= — of a Complete measuring system: ors [ Sar] 5] Dong |S [Reouy quantity T Processing “i, ee 4 Example + thermometer Convertor active tense Passive senso — Tt adds energy fo the mesurement environment — EX: Ulbasonic , Sonar, Rodar —Tt does not add ener tout may remove ener fy ~ EX: Thermocouple , Bourdon Contact Sensor — Measurin contactless sensor olevices that have _ ne need for physical to physically Contact with the Contact measurand — EX: Infrared thermometer, — Ex: thermometer, Tacho meter optical tachometer. analog Sensor Sensor Digital — Continuous signal in magnitede — Signal tat is a clivect oligital and time. — Continuous output signal representation of the measurond — digital signal exists at only ~“ discrete value of time intput signal —> analog Signal can cepresent a discrete x oumber of magnitud value. = > 4 q| time 5 [LULL — EX. Thermometer time — Ex: Digital thermomeler.——— dF, Static Dyframic « Quantities that remain Constant}. Relationship belween input or Vary quite Sloaly. anol output that varies rapidly with time. + EX: Accuracy , sensitivity , Precision | ¢-——__1____ Devt Range , Resolution transient stale Steady state output Accuracy the oleqvee Which the measured value equals es to ke actual value. t =precision: the ere the instrament to give the Same oul put for the Same "3 © accuracy low accuracy high accurasy © accuracy high epee high pee low ae low precision Pthe deviation of the actual output to he €xeepected ouput when increasing the inputwsensitivitys Ratio £ the change in oufput to the Change in input afler the Steady - state has been reached. = peat. wdeadibard The unresponsiveness of the sensor. - How mach change is vequired before the Sensor achally responds or detect it. - Produced by Friction , Backlosh or hysleresis. DRETAMminimum division of the instrument's Scale. « Hysteresis: average algebric olifference of meagutmerit sin opposite directions. TDF variation of odtput when input is Constant. TREN: the ability of the inshument to refiwin to Zero when there is no reading -Readlability: The ease with which readings may be taken . TRGARB? Region in which the meosued variable may vary: ~ Sale range — instrument range TZerife the zero reading of an instrument is moglified by a Change in ambient Conditions. —Tt Causes a Constant enor .ssansitivitgaclifts the amount by which an instrument § sensitin'y of measurement varies as ambient Conditions Change @ealibration> measument traceability Pari. SI Units National métrology indies «primary laboratory «Secondary laboratory «_— Induslerial measuremerits transient state (Zl Dynamic characteristics : ste, CEM, BOW) sin(we+ @) transient = output amplitude Steady. state{Z) Secoral order Sgstem.(45) + Flt)= A Sin Got) + 9UD= 4, + Bus) Sin w (t+ B) ¢ The response of a measuring System Can be optimum (221 when : im ~ freq. ratio Ih 03 = Danping nibip jaar 90 f=lo fies J=03 i a oF { Resonance x Ideal measurment System: elingar magnitude response across all anges. + Zero Pphose shift. ¥ Real world: ~ Response is flat. + phase shiff is predictable. «Some Compensation is alte pessible using electronic methods.lec 5 ~xData ACQuisition (DAQ) :A system that quantities and shires cata —DAQ Should oe chosen based on x Analogue Pht Signal type Z Digital Hol. Amplitude [re hagit of te fepuncy Srequency Co. of osailtions per unt tne) Boat Analog to digital transdwer Signal Inaleg fo digi Sy sensor || Janitnig T— | Converter Computer AS a — ois collolooll any Physical variables Filtered and