of the eccentric tur-
bine, the net force tends to cause the rotor to whirl in the direction
of rotation.
Torque-Deflection Criteria
Investigations of whirl vibration were made about 1948 on
two noncondensing steam turbines having flexible rotors. The vi-
brations could not be corrected by balancing. Modifications to the
steam path were made which succeeded in largely eliminating the
roughness. The concept of disturbing aerodynamic force due to
unbalanced torques was advanced to explain whirl on these two

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 Table 3 Criteria for w h i r l excited by circumferential v a r i a t i o n of static pressure in labyrinth seal

2-Bearing 3-Bearing 3-Bearing 3-Brg. Jet Eng

for #3 B r g .
(2) Seal Location ^-Compressor Discharged* B e t w e e n Tu:_*b.
Stages
Deflection 1. 2 1. 6 5 0. 68
(3) Static Deflection A mils 1.61
w analysis

(4) Rotor Weight W lbs 786 600 731 110

(5) Seal P r e s s u r e Drop (Pl-P3) p. s. i cycle or 73.7 260 103 180

test
(6) Seal D i a m e t e r D inch Dwgs 24 23.8 23.4 16.1
s

(7) Seal Length L inch Dwgs 2.0 0 . 60 0 . 60 0.4

Deflection
(8) Concentrated Load Factor c 1.45 1.45 1.45 1.0
i analysis

(9) Seal Location, % of S p a n Dwgs 50 6 15 100

(10) F a c t o r f o r P o s i t i o n of L o a d C
F i g 11 a t (9) 1.0 0.05 0. 28 1.0
2

(11) Mean Pitch Diameter D inch Dwgs 25. 5 25.4 32.8 19.8
P
(12) Seal Stability Criteria m i l s p e r "•(3X5X^X7X8X10) 0.240 0.0234 0.0131 0.067
A
ss / D op
Inch of 4 (4)- (11)
pitch dia.

(13) Remarks (a) (b)

(a) E x h i b i t e d e x c e s s i v e w e a r of s e a l ; f i x w a s a t h i r d b e a r i n g n e a r c o m p r e s s o r disj c h a r g e

(b) S e v e r e w h i r l e n c o u n t e r e d a t t h i s p a r t p o w e r c o n d i t i o n . R o t o r a l s o h a d a T o r q u e D e f l e c t i o n C r i t e r i a of
6 / D = 2 . 0 4 m i l s p e r i n c h of P i t c h D i a m e t e r . Doubling s t i f f n e s s eliminated whirl; both c r i t e r i a
r?du<?ed b y o n e - h a l f .

FLEXURAL RIGIDITY
1
E I ASSUMED UNIFORM
ENTIRE LENGTH i

S Table 4 Torque deflection criteria

* ^
„ „ A 126,400 v( A ) (Hp)
Torque Deflection = q^ = w _ _
Average Pitch Diameter D , n 2
. (RPM)
P
o 5

A^ = Torque Deflection, m i l s .

A = Maximum single span dead weight (lg) deflection

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 I.I 1.2 1.3 of r o t o r relative to casing, mils
RATIO a / L • Hp = Maximum h o r s e p o w e r t r a n s m i t t e d
Fig. 11 Deflection factor for position of l o a d W = Rotor weight, in pounds

D = Average pitch d i a m e t e r of all s t a g e s in c o m p r e s s o r

** or t u r b i n e , inches
CLEARANCE (RPM) = Revolutions per minute

I. ROTORS EXHIBITING UNACCEPTABLE WHIRL Ag/Dp

18 Stage Axial C o m p r e s s o r of Jet Engii 7.17
ARROWS SHOW Sea Level Static Operation
RELATIVE FORCES
FOR TURBINE Two-Stage Turbine of Jet Engine, P a r t Powe 2.04 (a)
SLS, Cantilever Support #3 Bearing

18 Stage Steam Turbine "A" 5. 32

18 Stage Steam Turbine " B " 3.92

II. OCCASIONAL ROUGHNESS, BUT OPERATIONAL

17 Stage Axial C o m p r e s s o r of Jet Engine 3.15

ECCENTRICITY Sea Level Static Operation

III. OPERATION F R E E OF S E L F - E X C I T E D WHIRL

F UNBALANCED TORQUE FORCE
Small Turbojet Gas G e n e r a t o r , Sea Level Static 1.43
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
Small Turboprop Gas Generator 0.84
Sea Level Static, Power Turbine 0. 59
DAMPING FORCE

Exhibited whirl at part power. Also had appreciaKe excitation

Fig. 12 Phase relation of u n b a l a n c e d torque force a n d rotor eccentricity f r o m s e a l . See Table 3 .

