CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A literature review is one of the main parts of this research. It includes evaluating and

looking over what researchers had written that is connected to the topic that is being studied. The

research reviewed here include closely related investigations and studies on various proportions

of the research problem that was selected by the researchers.

Related Studies

The review was divided into broad categories that matched to the study’s main issues,

including: (1) Religion as the Core Moral Institution (2) The Rise of Religion in Dumalneg (3)

Unveiling the Culture of Isneg (4) Christianity in the Philippines (5) Reorganized Culture of the

Country.

Religion as the Core Moral Institution

Religion is a social institution because it includes beliefs and practices that serve the

needs of society. Religion is also an example of a cultural universal because it is found in all

societies in one form or another (Marx, 1915). Religion is a social institution which has the

primary functions to dispense and improve morality in the society. It influences various aspects

of individuals' lives, shaping their values, behaviors, and societal structures. This report aims to

elucidate the significance of religion as a moral institution, its impact on communities, and the

challenges and opportunities it presents in the society.

The Christianity holds him to be all of the above and even more. Some Christians believe

that Jesus is God the Second Person of the Holy Trinity and they also believe that he is the Son
of God. Some take this title to mean the Divine Son of God; they have also a book that

showcasing their faith and truthfulness inside the Old Testament and New Testament. Islam holds

him to be God’s Messiah, Prophet, and Righteous Servant. The Quran states that several prior

writings constitute holy books given by God to the prophets and messengers amongst the

Children of Israel, in the same way the Quran was revealed to Muhammad. These both religions

belief that Jesus was one of the greatest persons ever to have walked the earth. Muslims and

Christians believe that Jesus entered the world in a miraculous manner; that he worked mighty

deeds on earth; that his exit was mysterious; and that his second coming will be spectacular.

In short, Muslims and Christians share a common reverence for Jesus, and this can serve

as a starting-point for dialogue leading to greater levels of mutual understanding, tolerance, and

respect (Ally, 2023).

The Islam denies the crucifixion (Jesus’s atoning death on the cross). Instead of declaring

that Jesus either didn’t actually die on the cross (though he may have been impaled) or that

someone else took Jesus’s place on the cross. But either way, Islam is not a redemptive religion.

Because the Christians believe that Jesus was being crucified on the cross to save the people

from their sins. Also, the Islam denies the Trinity (i.e., tri-unity: One God in three persons).

Muslims instead affirm a form of unitarianism where Allah is a single, solitary being (tawhid)

with no partners, equals, rivals, or companions. Allah is not begotten nor does he beget;

therefore, he has no son (Samples, 2023).

Christianity and Islam are two of the most widely practiced religions around the world.

However, in the Philippines, Christianity holds the predominant religion with at least 84% of the

population identifying as Christian, as indicated by the 2020 census. Christianity arrived first

with the Spanish colonization in the 16th century, and Islam came later through traders and
missionaries. Christianity is founded on the belief of the Trinity, which consists of the Father,

Son, and Holy Spirit. The roots of Christianity can be traced back to Jesus Christ, who is

believed by Christians to be the Son of God and the Messiah.

Islam has historically been prevalent in the southern part of the Philippines, particularly

in the regions of Mindanao, Sulu, and Palawan. Cities like Cotabato, Marawi, and Zamboanga

have most Muslim populations. Islam is centered in the concept of monotheism, which they

consider Allah is the only one God.

Islam was founded by prophet Muhammad, who is believed by Muslims as the final

messenger sent of God. Christianity is focused on Bible, which consists two separate parts, The

Old Testament and the New Testament. Islam, on the other hand, is centered in the Quran, which

is believed by Muslims to be the literal word of God, as revealed to Muhammad, also with

Hadith, which contains teachings and practices of the prophet.

For Christians, they believe that Jesus is a Son of God, who died for the sins of humanity

and was resurrected to give salvation to people who believe in him. On the contrary, in Islam,

Jesus (Isa) is considered only as a prophet, but not divine. Nevertheless, he is held as one of the

highest prophets in Islam. Salvation in Christianity can be attained by faith in Jesus Christ and

his sacrificial death on the cross. On the other side, in Islam, salvation is attained through having

faith in Allah and by living a righteous and holy life in accordance with the teachings of Islam.