ampbfied HNolollo lol 6-bit Resaltion Lemp 5 pressure, velcity.) Noisy Electric signal Signal Dighized Signe loloollloolo ¥ Difference between analog and digital Signal Bb Bley oe Discrete dota Amplitude (V) Oot oUPeOPso| > odd bovioe so Sone Gane oY 273 4 5 6 7 8 9 te tc} time Ls) Analog to Digital Converter: 1. Sample pel > 2-Hold Sampled Signal 7 > 3- Convert it into Digital [quantizing]caamplitude A Aalog to cigital Converter: i amplitude t eae input Signal oe sare Hs spat Sit iL (Quantize > output —_a Vee Sequence of numbers trom quantizer bine Sampling Period = Sampling Frequency number of Samples Per unit time. ghee + Signal Frequency: number of oScillations per unit time. « Aliasing LunderSamplingl. Error occurs when fewer samples are taken. Ae as true profile Sampled values To avoid aliasing: J, > 2*Frnax 2 Alising Frequency: Fuyuest= fs /2 — Nypuet oe awl flemeng jy yen a Ord Ex:what is the max Sampling frequency for a device with 0.02 ms Sampling rate? Sol: S.sqz= S0ks/s — Sue & =25 ksls.fe felotz , fgeiruz Sol: Sys Seo Hz 2 Tall eases = 0.33% fy x 24Z eStroboscopic effect: offect that occurs due to aliasing Z faa =p Fited ese fs > Fd =p Reversed. F< fd = forward. lec 6.4 Digital to Analog Converter. [DAC] % Converts dioital input to analo { —W— git input to onal oufpul a, + Resolution = 2” Yo. of bits SS 6 2k Lo no 4 cases Lon, off] ‘et AR fo fo , Ns —No. of switches = no. of bits Pa256 aaa (ose — 5 volt Ware) salar! 20 mv operational Suto 02s o amplifier Ee And 52) “a pill switches JI oe ¥ - Wd 4 ag switches Sur ¥ + tod 1 i ] tap aot taco oh R, [ RoR aR TLER eats Eo= -Ex Binary fo decimal: RJ bo] eT et el ele | ele] 2] et tory | sia | a56 | 18 [ 64 | 32 | 6 | 8 4 2 1 «Digital Ramp ADC | Stair step ramp) Analog to digital Converter lox Vda gues Add tu Diavtal signal >| < I CTR anal i E KT gmt im BMS i 5 =_Diaital Signal C}-Binavs output 4as16aqy Comparetor Compares belneen 2 analog values x iF the firal wilge >0 5s opamp =4 if 1—> Oufput is the Copied data iF the firal village DAC Wu SAR DR Done Vin Gav) BMS Binav output Digital signal 42,sibagRa number & = Twn on bit | D/A Input Desa D/A output ele UL! 40600006 | 1000000 Gaa}2 a5) Gow [keep bit J 04006000 | 11000000 | 192 345 High [Drop bit] leer 10100000 | 160 3.125 low [Keep bit} 00040000 40110000 | 146 3.4349 High (Drop bit] [oooolo00 | 10101000 | 168 3.28125 | High [Drop bit) [oooosigo | 10100100 | 164 3.203125 |low [keep bit] [oos000}0 | 101001 10 | 166 3.242185 | High [Drop bit] [oo00000}, | 10100101 | 165 3.22265625 | High Lorop bit] lec4 «Multiplexer: works as a Switch between inputs and output. [multiple inputs, 1 output]. Compares bélwveen 2 voltages refers to the GND# Noise effect on Single ended and Differential conection: when measuring a Signal Using Differential comection , the noise will be low —But if the Connection is Single ended , the noise will be high. - Differential connection is prefered when measuring an analog Signal x Shield grounding effect on noise rejection « —T a wie is shieled L.