Society.

Culture, and Politics

Historical Background and Growth of Social Sciences

a. The Scientific Revolution

i. Refers to historical changes in thought and belief, to changes in social and
institutional organization, that unfolded in Europe roughly between 1550
and 1700.
ii. Sir Francis Bacon, who established the supremacy of reason over
imagination.
iii. Age of Reason (The Enlightenment) noted for belief in the ability of
reason to discover truth, shape society, etc. see also the Enlightenment
(Collins, 2024).
iv. Rene Descartes (1596- 1650) was a French philosopher, mathematician,
and writer who is considered the father of modern philosophy. He
advocates the use of rigorous philosophical analysis to arrive at truths
rather than basing them in dogmas.
b. Secularization of Learning and Education
i. This era marks the growing triumph of scientific method over religious
and theological thinking.
1. Protestant movement led by Martin Luther eroded the power of
Roman Catholic Church.
2. Immanuel Kant led to the use of reason to know the nature of the
world and human beings.
ii. Rationalization pioneered by Max Weber deals with life in a more
subjected to calculation and prediction. It talks about:
1. Efficiency- achieving the maximum results with a minimum
amount of effort
2. Predictability- a desire to predict what will happen in the future
3. Calculability- concern with numerical data i.e. statistics and
scoring
4. Dehumanization- employing technology as a means to control
human behavior
iii. The Rise of Universities
1. Single most important factor in the rise of social sciences. Secular
subjects or subjects dealing with natural world proliferated in the
universities. Merchants and capitalists supported universities and
institutions of secular learning because they became the hub of
training of future scientists, technocrats, and technological
innovators.
 2. Gemeinschaft- established by Ferdinand Tonnies (1855-1936), a
German Sociologist. Gemeinschaft or community because of
urbanization.
a. In his book “Community and Society”, he showed how
people and its relationship to others in the modern life
changed drastically.
b. Gesellschaft- contrary to Gemeinschaft, it deals with
individualism of people in a community. It gave way to a
colder and calculated social relationship.
c. As capitalism replace agricultural economy- people starts
to see their relationship with other people as a mere
economic transaction rather than as a form of personal
relationship.
3. Rise of Individualism
a. “New Economy” or Industrial Capitalism made way to
people to reduce human interaction to mere business-like
transactions devoid of any warmth and personal touch.
i. This led to George Simmel (1858- 1918) to decry
the growing of depersonalization of life due to the
introduction of money. He described the modern
economy period as the “tragedy of culture”.
ii. Led to creation of people who no longer relied on
traditional norms and prevailing culture.
Social Science
c. Sociology- is a branch of the social sciences that deals with the scientific study of
human interactions, social groups and institutions, whole societies and the human
world as such.
d. Prominent people in Social Science:
i. August Comte (1798-1857) a French philosopher and mathematician, is
the founding father of sociology (social physics).
1. He suggested that there were three stages in the development of
societies;
a. Theological Stage
b. Metaphysical Stage
c. Positive Stage
2. Positivism or school of thought which tells us that science and its
methods is the only valid way of knowing things.
ii. Harriet Martineau (1802-1876) ang English writer and reformist. She is
considered as the mother of sociology.
1. In her book, “How to Observe Morals and Manners” she was able
to present ethnographic narratives and deep sociological insights.
 iii. Karl Marx (1818- 1883) a German philosopher and revolutionary
advocated scientific method to uncover the deep structural tendencies that
underlie great social transitions i.e. agricultural to modern industrial
capitalist society. He is considered as the “father of scientific socialism”.
iv. Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) a French sociologist who pioneered of
functionalism in sociology.
1. He made possible the professionalization of sociology by teaching
it in University of Bordeaux.
2. He defended that sociology as an independent discipline from
psychology.
3. Durkheim argued that society possesses a reality sui generis
(unique or its own kind) independent of individuals and institutions
that compose it.
v. Max Weber (1864- 1920) was the pioneer of interpretive sociology.
1. He stressed the role of rationalization in the development of
society.
ASPECT OF CULTURE
1. Culture is shared and contested
2. Culture is learned and transmitted
3. Requires language and other forms of communication
4. Dynamic, flexible, and adaptive

Material Culture
- Human's material inventions and innovations such as tools, weapons, instruments,
and the likes.

