A2.

2 Cell Structure
Eukaryotic Cell Structure
In This Lesson, We Will Cover
Cell Types
Living things are divided into two types according to the structure of their cells

Prokaryotes - do not contain a nucleus

Eukaryotes - contain a nucleus

Prokaryote is greek for “before nucleus”

and eukaryote is greek for “true nucleus”

What is a Eukaryotic Cell?
● Eukaryotic cells cells occur in organisms such as algae, protozoa, fungi,
plants, and animals
● Eukaryotic cells range in diameter from 5𝜇m to 100𝜇m
● They have a nucleus, which contains most of the cell’s DNA
● The DNA is kept separate from the cytoplasm where most of the cell’s
metabolic reactions occur
Eukaryotes
● Many distinctive organelles (non-cellular structures that carry out a
specific function) can be identified in the cytoplasm
● Membrane bound organelles allows for compartmentalization, which
have several advantages
● Enzymes and substrates for a particular chemical reaction can be isolated
● Substances that could cause damage to the cell can be kept inside the
membrane of an organelle
● Conditions such as pH can be maintained at an ideal level for particular
reactions
● Organelles with the contents can be moved around the cell
Photographs and Diagrams of Typical Animal and Plant Cells
Organelles of Eukaryotic Cells
Common organelles include:

● Cell membrane

● Endoplasmic reticulum

● Ribosomes

● Golgi Apparatus

● Lysosomes

● Mitochondria

● Nucleus

● Chloroplasts (only in plant and algae cells)

● Centrosomes

● Vacuoles
Cell Membrane
● Composed of two layers of
lipid molecules (phospholipids)
with proteins that can be found
on both sides, or through the membrane
Involved in:
● Import and export of small molecules and ions
● Cell communication (proteins in the membrane act as receptors to chemical
signals in the environment and allows the cell to respond appropriately)
● Cell growth by adding new membrane
● Motility by changing shape
Cytoplasm
● All eukaryotic cells have a region called the cytoplasm that occurs inside
the plasma membrane
● It is in this region that the organelles are found
● The fluid portion of the cytoplasm around the organelles is called the
cytosol
● In the cytosol, protein filaments form networks (cytoskeleton) that give
the cell its shape and provide a basis for its movements
● The main kinds of filaments are:
○ Actin filaments (A)
○ Microtubules (B)
○ Intermediate filaments (C)
Structures Containing Microtubules - Cilia
Cilia - tiny hairlike appendages with a bundle of microtubules at their core

● Cilia extend from the surface in large numbers on many kinds of cells
● Cilia move fluid over the surface of the cell using a back and forth motion
● Protozoa use cilia for both locomotion and to collect food particles
● Epithelial cells lining the human respiratory
tract sweep layers of mucus and trapped
particles of dust and dead cells to the mouth
to be swallowed
Structures Containing Microtubules -Flagella
● Similar in structure to cilia, but much longer
● Limited to one or a few per cell
● Flagella propagate waves along their length, which is used to propel a cell
in a particular direction
● Human sperm cells have flagella that propel the cell in a forward motion
Structures Containing Actin -Microvilli
● Found on epithelial cells lining the small intestine
● Microscopic appendages created by folds on the cell membrane
● Microvilli contain actin filaments, which are shorter than microtubules and more rigid
● Microvilli increase the surface area over which intestinal epithelial cells can absorb
nutrients

Microvilli are
found on only
one side of the
cell and are
made of actin
filaments
Endoplasmic Reticulum
● An extensive network of tubules
or channels of membrane
● Extends from the nucleus
● Used to transport materials
(e.g. proteins and lipids)
throughout the internal region
of the cell
● Exists as two types:
○ Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

○ rough endoplasmic reticulum

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
● Smooth ER has different roles in different types of cells
● Liver cells - involved with the detoxification of drugs
● Ovary cells - production of estrogen (sex hormone)
● Muscle cells - storage of calcium ions for muscle contraction
● Smooth ER also produces phospholipids
for the construction of membranes and
lipids for use in the cell
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
● Rough ER has ribosomes on the exterior of the channels, which are
involved in protein synthesis
● rER tends to be found closer to the nucleus
● As proteins are produced, they collect in the spaces between the
membranes called cisternae
● From inside the rER, proteins can be transported in vesicles to other parts
of the cell such as the Golgi apparatus
Ribosomes
● Carry out protein synthesis within the cell

● May be found free in the cytoplasm or may be attached to the surface of the ER

● Free ribosomes and attached ribosomes perform the same function interchangeably

● Composed of RNA and protein

● Ribosomes in eukaryotic cells are larger and denser than those of prokaryotic cells

● Ribosomes are made up of two subunits (large and small)

● In eukaryotic cells the two subunits equal 80S,

whereas in prokaryotic cells they equal 70S
Golgi Apparatus
● Consists of flattened sacs called cisternae, which are
stacked one on top of another
● Functions in the collection, packaging, modification,
and distribution of materials for secretion or delivery
to other organelles
● Has a distinct structural directionality
● Receives products from the rER (cis side), which are
moved into the cisternae and modified by adding
carbohydrate or lipid components
● The modified products are released in vesicles (trans
side), which are transported to the plasma membrane
for secretion or other parts of the cell
Lysosomes

● Intracellular digestive centres that arise

from the Golgi apparatus
● Sac bound by a single membrane that
contains enzymes for breaking down
proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic
acids
● Lysosomes fuse with materials brought into
the cell by phagocytosis to break them
down
● Lysosomes can also fuse with old or
damaged organelles to recycle the various
parts
Lysosome
Vesicular Transport Movement of different types of vesicles in the cell

Green arrows show endocytic

pathway (vesicles moving
away from the plasma
membrane

Red arrows show secretory

pathway (vesicles moving
towards the plasma
membrane
Mitochondria
● Singular - mitochondrion