338 / OCTOBER 1965 Transactions of the AS ME

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 steam turbines. P. H. Knowlton has furnished leadership in the
Turbine Division of the General Electric Company, and his con-
tributions are gratefully acknowledged. Valuable investigations
have also been made in the Laboratories by A. H. Fiske, D.
McClurkin, R. O. Fehr, and F. P. Bundy. In the analysis of the
phenomenon, radial deflection of the rotor was calculated for a
potential force equal to the torque divided by the average pitch-
line radius. The calculated radial deflection due to this poten-
tial force was used as the Torque Deflection Criteria. Values of
this criterion for rotor exhibiting whirl are given in Table 4, to-
gether with equation for calculating the criterion. In Table 4,
the torque deflection has been divided by the mean diameter, to
take account of differences in physical sizes of rotors when com-
paring numbers.
If the estimate of rotor system damping and magnification fac-
tors are substantially correct, the force required to cause forced
vibration of turbines calculates about two to four times as large
as the unbalanced torque force. Compressors having stages
operating near tip stall can cause higher unbalanced torque forces,
probably large enough in itself to cause rotor whirl.
Newkirk and Kimball early appreciated the possibility of rotor
whirl caused by internal hysteresis. These authors and others
[2-5] have shown how hysteretic damping due to shaft cramping
tends to cause rotor whirl, provided the rotor speed is above
the shaft critical. The direction of the whirling agrees with the
direction of rotation. Thus the disturbing force arising from the
cramping because of pressed fits of sleeves and collars on the shaft
tends to cause whirl in the same direction as unbalanced seal
pressure, for the case, 5mi > 5,„2, and also unbalanced torques.
When all three disturbing effects are present, the hazard of whirl
is increased.
In addition to rotary friction, static friction forces are also
present, usually in the rotor support system. These static forces
oppose changes in displacement of the rotor center relative to
fixed axes. The effect of static friction is beneficial as regards
limiting amplitudes and displacements and promoting stability.
Ehrich's excellent analysis [5] shows that stability or instability
depends upon the relative magnitude of static and rotary friction
and the speed excess over the critical.
Damper bearings have been successfully used to introduce
static damping, and help protect against shaft whip and whirl.
For example, the roller bearing located approximately midway
along a flexible shaft is restrained from radial motion by Coulomb
friction forces. Coil springs press a smooth flange on the bearing
housing against a mating flange for supporting the damper bear-
ing. The coil springs are adjusted so as to permit radial sliding
under high transient loads such as occur, for example, when the
engine is accelerating or decelerating, and also during flight
operation. The damper bearing effectively prevents buildup of
displacement of the relatively long and flexible turbine shaft.
During normal engine operation, there is no relative motion of the
sliding friction surfaces. Excellent reliability has been demon-
strated by this damper bearing in thousands of jet engines over
many years' operation. However, there are no data on wear rates
and assurance of long-life reliability of relative sliding motion
occurred during all or nearly all normal engine operation.
Conclusions
1 For a given amplification factor of the system, the onset of
whirl will begin at a torque level proportional to the stiffness of
rotor and rotor support.
2 Safe limit of the seal stability criteria is inadequately
established. Available data indicate —0.10 mil per in. of pitch
diameter represents a significant disturbing force.
3 For operation a t sea-level conditions, a torque deflection not
exceeding 3.0 mils per in. of pitch diameter is recommended as a
condition of design.
4 High "torque deflectors" have a strong tendency to whirl if