NonMaterial Culture
-refers to the intangible ideas that form within the society including beliefs,
perceptions, and traditions.

ELEMENTS OF CULTURE
Norms- a set of norms is a society's standard of acceptable behavior.
Folkways- are norms which members of society have ome to accept as the proper way
of dealing with their everyday living and social interaction.
 Mores-are the valued folkways that involve moral kr ethical values, respecting
authority. marriage and sex behavior patterns. religious rituals and the likes.
Symbols- illustrations used to represent a particular meaning of something.
Language- defined as the system of symbols that individuals utilize to communicate,
interact, and share their views, thus, creating an understanding among individuals.
Values- culture's standard for discerning what is good and just in society.

Orientations in Viewing other Cultures

Ethnocentrism- pertain to the belief that one's native culture is superior to or the most
natural among other cultures.

Xenocentrism- belied that one's culture is inferior to another.

Cultural Relativism- pratice of viewing another culture by its own context rather than
assessing it basednon the standards of one's own culture.

Human BioCultural and SocioPolitical Evolution

Accoeding to Charles Darwin, in his book On the Origin of Species- he stated that all
organisms have undergone evolution, or the process by which beings develop from
earlier beings.

HOMINIZATION
- evolutionary development of human characteristics that made hominids (organisms
belonging to Hoo genus) distinct from their primate ancestors.
Homo Habilis-earliest members of the Homo Genus Family, has a slightly larger
braincase and smaller face and teeth than in Australopithecus or older hominn
species.

Homo Erectus- oldest known early humans to have possessed modern human-like
body proportions with relatively elongated legs and shorter arms compared to the size
of the torso.

Homo Neanderthalensis- closest extinct human relative. Some defining features of

their skulls include large middle part of the face, angled cheek bones, and a huge nose
for humidifying and warming cold air.

Homo Sapiens-the species all living human beings on this planet belong to this Homo
Genus.
NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION- cultural era where people employed polished stone
tools as replacement for rough stones.

Neo ( Greek word) means new

Lithic means stone

- Neolithic Culture is the background from which civilization appears.

- Age of the invention of agriculture. "Food-gathering revolution" as referred by some
scholars, provided circumstances that greatly impacted the way people lived.
- People have started to settle permanently in fertile lands
- Domestication of animals is evident as their source of milk, meat, and even clothing.

COPPER AGE-
1. Catal Huyuk in Turkey, a town with an approximately 5000 people were the first
one to make linens for clothing.
2. Sumerians grew in a fertile plain between the rivers of Tigris and Euphrates
( Fertile crescent) or Mesopotamia or "the land between two rivers".

BRONZE AGE
1. Sumerians learned how to smelt metal and make bronze, they alsl discovered
sailing which helps them in trading.
2. First recorded of writing, cuneiform originated in the bronze age.

IRON AGE
1. Hittites refined Iron Ore to create weapons, pots, and other essentials.
2. Greeks began using shadow clocks, holding Olympic games and breeding
philosophy and science.
3. Phoenicians developed the alphabet

DEMOCRATIZATION
1. In this system, the people ( democrats) held the power in governing the land.
2. Athenians age of 18 male had a voice in the ecclesia or assembly ( the highest
forum in the nation which happened four times a month).

SOCIALIZATION-is the process of learning about and adopting the social norms and
values of society
Personality- refers to an individual's thought, emotions, and behaviors, captured by
traits, and is crucial for psyhological functioning
Identity- involves defining oneself as both unique and similar to others, within social
context, and is a component of personality that operates at multiple level.

STATUSES AND ROLES

Status- defined as a person's position in a social system

Ascribed Status-a predetermined status, which means that an individual with this type
of status has no choice to choose his/ her position in the society since this is what
given to him/ her at his/ her birth.
Example: Race, gender, family membership

Achieved Status- is obtained by choice, such as club membership, educational degree

AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
1. Family
2. Peer group
3. School
4. Church
5. Workplace
6. Mass Media

ENCULTURATION
-the manner by which a person learns or adopts the culture followed by his/ her co-
members in society.