Christians participate in sacraments such as baptism and communion, on the other hand

Muslims engage in daily prayers (Salah), fasting during Ramadan, and giving to charity.

Christianity has various denominations, each with its own hierarchical structure, encompassing

priests, pastors, bishops, and the Pope in Catholicism. In comparison, Islam does not have a
centralized authority like the Catholic Church but may have local leaders or scholars who guide

the community.

Additionally, it provides a comprehensive moral framework that guides individuals in

navigating ethical dilemmas and making meaningful choices. Through written texts, teachings,

and traditions, religions offer principles and guidelines. These moral perceptions often emphasize

compassion, justice, empathy, and integrity, serving as a road for believers in their personal and

societal conduct.

Religious communities serve as an important institution for fostering social unity and

solidarity. They provide a sense of union, support, and part to their members, connecting bonds

of membership and mutual care. Religious practices, beliefs, and uniting people to serve the

same church, and promoting for the better society.

It also plays an important role in creating ethical education to individuals, particularly

through religious institutions such as churches. These institutions gives guidance, educational

programs, and foundation for moral discourse, shaping awareness and character development

among their followers, including children and youth.

Religion makes a sense of moral accountability in individuals by emphasizing the

concepts of divine judgment, or ethical consequences. Believers often feel accountable not only

to their communities but also to a supreme power or the highest moral order. This sense of

accountability fosters moral responsibility, encouraging individuals to have a firm ethical

standard and strive for moral excellence.

Religious diversity helps organisations to build bridges in understanding, which in turn

will make colleagues of different religious beliefs feel more valued. They are likely to feel more
comfortable at work and more engaged (Hussian, 2024). Having different religions in a

workplace helps everyone understand and respect each other better. This understanding makes

the work environment more inclusive, where employees feel valued for their beliefs. As people

get to know various religious perspectives, they become more comfortable at work, boosting

productivity and collaboration. When organizations embrace religious diversity, they not only

encourage tolerance and acceptance but also create a space where teamwork and relationships

among employees from different religious backgrounds can thrive.

Different religious perspectives may have conflicting views on certain social issues,

making it difficult to reach a consensus or make decisions that satisfy all religious groups. This

can create barriers to effective governance and decision-making processes, requiring careful

navigation and dialogue to ensure the fair representation and consideration of diverse religious

viewpoints. This challenge has been widely discussed in academic and policy circles, where the

need to reconcile diverse religious perspectives with the principles of secular governance and the

rule of law is a complex task. It often involves engaging in dialogue and respecting religious

freedom while upholding the principles of equality, human rights, and the common good.

The Rise of the Religion in Dumalneg

Dumalneg, a lively community in the Philippines, has seen big changes because of the

rise of religion. This significant shift hasn't just changed the culture but has also had a big impact

on how society works in Dumalneg. The introduction of religious aspects has added depth to the

community's development, affecting their values, traditions, and how people interact with each
other. As Dumalneg keeps adapting to these changes, the influence of religion becomes a key

factor in its ongoing story of cultural and social growth.

The researchers conducted an interview to Mrs. Anita Aguinaldo, the Sangguniang

Bayan, the Tribal Council of the Municipal of Dumalneg, who have more knowledge about the

emergence of religion in Dumalneg, Ilocos Norte.

Mrs. Anita Aguinaldo, the Sangguniang Bayan member, the Tribal Council of the

Municipal, as mentioned Mrs. Aguinaldo said “Idi 1940’s nagtagtaggainap dagita elelders iti

Yapayao ditoy, nga nagtagtaggainap da kano nga mapan da sapulen dijay Sagrada Famalia iti

Cagayan, paamyanan. Agpaamyanan kayu kunana kano ejay tagtagainap. Nagbalbalon da iti

bagas ken sidaen. Nagna da kasi awan pay lugan idi, nagnagna da nga agpaamyan. Napan da

idjay Claveria Cagayan. Agdamdamag da no ayan na dagidjay Sagrada Familia. “Ay adda,

adda tay simbaan da dituy” kunada kano met. “Ay dagituy dagidjay sapsappulekon” kunana

kano tay baket, nga Apo Baket iti tawag da kinyana. “Dagituy dagidjay sapsapulekon nga

aggugubat nga tribtribo” kunana kano. Tattan nagyan da iti 1 month sa, ngem 72 da nga adults

pwera ub-ubbing. Timmultulong da kano nga nagaramid simbaan idja. “Sumubli kay idjay

original place yo tas may kay ibunyagan” kunana ejay baket, nga iti nagan na ejay nga baket,

