Physics (312) Practical Solutions

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NIOS CLASS 12TH Physics (312)

Written by Manish Verma
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CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that ………………………, a student of class 12th has

successfully completed the research on the below practical under the
guidance of ………………………… (teacher name) during the year
.................. in partial fulfilment of physics practical exam conducted by
NIOS, new Delhi,
2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I Would like to convey my heartfelt thanks to……………..., who always

gave valuable suggestion and guidance for completion of my practical.
she/he helped me and to understand and remember important details of
the project. She/he helped me and gave her/his guidance in completing
of my practical successfully.
3
Index
1. To Determine the internal diameter and depth of a cylindrical container using a
Vernier calliper and find its capacity. Verify the result using a graduated cylinder.
2. To Determine the diameter of a given wire using a screw gauge.

3. To Determine the radius of curvature of a concave mirror using a spherometer.
4. To Determine the specific heat of a solid using the method of mixtures.
5. To find the weight of a given body using the parallelogram law of vectors.
6. To study the relation between the length of a given wire and tension for constant
frequency using a sonometer resonating with a given tuning fork. Use the graph
to determine the mass per unit length of the string.
7. To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror and find
its focal length (f) by plotting graph between 1/u and 1/v.
8. To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a

graph between angle of incidence and angle of deviation.
9. To find resistance of a given wire using a metre bridge and hence determine the
resistivity (specific resistance) of its material.
10. To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by a half-deflection method and to

find its figure of merit.
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Experiment No.1
Aim
To Determine the internal diameter and depth of a cylindrical container using a
Vernier calliper and find its capacity. Verify the result using a graduated cylinder.
Material Required
A Vernier callipers, a calorimeter, a graduated cylinder, a glass slab.
Procedure
What is least count?
The least count is defined as the smallest change in the measured quantity which
can be resolved on an instrument’s scale.
The least count of Vernier callipers = Least count of Vernier callipers =
𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆

𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒊𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆
1. Observe the divisions on the Vernier scale are smaller than those on the main scale.
The difference between one main scale division and one Vernier division is called
Vernier constant or least count of the Vernier callipers.
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2. Observe the number of Vernier divisions(n) which match against one a

smaller number of divisions of main scale (n-1).
Formula used
3. Calculate the least count: 1 division of Vernier scale = (n-1)/n division of main
scale
Least count = 1 main scale division – 1 Vernier scale division
= 1 main scale division – (n-1)/n main scale division
= 1/n main scale division
Diagram
6
Observations
Determination of the least count of Vernier callipers 1 M.S.D = 1 mm 10 V.S.D = 9
M.S.D
∴ 1 V.S.D = 9/10 M.S.D = 0.9 mm
The least count of Vernier callipers (V.C) = 1 M.S.D – 1 V.S.D = (1-0.9) mm = 0.1
mm = 0.01 cm
Table for internal diameter (D)
Sl. Main Vernier scale reading Total reading

no scale
No. of Vernier Value Observed Corrected

division [n×(V.C)] D0=N+n×V.C D=D0+c
coinciding (n)
1. 6.2 9 0.09 6.29 D1= 6.29
2. 6.2 2 0.02 6.22 D2= 6.22
3. 6.2 6 0.06 6.26 D3= 6.26
4. 6.2 4 0.04 6.24 D4= 6.24
Mean observed diameter = d’= 6.25 cm
Mean corrected depth = d = d’ + zero correction
Mean corrected depth = d = 6.25 cm
Radius = 6.25/2 = 3.12 cm
Table for the depth (d)
7
Sl.no Position Main Vernier scale reading Total reading

scale
reading
(N in
cm)
No.of Value Observed Corrected

Vernier [n×(V.C)] d0=N+n × d=d0+c
division (V.C)
coinciding
(n)
1. at A 9.3 3 0.03 9.33 d1= 9.33
2. at B 9.3 9 0.09 9.39 d2= 9.39
3. at C 9.3 4 0.04 9.34 d3= 9.34
4. at D 9.3 6 0.06 9.36 d4= 9.36
Mean observed depth = h’= 9.35 cm
Mean corrected depth = h = h’ + zero correction
Mean corrected depth = h = 9.35 cm
Calculation
Volume of Cylinder
The volume of a cylinder is given by the relation:
V = πr2h = π(d/2)2h = 1/4 × πd2h
Volume = 3.14 x (3.12)2 x 9.35
Volume = 28,579 cm3
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Result
The volume of the beaker is 28,579 cm3.
Precautions
1. Apply machine oil or grease to make the Vernier scale slide smoothly over the
main scale.
2. To avoid the damage to threads, do not exert more pressure on the Vernier
screw.
3. To avoid errors due to parallax, keep the eye directly over the division mark.
4. The significant figures and units used in observations must be correct.
Sources of Error
1. Not accounting for the zero error in the instrument.