ACCULTURATION
-the process which a person adapts to the influence of another culture by borrowing
many of its aspects ( immersing in another culture while maintaining the mother
culture)

ASSIMILATION
-denotes complete or almost total adaptation of the minor culture to the major one.
 COOPERATION
- Sociologist F.E. Merill and H.W. Eldredge (1965) defined cooperation " a form of
social interaction wherein two or more persons work together for a common end or
purpose.

DIFFERENTIATION
-Israeli sociologist Shmuel Eisenstadt (1971) defined differentiation as the ways
through which major social spheres become disconnected in order to focus on
specialized roles and create a stronger organizational framework

AMALGAMATION
-happends when two families or groups become one through a formal union, such as
marriage. It promotes acculturation and assimilation, and is the opposite of
differentiation since it reduces the number of social units.

STRATIFICATION
-division of society into social categories that in turn develop social groups. It is
mainly based in wealth and income differences.
CONFLICT
-Sociologist Lewis Coser (1956) defined confilct as " a struggle over values and
claims to scarce status, power, and resource."

COMPETITION
-suggests the struggle between two or more persons or groups that can be translated to
innovation in the long run.

SOCIAL CONTROL AND CONFORMITY

-Mechanisms by which the social behavior of people is controlled to maintain order
or to re-establish order once rules have been broken.

When a person violates the behavioral norms of his/ her society, he / she will be
subjected to corresponding social sanctions.

SOCIAL CONTROL- is a concept referring to rules and restrictions that shape,

supervise, and regulate the behaviors of individuals and societies.
 1. INFORMAL- disapproval, ridicule, gossip or deprivation
2. FORMAL- fine, imprisonment, or death

DEVIANCE- as violation of established social norms

FORMS OF DEVIANCE
1. INNOVATION- refers to the use of unadvised or sometimes illegal methods to
achieve social goals
2. RITUALISM- ritualists strictly observe the norms set by the society-tend to forget
the primary reason why they are conforming to it
3. RETREATISM- happens when individuals try to escape from achieving social
goals because they cannot fulfill them.
4. REBELLION- usually observed in minorities, promoting change and introducing
alternative because of the frustration of people over the norms.

HUMAN DIGNITY, RIGHTS AND THE COMMON GOOD

The primary purpose of creating social institutions is to serve the common good. This value has
been set in the 1987 PH Constitution, particularly in its Preamble.

THE 1987 CONSTITUTION

THE CONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES

PREAMBLE

We, the sovereign Filipino people, imploring the aid of Almighty God, in order to build a
just and humane society and establish a Government that shall embody our ideals and
aspirations, promote the common good, conserve and develop our patrimony, and secure to
ourselves and our posterity the blessings of independence and democracy under the rule of
law and a regime of truth, justice, freedom, love, equality, and peace, do ordain and
promulgate this Constitution.

RIGHTS- are the privileges and entitlements a person must enjoy in the attainment and
protection of his/ her human dignity.
ARTICLE III

Bill of Rights

SECTION 1. No person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of
law, nor shall any person be denied the equal protection of the laws.

SECTION 2. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and
effects against unreasonable searches and seizures of whatever nature and for any purpose
shall be inviolable, and no search warrant or warrant of arrest shall issue except upon
probable cause to be determined personally by the judge after examination under oath or
affirmation of the complainant and the witnesses he may produce, and particularly
describing the place to be searched and the persons or things to be seized.

SECTION 3. (1) The privacy of communication and correspondence shall be inviolable

except upon lawful order of the court, or when public safety or order requires otherwise as
prescribed by law.

(2) Any evidence obtained in violation of this or the preceding section shall be inadmissible
for any purpose in any proceeding.

SECTION 4. No law shall be passed abridging the freedom of speech, of expression, or of

the press, or the right of the people peaceably to assemble and petition the government for
redress of grievances.