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the seal stability criteria are also relatively high. Unfortunately,
the actual values of the respective criteria cannot be added to-
gether. Rather, add ratios of values to limits suggested in the
foregoing.
5 Providing adequate stiffness of rotor, rotor support, or both,
has been effective in eliminating whirl in every attempt.
6 Labyrinth seals having the minimum flow area a t discharge
tooth create an exciting force t h a t tends to cause whirl in the same
direction as rotation.
7 Labyrinth seals having the minimum flow area a t the en-
trance tooth are stable.
8 Friction relative to fixed axes is effectively provided by
damper hearings.
Acknowledgments
The author gratefully acknowledges the valuable assistance
given by Messrs. M. Bobo, J. R. Geyer, F. A. Schweiger, and other
associates, in the preparation of different parts of this presenta-
tion.
References
1 J. S. Alford, "Protection of Labyrinth Seals From Flexural
V i b r a t i o n , " J O U R N A L OP E N G I N E E R I N G FOR P O W E R , T R A N S . ASME,
Series A, vol. 86, 1964, pp. 141-148.
2 J. C. H o u b o l t and W. H . Heed, "Propeller-Nacelle Whirl
Flutter," Journal of Aerospace Sciences, March, 1962.
3 B. L. Newkirk, "Shaft Whipping," General Electric Review,
vol. 27, 1924, pp. 169-178.
4 A. L. Kimball, Jr., "Internal Friction Theory of S h a f t Whirl-
ing," General Electric Review, vol. 27, 1924, pp. 244-251.
5 F . F . Ehrich, "Shaft Whirl Induced b y Rotor Internal D a m p -
ing," Journal of Applied Mechanics, vol. 31, TRANS. A S M E , vol. 86,
Series E, 1964, pp. 2 7 9 - 2 8 2 .
6 A. R. Collar, "Aeroelasticity—Retrospect and Prospect,"
Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society, January, 1959.
7 J. P. D e n Hartog, Mechanical Vibrations, McGraw-Hill B o o k
C o m p a n y , Inc., N e w York, N . Y . , fourth edition, pp. 2 9 5 - 2 9 6 .
8 D . E. D o w n h a m , "Theory of S h a f t Whirling," The Engineer,
issues of October 11, October 18, October 25, N o v e m b e r 1, and
November 8,1957.
9 C. W . Smith, "Calculation of F l o w of Air and D i a t o m i c Gases,"
Journal of Aeronautical Sciences, vol. 13, no. 6, June, 1946.
10 S. Timoshenko, Vibration Problems in Engineering, D . Van
Nostrand C o m p a n y , Inc., N e w York, N . Y . , second edition, pp. 2 2 2 -
229, or third edition, pp. 2 2 7 - 2 3 2 .
APPENDIX
Self-Excited Rotor Vibration Because of Circumferential
Variation of Static Pressure in Labyrinth Seals
Assumptions
1 Rotor is assumed to have two radial teeth separated by axial
length, L.
2 The pressure a t entrance to seal is constant.
3 The seal flow discharges into a region of constant pressure.
4 Circumferential flow within seal has a negligible effect on
pressure within seal; t h a t is, the flow model has flow in the axial
direction.
0 Neglect effect of radial motion of rotor in changing volume
of air within labyrinth seal.
6 Air is assumed to be a perfect gas.
7 Flow through labyrinth seal is adiabatic, and thus the total
temperature is constant.
8 Exciting force due to circumferential variation of static
pressure is directly proportional to eccentricity of rotor relative to
stator.
9 Viscous damping is in phase with velocity, and the magni-
tude proportional to velocity.
10 Elastic forces are linear functions of displacements.
Inflow Through Entrance Tooth
Inlet flow = average or mean flow + oscillating flow.
The inlet pressure is assumed stead}'; hence, the total flow is
OCTOBER 1 9 65 / 339
 P1N1 = cf^NI r _ s ^ n
Wn = Wi + Wi = 8„ (1) 2
(He)
1.882V' ~ 1.887V. L SmJ

= C f i ( 5 m i — x) CfiOmtNt
Bx = (12)
Therefore l-ssr1/1

PiNi The equation of states for gases is

W,i = Cn(8mi — x) (2)
1.887',' A PiV = WaRT (13)
PlNl
?lNlX and combining with equation (5) yields
= n
^F]0am\ ,, — n
OFf iI (3)
' 1.88ri 1 / ! 1.88 Ti •A
, . WaRT
{pi + V) = -
Outflow Through Exit Tooth
Discharge flow = average or mean flow + oscillating flow
Differentiating with respect to time, considering constant the
w,2 = w2 + w2 (4) volume, V, the temperature, T, and mean pressure, pi, yields