2. Avoid gaps and undue pressure with respect to the placing of Vernier callipers.
Viva Questions
Question. 1. Why is a slide callipers called a Vernier Callipers?

Answer. Because it was first designed by a French mathematician, Pierre Vernier.
Question.2. What is the principle of a Vernier scale?

Answer. The number of Vernier scale divisions coinciding with main scale divisions
should either be one less or one more.
Question.3. Define Vernier constant.

Answer. It is the difference between value of one main scale division and one
Vernier scale division of a Vernier callipers.
Question.4. Define least count of a measuring instrument.

Answer. It is the least quantity that the instrument can measure accurately. (For a
Vernier callipers, its. least count is equal to Vernier constant.)
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Question.5. Give least counts of a metre scale, Vernier callipers, screw gauge
and a spherometer.
Answer. Metre scale (1 mm), Vernier callipers (0.1 mm),
Question.6. screw gauge and spherometer (0.01 mm). What is a zero error?
Answer. It is the error in the Vernier callipers, if the zeros of the main scale and
Vernier scale do not coincide when the lower jaws are in contact.
Question.7. How does zero error arise in the instrument?

Answer. It arises due to wear and tear of the instrument caused by its long use.
Question.8. When is zero error positive and when is it negative?

Answer. Zero error is positive when Vernier zero is to the right of main scale zero
and negative if it is to the left.
Question.9. How is zero error applied?

Answer. Zero error is a algebraically subtracted from the observed reading.
Question.10. What is zero correction? How is it applied?

Answer. Negative of zero error is zero correction. It is algebraically added to the
observed reading.
Question.11. What is the utility of Vernier scale over meter scale?

Answer. It increases the accuracy of measurement.
Question.12. What are other measurements that can be made by a Vernier

callipers?
Answer. The callipers jaws are used for measuring internal diameter of hollow
cylinder or calorimeter. The thin metallic strip attached to the back side of the main
scale is used for measuring depth of a vessel.
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Experiment No. 2
Aim
To Determine the diameter of a given wire using a screw gauge.
Materials Required
1. Screw gauge
2. Wire
3. Half-meter scale
4. Magnifying glass
Formula Required
Least count is given as:
𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 =
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
If a screw gauge has a pitch of 1 mm and 100 divisions on the circular scale then
the least count is given as:
1𝑚𝑚
𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 = = 0.01𝑚𝑚
100
Diagram
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Procedure
1. Find the value of one linear scale division (L.S.D).

2. Determine and record the pitch and least count of the screw gauge.
3. To find the zero error, bring the plane face B and A near. Repeat and record this
for three times. Record zero error as nil if there is no error.
4. Move face B away from face A. using a ratchet head R, move the face A towards
face B lengthwise and stop when R turns without moving the screw.
5. Linear scale reading (L.S.R) is recorded by noting down the no.of visible and
uncovered divisions of linear scale.
6. Let n be the no. of divisions of the circular scale lying on the reference line.
7. To measure diameter in a perpendicular direction, repeat steps 5 and 6 by
rotating the wire to 90°.
8. For the entire length of wire, repeat steps 4,5,6 and 7 for five different positions
and record the observations.
9. Find the total reading and also zero correction.
10. Take the mean of different values of diameter.
11. Using a half-meter scale, measure the length of the wire. Repeat this step three
times and record the readings.
Observations
1. Determination of the least count of the screw gauge L.S.D = 1 mm

2. Number of full rotations given to screw = 4Distance moved by the screw = 4 mm
Hence, pitch p = 4 mm/4 = 1 mm
No. of divisions on circular scale = 100
Hence, the least count = 1 mm/100 = 0.01 mm = 0.001 cm
Sl.no Circular scale reading Total reading
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No.of Value Observed Corrected

Linear circular [n×(L.C)] D0=N+n×(L.C)mm D=D0+c
scale scale mm
reading division
(N in on
mm) reference
line (n)
AӨB 0 23 0.023 0.023 D1(a)= 0.026
0 24 0.024 0.024 D1(b)= 0.027
AӨB 0 20 0.020 0.020 D2(a)= 0.023
0 21 0.021 0.021 D2(b)= 0.024
AӨB 0 25 0.025 0.025 D3(a)= 0.028
Calculation
0.026+0.027+0.023+0.024+0.028
Mean value of diameter = 5
Mean = 0.0256 cm
Result
The diameter of given wire = 0.0256 cm
Precautions
1. There shouldn’t be any friction while moving the screw.