Inusenta Kidilya nga adda manugang na nga Padi nga ni Purtunato Pahel. After several

months, isudat immay dituyen, idtuy Sitio Cabaritan under the (umango tree). Nagbunyag amin

nga Yapayao tribe, nagbunyag da idjay. Idjay nga nangrugi dagidjay epelyedo dan. Dati-dati iti

nagan dalang ket “Anangaka” ejayen, “Bacong” kasjay, maysa lang nga word. “Agsapul kayo

iti maiyanak kadakayo ta no sinno iti maiyanak kadakayo key isu iti epelyedo yo” kunana kano

ejay Padi nga nangbunyag kinya da.” (In 1940’s, the elders from the Yapayao tribe had a dream

urging them to locate Sagrada Familia in Claveria, Cagayan. In preparation for their journey,
they stockpiled foods and they walked bare feet because there were no vehicles before. Upon

arrival, the tribe asked the people in Claveria, Cagayan to help them find the Sagrada Familia.

“Oh yes, their church is here” said the people. “Oh, these are the tribes that I’ve been looking

for” said the Old Lady. “These are the tribes that I’ve been looking for, that who have been at

war” said the Old Lady. The tribe stayed for 1 month, but 72 of them are adult, excluding

children. They helped each other to build their church. “Go back to your original places so that I

will baptize you all” said the Old Lady, but the Old Lady’s name was Inusente Kildilya, and she

had a brother-in-law that is a Pastor named Purtunato Pahel. After several months, they came

here at Sitio Cabaritan under the (umango tree). The Yapayao tribe were baptized and they

choose their own surname. Because before the Yapayao tribe only have one name, such as

“Anangka and Bacong”. “Go and find someone who wants to raise you and you shall carry their

surname”)

“Tattan isursuro da iti pinagluwalu. Iti nagan na ejay kasla mission, nga ti founder na

ket ni Inusenta Kidilya, Paltiing. Paltiing Mission idjay isursuro da idi agkararag, nga awan iti

Padi nga mang lead. Nangtudin dalang iti, naka point dalang iti kasla Apostol. Apostol iti

pangtawag da. Ti immuna nga Apostol iti pangtawag da. Ti immuna nga Apostol idi ket ni

Uktadiyo Burgos. . Malem ti sabado da nga aggigimong. Gimong iti tawag da idi, malem ti

sabado da nga aggimong ti kada balay. Agsusublat da, nu ana man iti sumaruno nga Sabado.

“Agtulid ti panawen, edjay Mission Paltiing kasla maaramid dagiti activities babaen iti

tagtagainep. Tinag tagainep da dagiti elelders, nga adda kan kuma panagdaydayan da iti

Domingo. So Sabado ti malem ken Domingo. Ti Domingo adda man iti pinag gigimong dan,

gimong iti termino da eh. Aggimong da iti maysa nga balay kasjay. (Times had passed, the

founder of the Paltiing Mission was Inusenta Kidilya. In Paltiing Mission they teach the people
who to pray but there were no Apostle before to lead them. The first Apostle before was

Uktadiyo Burgos. Saturday afternoon, they will start the mass, and they travel from house to

house. Times had passed by, in the Paltiing Mission all the activities are being done by dreams.

The elders dreamed that they should also have mass on Sunday. And now they have a worship

service on Sunday. they will have a mass in a certain house.)

“Nagtagtaggainep da nga nagbangon da iti bassit nga Chapel idjay bantay, ejya Simuba.

Idjay tipapanan da no Dominga, naurnos man ejay pinag daydayaw dan. Iti Paltiing mission

naka focus da lang iti Ten Commandments, isu iti main nga teachings da iti..” (The elders,

inspired by dreams, envisioned the construction of a chapel in the mountains, resulting in the

establiment of Simuba Church. The teachings primarily centered around the Ten

Commandments.)