The static pressure is composed of a mean or average value, pi, dp RTdWa RT

plus an oscillating component, p: it = = ( 1 4 )

pi = pi + V (5) Combining equations (10) and (14) gives after transposing

Consider flow through unit circumferential length of discharge dp BJiT BiRT
tooth, at the angular position of largest change in clearance:
Ni
w,2 = CF2 (8mt - x)(pi + p) - ggy 1/, (6) Assume rotor motion is simple harmonic, and can be written
x = x0 sin cot (16)
Ni
= CFi(8,„2pi + Sm2p - Xpi - Xp) - ,/a (7) Substitute equation (16) into equation (15) to get
dp RT _ RT
Hence, outflow in excess of mean is, neglecting the last term within — + B, — p + B2 — zo sin cot = 0 (17)
parantheses because it is the product of the two second-order at V V
terms, both of which are zero at the mean position,
Let us assume that the solution is a sine wave with the forced
Ni frequency,
Wi = CFi (8„ip - xpi) - 88y2,A (8)
p = pa sin (wi — cf>) (18)
Since average inflow, Vh, is equal to average outflow, w2 where p0 and <f> are as yet unknown. Expanding equation (18)
yields
n PINlx
Wi 1 — Wii = Wi — Wi = — CFI
1.88 7\ 'A p = po (sin wi cos — cos ait sin (j>) (19)

Ni dp
~ CFi(8miP - XPi) ,A (9) = 7>oCO (cos cot cos (f> + sin wi sin <j>) = poW cos (wi —
l

(20)
Since Ti = T2 = T
Substitute equations (19) and (20) into equation (17) to get
1
Wi - Wi = - ggyi/, [-(CfipiAT, - CF2piN2)x - CFi8mipNi] RT
po«(cos wi cos 0 + sin ut sin <j>) + B, — po (sin coI cos 4>
= - B i X - Bip (10)
RT
— cos cot sin <j>) + Bi — xo sin wi = 0 (21)
where

Bi = r ^ r 7 j (CfxPINX - CpiPiNi) (11) For equation (21) to be valid for all values of time, t, the co-
efficients of sin ut-term must vanish; also the coefficients of cos
cot. That is,
But, from equation (11)
g W1 Wj RT RT
(11a) poco sin <j> + Bt — p0 cos cf> + B2 — x-o = 0 (22)
8 ml 8mi

Wi RT
("l — — f — (116) Poco cos 4> — Bi — p0 s i n <f> = 0 (23)
Sml L wi \ 5 m 2 / J
Since Divide equation (23) by p0 cos cf>, and rearrange to get
C Fl8mlplNi sin 4> , Vco 1.887co
WI = W = tan <p = (24)
>= 1.882"A cos cf> BxRT CnSmiNiRVT

340 / OCTOBER 1965 Transactions of the AS ME

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 Obtain the value of sin <j> and cos <f> T h e solution of equation (33) is found by assuming
from the ratio of sides of right triangle,
and substitute into equation (22) to x = .Tie" (34)
obtain Substituting equation (34) into equation (33) gives

s 3 + Ats2 + + A0 = 0 (35)
-•r„J3 2 —
(f«) As discussed in reference [7], R o u t h in 1877 gave rules b y which
Po =

[••(^)T'
the stability or instability can be determined from an inspection
(25) of the coefficients of equation (35). T h e complete criterion for
stability of the cubic equation (35) is t h a t all coefficients, A, are
This result indicates t h a t the amplitude of pressure oscillation is positive, and t h a t
directly proportional to amplitude of rotor displacement.
A,A? > (36)
Substitute equation (11c) into equation (25) and then the re-
sult into equation (18) to get, after rearranging T h e coefficient, Ai, is a measure of the damping, A, is the square of
the natural frequency, and A0 determines the intensity of back-
CfiPIN iRT'^xo feeding of energy. For the coefficient, Ao, to be positive requires
r 1 sin (cot - <f>) (26)
that