● Rod-shaped organelles that are similar in size to

bacteria

● Mitochondria have their own circular DNA

● Surrounded by a double membrane

● Outer membrane is smooth, while the inner

membrane is folded into cristae

● Fluid in the inner membrane is called the matrix

● The cristae provide a large surface area for the

chemical reactions that produce useable cellular
energy called adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Nucleus
● Separates the chromosomal DNA from the
cytoplasm by an envelope consisting of a
double membrane with pores
● Nuclear pores allows material to move in
and out of the nucleus
● The nucleus is the site of DNA replication
and transcription to mRNA
● Ribosome synthesis occurs in a darkly
stained area of the nucleus called the
nucleolus
Nucleus
● The DNA in the nucleus is associated
with histone proteins, which is called
chromatin
● When a cell is not dividing, the
chromosomes are uncoiled into
chromatin
● During cell division, chromatin
condenses into chromosomes, which
can be visualized by staining
Chloroplasts
● Found only in algae and plant cells
● Surrounded by a double membrane and about the same
size as a bacterial cell. It also contains its own DNA
(circular) and 70S ribosomes
● Site of photosynthesis
● The outer and inner membranes are a continuous layer
● A third distinct membrane form structures called
lamellae or thylakoids
● Thylakoids are arranged in flattened circular piles called
grana - contains the pigments needed for photosynthesis
● The thylakoid lumens are connected, which creates the
thylakoid space
● The fluid found between the grana is called the stroma
Plastids
● Chloroplasts belong to a family of organelles called plastids
● Plastids are double membrane organelles which are responsible for
manufacturing food and storing it
○ Amyloplast - accumulates and stores starch

○ Etioplast - produces and stores lipids

○ Proteinoplast - stores proteins

Centrosomes
● Consists of a pair of centrioles at right angles to one another
● Involved in the assembly of microtubules (involved with cell movement
and cell division)
● Located at one end of the cell close to the nucleus
● Duplicates during cell division
Vacuoles
● Storages organelles that are usually
formed from the Golgi apparatus
● Occupy a very large space in plant cells
● Enables cells to have a higher surface
area to volume ratio at larger sizes
● May store a number of different
substances, including potential food,
metabolic waste, toxins, and water
● In plants, vacuoles allow the uptake of
water and exerts pressure on the cell
wall, which provides rigidity
Cell Wall
● Provides protection
● Maintains the shape of the cell
● Prevents excessive uptake of water
● On the level of the whole plant, helps hold up
the plant against the force of gravity
● In plants, made of cellulose polymers wound
together
● In fungi, made of chitin
Similarities in Eukaryotic Cell Structure
Common structures found in animal, plant, and fungi cells include:
● Nucleus
● Free and bound 80S ribosomes
● Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
● Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
● Golgi Apparatus
● Vesicles
● Lysosome
● Mitochondria
● Cytoskeleton
Differences in Cell Structure
Structure Animal Cell Plant Cell Fungal Cell

Plastids Absent Present (chloroplasts, Absent

amyloplast)

Cell Wall Absent Present (cellulose) Present (chitin)

Vacuoles Present (small, Present (large, Present (large,

temporary structures permanent structure permanent structure
that expel water or other used to store water) used to store water)
waste products)
Differences in Cell Structure
Structure Animal Cell Plant Cell Fungal Cell

Centrioles Present (anchor point Present in male Absent from most fungi
for mitotic spindle gametes of moss and except a small number
during cell division. ferns that have a swimming
Anchor point for cilia Absent in conifers and male gamete
and flagella) flowering plants

Cilia and Flagella Present in many Present in male Absent from most fungi
animal cells gametes of moss and except a small number
(human male gametes ferns that have a swimming
have flagella) Absent in conifers and male gamete
flowering plants
Eukaryotic vs. Prokaryotic Cells
Atypical Structures in Eukaryotic Cells
● Recall that there a number of common features in eukaryotic cells,
however, there are a number of examples of cells that do not conform to
the standard notion of what a cell looks like at the microscopic level
● This is a typical example of how variation in biological systems means that
‘biological theories’ are based on concepts or regularities
● Discrepancies - exceptions to the general trend
Atypical Structures in Eukaryotic Cells
These atypical cells have a different number of nuclei form the typical
eukaryotic cell, which has one nucleus

● Red Blood Cell - No nucleus

● Aseptate Fungal Hyphae - Many nuclei
● Skeletal Muscle Fiber - Many nuclei
● Phloem Sieve Tube Element - No nucleus
Atypical Structures in Eukaryotic Cells - Red Blood Cells
● Red blood cells (erythrocytes) transport
oxygen (and carbon dioxide) in vertebrates
● During their maturation, red blood cells
discard their nucleus and mitochondria
● Provides space to transport more oxygen
● Increases their surface area to volume ratio,
which allows for efficient gas exchange
Atypical Structures in Eukaryotic Cells - Aseptate Fungal Hyphae
● Hyphae are the tubular projections of multicellular fungi that form an
underground filamentous network (mycelium)
● Fungal hyphae are sometimes not divided in to individual cells, which
results in a continuous cytoplasm along the length of the hyphae with
many nuclei
Atypical Structures in Eukaryotic Cells - Skeletal Muscle Cells

● Skeletal muscle fibre result from the fusion of multiple unicellular cells
● Results in a single large cell that has multiple nuclei
Atypical Structures in Eukaryotic Cells - Phloem Sieve Tube Element
● Sieve tube elements are
specialized cells that are
part of the phloem (tissue
that transports sap
throughout a plant)
● Sieve tube elements lose
their nucleus and other
organelles during their
development
● Allows for more space for
sap to pass through the
cell