“Iti Paltiing Mission ket under isuna iti IFI (Iglesia Filipina Independiate). Ket dagitay

immuna nga religious mentor idi ket ni Anghel Aguinaldo kenni Father Bibiano Bitanga.

Founder iti Paltiing Mission idi ket dagidjay Sagrada Familia nga ag under isuna na iti

Independiate (IFI). (Paltiing Mission operates under the auspices of the IFI (Iglesia Filipina

Independiente). Notable figures such as Anghel Aguinaldo and Father Bibiano Bitanga were

among those served as religious mentors. The founding religious affliliation of Paltiing Mission,

formerly known as Sagrada Familia, was Independiente.)

The start of religion in Dumalneg is a big deal in how its culture has grown. It’s like a

major change that has really shaped the way society works. This important shift didn’t just affect

what people believe, but it also made a big impact on how art, morals, and ideas were seen in the

region. The practice of religion has become a key part of Dumalneg’s story, helping pass down

traditions and creating a feeling of shared identify among the people who lived there.
 Unveiling the Culture of Isneg

The Isneg people have a fascinating history, with their settlements strategically located in

Northern Luzon. According to Sangguniang Bayan Member Anita Aguinaldo as mentioned, "Idi

kwan..., nadisplaced da iti naduma-duma a lugar, adda napan Vintar, adda napan Adams, adda

nagpalaud ditoy karayan Bolo, adda da napan idjay Sta. Prexedes, adda napan Claveria.” (But

then, they we're displaced into different places in the North. Some of them went in Vintar, in

Adams, some of them moved in the east of Bolo River, in Sta. Prexedes and some in Claveria.)

These settlements have been an integral part of their identity and played a significant role in

shaping their traditions and practices over time. The Isneg have a unique connection to animals,

viewing them as omens, guides, and sources of healing and divine communication.

As they delve deeper into the fascinating world of the Isneg people, Tribe member Anita

Aguinaldo will uncover more about their spiritual beliefs, customs, celebrations, cuisine, arts,

and crafts, all of which contribute to the rich tapestry of their culture and traditions.

One significant aspect of Isneg history is their head-taking practices, which were

prevalent before the arrival of the Spanish colonizers. "Di mo maliklikan animosity da idi,

naranggas da idi... dayaw da kano nu makaisangpet da ti ulo, makitkita da dita paghuntingan

pudasen da ti ulo na, iyawid da." (You can't avoid their animosity that time, they we're being

aggressive, it's a pleasure to them if can bring the head.)

Isneg rituals led by the Arupagan often involve the use of animals as offerings to appease

and communicate with ancestral spirits. These ceremonies serve as a way for the Isneg people to
express their gratitude, seek blessings, and ensure the spiritual well-being of their community.

The Isneg community continue to preserve their cultural heritage, but the ritual use of animals

are not able remains a significant aspect of their identity. A standard ritual is simply to leave a

ritual offering of mamaen or betel chew in one spot of the uma (farm). The chew is composed of

betel nut, lime, and water. Before planting, the family offers a sacrificial chicken or a boiled egg,

depending on what they can afford. Their practices serve as a reminder of the close relationship

between human and animals but then as time goes on their cultures have been fading because of

adapting of a religion to their community.

These are the practices of Isneg tribe of Dumalneg Ilocos Norte that faded because of

religion. First they have what they called "Manaltalon. Maysa nga araramiden da ket

manaltalon kunada nukwa kadijay aramiden da sakbay da ag mula, agaramid da ti square meter

lang nga daga,sanda mang kwa ti kayo nga sinirsir da ti pungto na sada inikkan ti kulang ti

laya.Pang testingan da no napintas ti ipaay ni mangnguray a gasat da idjay, sungbatan ni

mangnguray isuda babaen ti paltiing,no maka tagtagainip da ti kaslang ag kalap, mayat ti gasat

na ngem no naka tagtagainep ti natagbat na nga aso ay hanmo latta itultuloyen,agunget ni

mangguray kasjay ti observant da ti supreme power."(One of their practice before planting is

what they called "manaltalon" in a square meter surface of land where they put a stick with

ginger stem on top. They used it to identify if the land surface is good for planting,this will

answer them through "paltiing" or nightmare. If they dreamed about harvesting, you have a

destiny in that place and if they dreamed about butchered dog it's a sign to stop because

"mangguray" there God is angry.That's thier way to observe the supreme power.)
 Second they have "union", "Union wenno tulong tulong tay compulsory nga umay ka

tumulong ti garden ti maysa nga household." (Union or bayanihan where they help each other to

finish their works like planting, without any compensation).