KB, > — D,LB2,

If o,„i > S,„2, the amplitude is positive and in phase with sin-
(a>1 — <f>). However, if 5 m l < 5„,2, the coefficient of equation (26)
is negative, which means t h a t the pressure is in antiphase (180-deg
out of phase) with sin (col — <j>).
k>~~D,Lf (37)
Equation of Motion 2 ' S,

The equation of motion of the rotor in the ^-direction is

,, d-x dx
A I + C + k X + F
(27)
^ d l ' = °
Making use of equations (11) and (11c) gives
where Fs is the net force owing to circumferential variation of
static pressure within the labyrinth seal. I N _ M
The variable p a r t of the clearance is a sinusoidal function of the
2 h
CF2Sm2N• L 5 m2 J
rotor displacement x assumed small: Practical application of the relation expressed by equation (38) is
6 = 8,„ + x cos 6 (28) by observing t h a t the quantity in parentheses is approximately
proportional to the overall pressure drop across the seal, pl — p3.
T h e variable p a r t of static pressure within the seal is assumed T h a t is to say
proportional to the variable p a r t of the seal clearance; t h a t is, the
angular position having the largest clearance change has the Cpip, — C'r-2p'\
greatest pressure change: ^ L , (PI - P.) (39)
Cn 2a
= P r n a x COS 0 (29)
where pi — p3 is the overall static pressure drop across seal, and a
The net force on the rotor in the horizontal or .r-direction is
is a dimensionless constant. Combining equations (38) and (39)
gives
prL cos 6 dd (30)
f Jo
, > £ DsL t ^ ) (40)
Combining equations (29) and (30) gives 4 ao,„2

f2ir
Fx = rLpmax cos 2
— D s L(p! - p3)
a8 >
(41)
= T p m = — pmus D,L (31) m 2

Combining equations (27) and (31) and dropping subscript with The condition t h a t > A0 yields
the understanding t h a t p is the maximum amplitude of deviation c_ B,RT k\/B1RT c \ RT ( tt „\
n T
+ + >
of static pressure from the average, p2l gives
M V m)\V~ M ) M V (kB> - 2 D>LB>)
M -- 2 + c - + kx = - - D,Lp (32) (42)
dl dt 2 '
Owing to circumferential variation of static pressure, circum-
T h e variable p can be eliminated between equations (15) and (32) ferential flow occurs through the annular chamber defined by
by differentiating equation (32) and then substituting into (15) boundaries of labyrinth seal. If the cross-sectional flow area, S, is
to get large relative to diameter, the seal internal volume, V, acts more
or less as a plenum chamber, and reduces differentials of static
<l*x (BiRT c_ \ c£x /cB,RT _k\ dx pressure within the seal annulus. On the other hand, small flow
dtz +
\ V +
M ) dl2 +
\ MV +
M/ dt areas, S, relative to diameter promote substantial circumferential
variations of static pressure owing to rotor displacements, t h a t is,
the actual net force is a function of D2/S. For a given rotor
+
Wv - I D
' L B
) * - 0 ( 3 3 ) displacement, the leakage flow in excess of mean into t h a t half-

Journal of Engineering for Power OCTOBER 1 9 65 / 341

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 circumference where clearance is greater than mean, is directly _ hp X 33,000 X 12
proportional to diameter. In addition, the length of p a t h and 27rrpm
hence resistance to circumferential flow from high-pressure region
to low-pressure region is also proportional to diameter. Hence
the diameter appears to the second power. = 03,000 in-lb
(rpm)

Therefore
Circumferential Variation of Torque Force Due to Rotor
63,000 (hp)ff
Displacement <1 = (52)
D„ X H X ( r p m )
Assuming rotor and stator to be perfect circles, rotor displace-
ment x will result in a circumferential variation of blade-tip Rotation is assumed counterclockwise. A positive displacement
clearance. The local clearance a t position 6 is along the .e-axis causes a positive force in the (/-direction. A
positive vertical displacement along the ?/-axis causes a negative
8 = Sm + x cos I (43) force in the ^-direction. Hence, the equations of the motion of
the. rotor are
Thermodynamic stage efficiency is a function of tip clearance, the
valuation being proportional to ratio of eccentricity to blade or d\ x dx
bucket height. The local efficiency is M c k x (53)
dl,7,2 + T. +
at ' = = ~gy