~], i will ject any external waves that might Cause ncises. “LEE Analysis _of Experimental Data - 1- Several alternative mexsurmert tech iques af Selected once the variables to be measuredae established. &:PeIV or PeI"R or De 2.uncertainty analysis is performed on each technique . S-The different techniques are ‘then Compared based on Ucost; ense of data collection availabilty , Calculated uncertainty). Types of exPerimental errors: Systematic ervors [fired bias): —They Cause repeated readings tobe in error by Foughly the Same amount. > —They affect accuracy —They have one direction only Lave or -vel. eee ~ Remains Constant EX: 200cm +1cm at a Confidence level of 95% ~ lentified by Calibration 45° the reading will be 2ofem or 194¢m —Con be Coused by improper Calibration + Random errors: Caused by random electronic Flactuctions in the instruments , Various influences of friction, Personal Fluctuations. These errors Usually follow a Certain Statistical distributions — Produced by unaccounted-for variations. [corit be predected.} => —They affect the precision of a measucment. euncertainty : Re range within Which the Signal may be deviated from its nominal value at a given level of probability. [confidence .Large bias error , Small random error: Small bias ervor , large yandom error. Frequency of Frequency of otcurance otturance, ot rear Bio" Pere «Arithmetic mean (M) Cavernge) «Standard deviation (6) The point where the curve changes its slope standard deviations 19.4% eParumeter: A number that describes the data froma population. «Statistics: A number that describes the data from a Sample«Standard normal distribution: M=0,G=1 «Z-Score: numbers written onthe x-axis of the normal distribution curve. Z-Scre=1 =p G=4 ¥Area under the Curve =1 Z-Swm=2 =7 G=2 x left Area of z-score Canbe obtained from tie z-Score table. #Right Area = 1- Left area. 3 EX:Z=-195 gd P(z<-195) = 0:025549 E-beeeeebes-|- Sabie Ze-195° Xto get Z-Score CorrosPording te any value 3 «Confidence: The probability that the mean value will lie witkin a certain number of G values and iS given by the Symbol “2°. X%=x+z6 LP% Contidence level) + Confidence Level + Significance Level = 1 if Cle 95% —-» SL=1-95%= 5%- Student's T- distriloution. = Degree of Freedom: Number of Samples— 1 «for a finite Samples of population: X=% + typSx Example: + Abalance is calibrated against a standard mass of 250g, The differences (in grams) from the 250g scale readings were as follow: + Find the Repeatability at a 95% confidence level. + Sample Standard Deviation Se IS ie * Population Standard Deviation o=S. — R=to Tat sone] «Sample Standard deviation (sy: 1 rd h 7 s- [292] sis a a = (ees = 168 Com) 3 =e é 7 -Population standard deviation @): + =45 $ 10 GS. KE 1 & © = 9168 [F = 9.664 (an) = ae «Repeatability (2) S ee RG. ——+ Jet t from student's table where _degiee of freedom = to-t-9 = 1664 ¥ 2.26 = 21-84 - tas «Random uncertty (R) 22 Lym) + Systematic uncertainty Xmean— % = 2522-250 = 2.2 Com)0 is: CED evr analysis aoe ex: PEI where Encore av Tato A027 stanly =the Nominal value of the Power = 00 X10 = (ooo wat, = Pray = (l00#2)(10+0-29 7/fouo.4 ws ition oy 50a =Prmin = (loo-2)(I0-0-2) = \160-4 w. To Calculate The uncertainty of The nominal value of the power Liooo +2]: tst uncertainty = 14 and uncertainty = Or “n’ uncertainty = Wa . 7 arog (Bi) «(Bw —-(BEw) | Ex: Re RB [1+ &(t-20)4 R,=6-2 +03% es O01 % T=3081 52 nominal value: Re 6014 0004(30-29 = 624-2 £7 uncertainty: QR 214 0 (T-20) = I+ 0.004 Go-20)L10%) Be R, (T-20)= 6(30-26) (60) eT ee ry Wp = 6 03% Wa= 0-004 ¥1% wr) 2 2 > 2 =p pe cea (os) + (60) (Kt?) + (0024). oi] = 0.0305.0 49 “Ie R= 6.24 + 0.0305 2 “n BeEX: Relon t1% E= loovtt% power dissipated by resistence: T=loAt1% . Calculate uncertainty in 1- P= ie gel 227pae is pal CE )lugs+ 2E}0g5 | a ok a, 2\% = Leroohconts (2S) = 22.36 P= ooo + 22.36 wall aPs Le BE t= 2 ZP-To > BE=E = loo we=! w= 0-1 wp = Jct" + (toy (ON = yy P= looo + Iy.14 watt This method is prefered as the uncertainty is Lower.