Lastly they have "pagaspas"."Pagaspas ket tay ag luto da ti maliket,innapoy,yanti pang

rugyan da nga ag balais tapno mangted ni mangguray ti alaen da nga wild animals." (Pagaspas

is their way of offering using red rice to Manguray in their hunting areas in order for them to

catch a wild animal.)

Those are the practices of Isneg tribe In Dumalneg Ilocos Norte, that has been supersede

by religion. Isneg tribe remains standing and preserving their unique cultures, practices and

traditions. The tribe embarrassed religion as part of their life and moral foundation.

Christianity in the Philippines

The introduction of Christianity in the Philippines had a profound impact on the culture

of the country. Christianity, particularly Catholicism, became the dominant religion and played a

significant role in shaping various aspects of Filipino society and culture.

One of the most visible changes brought about by Christianity was the construction of

churches and the establishment of religious practices. Churches became central to communities,

serving as places of worship, social gatherings, and cultural events. The architecture and artistry

of these churches reflected a blend of indigenous and European influences, creating a unique

Filipino style.

Christianity also influenced the religious beliefs and practices of Filipinos. Many

indigenous traditions and rituals were incorporated into Christian celebrations, resulting in a
syncretic form of worship. Festivals, such as the famous Sinulog in Cebu and the Ati-Atihan in

Aklan, showcase this fusion of indigenous and Christian elements.

The moral and ethical values promoted by Christianity also had an impact on Filipino

society. Concepts such as compassion, forgiveness, and charity became integral to the Filipino

cultural identity. The teachings of Christianity influenced social norms, family structures, and

interpersonal relationships.

Furthermore, education played a significant role in the spread of Christianity and the

reorganization of Filipino culture. Missionaries established schools and universities, which

became centers of learning and cultural exchange. The education system introduced by the

missionaries contributed to the development of a literate society and the preservation of the

Filipino language and literature.

It's important to note that the influence of Christianity on Filipino culture is complex and

multifaceted. While it brought about positive changes and contributed to the cultural richness of

the Philippines, it also had its challenges and controversies. The impact of Christianity varies

across different regions and communities in the country.

Christianity as of Today New Religiosities, Modern Capitalism, and Moral Complexities

in Southeast Asia, 169-197, 2017 This chapter shows that a new mode of religious competition is

now taking shape in the Philippines. It involves the production of space in the form of religious

worlding. Religious worlding refers to the strategy of religious organizations to build physical

constructions that demonstrate a clear global outlook underpinned by the desire for the

superlative and the claim to be a religious center. In the Philippines, it involves the construction

of religious spaces with an attempt for the grandiose and the repositioning of the country as a

new center for new interpretations of Christianity. This chapter draws from the experience of
four influential religious groups in the Philippines today: Iglesia ni Cristo (INC), the Kingdom of

Jesus Christ (KJC), Every Nation, and El Shaddai.

Negative and positive effects of Christianity Journal of Gay & Lesbian Issues in

Education 2 (3), 19-36, 2005. The study examined mental health outcomes for same sex attracted

youth with a Christian background based on their differential internalization of attitudes toward

homosexuality and gay issues that are socialized by most major Christian denominations. Data

from 339 young men and 56 young women ages 13–25 who participated in the OutProud/Oasis

Internet Survey of Queer and Questioning Youth were analyzed. In comparison to those who

reported “no conflict” between their religious and sexual identities, youth who did not adopt a

lesbian/gay/bisexual identity and believed change in sexual orientation is possible had higher

internalized homophobia. Those who left Christianity and had difficulty believing God loves

them had both higher internalized homophobia and poorer mental health. Responses from youth

who resolved or ignored the conflict were not significantly different from those who experienced

no conflict.