= V,n
(( 1 + fa~ cos 6 J
„\ (44) d2t/ dy „
(54)

where rim is the average or mean efficiency corresponding to the Solve equation (53) for y and form the following derivatives with
average or mean clearance, S,n. For turbines, /3 has a value of
respect to time to get
about 1.0 to 1.5. For compressors with adequate stall margin, /3
also has similar values. Multistage axial compressors with some M d2x c dx kx
stages close to stall may have substantially higher values. This y = (55)
q dt2 q dt 1
results from the effect of tip clearance on stall pressure ratio.
For a turbine with constant speed and constant entrance and kM d2x ck dx k2x
exit conditions, the o u t p u t torque is directly proportional to the ky = (56)
q dl'- q dt 1
local efficiency. T h e local torque per radian, Tg, is then related
to the average or mean torque, r,„, b) r the relation dy cM d3x c2 d2x ck dx
c — - - 3
(57)
dl q dt q dl2 q dl
T0 (45)
M2 d\x cM d'x kM d2:c
2 4 3
(58)
T h e component of force taken in the direction perpendicular to the dt q dl q dl q dt2
instantaneous displacement, x, is per radian Substitute equations (56), (57), and (58) into (54), multiply by
—q/M2, and rearrange to get
AF u = - cos i (46)
rftr 2c d?x /2k -x
<Pi 2 ck dx
dl' M dl1 +
Vii7 +
m ) dt2
+
JT2 It
r,„ . fa \
= — I 1 + — cos t) 1 COS I (47)
r \ H /
+ M2 M2
x = 0 (59)

The net force on the rotor perpendicular to the instantaneous

displacement is For a solution assume

x = Xi e'1 (60)
1 + 008 d C S 6dd
r f ( ff ) ° Substitute equation (60) into (59) to yield,

L s 1 + yl3s3 + .42S2 + A,s + A0 = 0 (61)

F 1/ = (4S)
Hr
As described in reference [7], Routh's rules exist by which an in-
spection of the coefficients of the equation determine whether the
Total torque motion is stable or unstable. The complete criterion for stability
/*2jr /»2 of the quartic equation (61) is t h a t all coefficients are positive, and
redd = r,„ ( 1 + ^ cos 8 )d0 that
Jo Jo
> Ar + A32A0 (62)
= 2irr„ (49)
_ 4 ( 2 k
Combining equations (48) and (49) gives AiA2A (63)
M3 \ inl r/ +
M2
rfix rfix 4 c2k2
v = = = qX (50) ^ i 2
= (64)
2Hr il/1

where
(65)
r§_ = JF 2
9 = (51)
DM
4c2 / k2 Q2\
AoAs2 = 2 2 + (66)
The total torque is related to hp and engine rpm by M \M M2)

342 / OCTOBER 1965 Transactions of the A S M E

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 Substituting equations (63), (64), aud (66) into equation (62)
gives

4c'k ( 2k c 4c'k' 4c ( k'

2 ) 2
-Jl{3 -+
111 -101 2 >-+-
ill4 111' -+ -
111' 111'
q2 )

C.
- >
q_'
01' C>
(111) II,
q -k (67)
M k

c > !l
W"

Combining equations (52) and (67) show that for stability

c> 63,000(hp)(3 ( -111) If, (68)

Dp ·H.(rpm) k

The Q-factor of the system, which is a convenient measure of

the freedom from clumping, is given by

Po
Q = (xo) resonunce = CWn = ~
(69)
(x~) static po CWn

Ito

and WI! = ( k M
)1/'
Therefore
Q = ~ (~) I/' = (kM)I j, (70)
c k c

Combining equations (68) and (70) gives

(kilJ)I /' > 63,000(hp){3 (¥)I/J
Q DpH(rpm) '"

or
k > 63,OOO(hp){3Q (71)
DpH(rpm)

Journal of Engineering for Power OCT 0 B E R 1 9 65 / 343

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