SECTION 5. No law shall be made respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting

the free exercise thereof. The free exercise and enjoyment of religious profession and
worship, without discrimination or preference, shall forever be allowed. No religious test
shall be required for the exercise of civil or political rights.

SECTION 6. The liberty of abode and of changing the same within the limits prescribed by
law shall not be impaired except upon lawful order of the court. Neither shall the right to
travel be impaired except in the interest of national security, public safety, or public health,
as may be provided by law.

SECTION 7. The right of the people to information on matters of public concern shall be
recognized. Access to official records, and to documents, and papers pertaining to official
acts, transactions, or decisions, as well as to government research data used as basis for
policy development, shall be afforded the citizen, subject to such limitations as may be
provided by law.

SECTION 8. The right of the people, including those employed in the public and private
sectors, to form unions, associations, or societies for purposes not contrary to law shall not
be abridged.

SECTION 9. Private property shall not be taken for public use without just compensation.
SECTION 10. No law impairing the obligation of contracts shall be passed.

SECTION 11. Free access to the courts and quasi-judicial bodies and adequate legal
assistance shall not be denied to any person by reason of poverty.

SECTION 12. (1) Any person under investigation for the commission of an offense shall
have the right to be informed of his right to remain silent and to have competent and
independent counsel preferably of his own choice. If the person cannot afford the services
of counsel, he must be provided with one. These rights cannot be waived except in writing
and in the presence of counsel.

(2) No torture, force, violence, threat, intimidation, or any other means which vitiate the
free will shall be used against him. Secret detention places, solitary, incommunicado, or
other similar forms of detention are prohibited.

(3) Any confession or admission obtained in violation of this or Section 17 hereof shall be
inadmissible in evidence against him.

(4) The law shall provide for penal and civil sanctions for violations of this section as well
as compensation to and rehabilitation of victims of torture or similar practices, and their
families.

SECTION 13. All persons, except those charged with offenses punishable by reclusion
perpetua when evidence of guilt is strong, shall, before conviction, be bailable by sufficient
sureties, or be released on recognizance as may be provided by law. The right to bail shall
not be impaired even when the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus is suspended.
Excessive bail shall not be required.

SECTION 14. (1) No person shall be held to answer for a criminal offense without due
process of law.

(2) In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall be presumed innocent until the contrary
is proved, and shall enjoy the right to be heard by himself and counsel, to be informed of
the nature and cause of the accusation against him, to have a speedy, impartial, and public
trial, to meet the witnesses face to face, and to have compulsory process to secure the
attendance of witnesses and the production of evidence in his behalf. However, after
arraignment, trial may proceed notwithstanding the absence of the accused provided that
he has been duly notified and his failure to appear is unjustifiable.

SECTION 15. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended except in
cases of invasion or rebellion when the public safety requires it.

SECTION 16. All persons shall have the right to a speedy disposition of their cases before
all judicial, quasi-judicial, or administrative bodies.

SECTION 17. No person shall be compelled to be a witness against himself.

SECTION 18. (1) No person shall be detained solely by reason of his political beliefs and
aspirations.

(2) No involuntary servitude in any form shall exist except as a punishment for a crime
whereof the party shall have been duly convicted.

SECTION 19. (1) Excessive fines shall not be imposed, nor cruel, degrading or inhuman
punishment inflicted. Neither shall death penalty be imposed, unless, for compelling
reasons involving heinous crimes, the Congress hereafter provides for it. Any death penalty
already imposed shall be reduced to reclusion perpetua.

(2) The employment of physical, psychological, or degrading punishment against any

prisoner or detainee or the use of substandard or inadequate penal facilities under
subhuman conditions shall be dealt with by law.

SECTION 20. No person shall be imprisoned for debt or non-payment of a poll tax.

SECTION 21. No person shall be twice put in jeopardy of punishment for the same offense.
If an act is punished by a law and an ordinance, conviction or acquittal under either shall
constitute a bar to another prosecution for the same act.

SECTION 22. No ex post facto law or bill of attainder shall be enacted.

“You never change things by fighting the existing reality. To change something, build a
new model that makes the existing model obsolete.” ― Buckminster Fuller