Before the arrival of Christianity in the Philippines, the culture was characterized by a

variety of indigenous religions practiced by the different ethnic groups in the archipelago. These

indigenous religions were polytheistic in nature, meaning they believed in multiple gods.

Buddhism, Hinduism, and Islam were also present in some parts of the islands.

The Philippines had a rich and diverse cultural heritage, with each ethnic group having

its own unique traditions, beliefs, and practices. Indigenous Philippine folk religions, collectively

referred to as Anitism or Bathalism, were the traditional religions of Filipinos before the

introduction of Christianity and Islam.

 It's worth noting that the Philippines was ruled by Western powers, first the Spanish and

later the United States, for about 350 years. As a result, the country underwent significant

Christianization, and Christianity became the dominant religion. Today, the Philippines is the

only country in Southeast Asia with a Christian majority.

Reorganized Culture of the Country

A review of how Philippine Colonial Experience Influence the Country’s approaches to

Conservation of Cultural Heritage Geoffrey Roel C. Cruz Padayon Sining: A celebration of the

Enduring Value of the Humanities, 2019 the colonial experiences of the Philippines have greatly

influenced the preservation of the nation’s literary cultural heritage and built cultural heritage.

Apparently, colonial experience has defined how heritage ids treated and conserved. The colonial

legacy has set a precedent that destroys the old practices, ways of life, structures and edifices to

favor the creation of a new set of world order, thus setting a culture of neglect and disregard for

cultural heritage conservation.

The politics of memory and the quest for a new identity has influenced how heritage

conservation is defined and perceived. From the time before the Philippines was discovered by

the Europeans and the way the nation was passed on from one colonizer to another, minimal

sense of heritage conservation was developed. The perception that anything related to the

historical past is a sign of antiquity and underdevelopment has comprised the way present

communities perceive development. Henceforth, cultural heritages are given the least importance

unless its relationship with economic activities has been clearly established. This study connects

the implications of the Philippines rich colonial experience to approaches of heritage

conservation in the country and in the end presents a way of how to possibly reverse some of its
impact. The study presents an exploratory and descriptive approach using case studies of heritage

districts in the Philippines that illustrate how can a practice of cultural neglect be converted to

culture of concern and conservation through the development of creative industry and culture

capital.

Theoretical Framework

The researchers studies the theory that can connect to the Religion of Dumalneg,

Ilocos Norte. Thus, Weber’s Theory of Religion (1922) had presented an image of human beings

as reasonable, thinking creatures, able to perceive their circumstances and to do plan and bring

about change in a rational and orderly manner. According to the theory, religion means set of

ideas and believes about the “supernatural” and the impact on the lives of the human beings. It is

the foundation of scientific sociology of religion in a sense of typological and objective

understanding.

According to the theory, many Roman Cathholics in Western Europe were unhappy with

the way that the church was being run. The Popes and many of the priests seemed interested only

in wealth and power and set a bad example in the way they led their lives. This led to a

movement, which became known as the “Reformation”, to change and reform the Christian

Church. On the other hand, the church should have changes to their religion using their

awareness. The main ideas and believes in the “supernatural” and also the impact on the lives of

the human beings. About this case, the Dumalneg, Ilocos Norte has also this case that this

cultural community should have reforming in a way of this culture to have a change in their
traditions, especially in their religion. With the emergence of their religion has been fulfilled and

they have set up church and a priest to further consolidate their faith as time goes on.

Conceptual Framework

This study aimed to determine the various effects of the religion in the Isneg practice on

Indigenous Cultural communities.

The variables of this study are the customary practices of Isneg as a result of religious

influence. The independent variable is the customary practices of Isneg because these were

getting affected with the increase of religious diversity.

Figure 1 shows the existence of a phenomenon called the customary practice of

Indigenous People and the result of religious influence in Dumalneg Ilocos Norte. The influence

of religion is one of the reason why Indigenous People grow dim their culture, practices and

beliefs. If the research will probably address this issue through a research, Indigenous students

will understand the changes of the practices, culture, and beliefs of the Isneg tribe of Dumalneg,

Ilocos Norte.

Figure 1. Research Paradigm