2. The screw should always be rotated by ratchet R and not by cap K to avoid
undue pressure.
3. For zero correction proper sign should be noted.
4. To avoid back-lash error in the screw, the screw should be moved in the same
direction.
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5. The diameter of the wire should be measured at each place in two perpendicular
directions and mean should be taken.
6. Along the entire length of the wire, readings should be taken at five different
places.
7. Avoid errors because of parallax.
Sources Of Error
1. There might be friction in the screw.

2. There might be a back-lash error in the screw gauge.
3. Circular scale divisions may not be equally divided.
4. There might not be uniformity in the wire.
Viva Questions
Q1. What are the two main parts of the screw gauge?
Ans: The following are the two main parts of screw gauge:
 A nut
 A screw
Q2. What is the least count of the screw gauge?
Ans: The least count of the screw gauge is 0.001 cm.
Q3. What is pitch?
Ans: Pitch is defined as the distance between two nearest threads along the axis of
the screw.
Q4. How to determine pitch?
Ans:
𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐
𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ =
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
Q5. When is zero-error positive?
Ans: Zero-error is said to be positive when the zero circular scale lies above the
reference line only when the fixed and movable studs are in contact.
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Experiment No. 3
Aim
To Determine the radius of curvature of a concave mirror using a spherometer.
Materials Required
1. Spherometer
2. Convex surface
3. A big size plane mirror
Formula Used
What is the least count of a spherometer?
𝒑𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒘

Least count of the spherometer = 𝒏𝒐.𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆
The least count of the spherometer is 0.01 mm.
Procedure
1. To get the three pricks of the spherometer, press the spherometer gently on the
practical note-book by lifting the central screw and mark these pricks as A, B, and
C.
2. Join the points A, B, and C to form a triangle and measure the distance between
these points.
3. Note the distances between AB, BC, and CA and take their mean.
4. Find the value of the pitch which is the vertical scale division.
5. Record the pitch and least count of the spherometer.
6. Lift the screw sufficiently upwards.
7. Place the spherometer on the convex surface so that all the three legs rest on it.
8. Turn the screw gently downwards till it touches the convex surface.
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9. Let a be the reading taken from the circular scale which is in line with the vertical
scale.
10. Now remove and place the spherometer on the plane mirror.
11. Let n1 be the no. of rotations completed by the disc when it is moved downwards.
12. Continue rotating the disc till the tip of the screw touches the plane surface of the
mirror.
13. Let b be the reading of the circular scale which is in line with the vertical scale.
14. From the last incomplete rotation, find the number of a circular scale division.
15. Repeat steps 6 to 14 three times and record the observations.
Diagram
Observation
Least count of spherometer
1 pitch scale division = 1 mm
No. of full rotations given to screw = 5
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Distance moved by the screw = 5 mm
Hence, pitch, p = 5mm/5 = 1 mm
No. of divisions on circular (disc) scale = 100
Hence, least count = 1mm/100 = 0.01 mm = 0.001 cm
Sl.no Circular No.of No.of disc scale Total reading

(disc) complete divisions in h=n1×p+×(L.C)
scale rotations on a incomplete (mm)
reading plane mirror rotation x=(a-b)
(n1)
1. 0 0 30x0.001 = 0.03 h1= 0.03

0.030
2. 0 0 40x0.001 = 0.04 h2= 0.04

0.040
3. 0 0 35x0.001 = 0.035 h3= 0.035

0.035
Calculation
ℎ1 + ℎ2 + ℎ3
Mean value of 3
0.03+0.04+0.035
Mean Value = 3
Mean = 0.035
Radius of curvature of a concave mirror
𝑙2 ℎ
𝑅= + 𝑐𝑚
6ℎ 2
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Result
The radius of curvature of the given convex surface is 76.2 cm.
Precautions
1. The movement of the screw should happen without any friction.

2. To avoid backlash error, the screw should be moved in the same direction.
3. Avoid excess rotation.
Source Of Error
1. There might be friction in the screw.

2. There might be a back-lash error in the spherometer.
3. The divisions between the circular scale may not be of equal size.
Viva Questions
Q1. What is the formula used to find the radius of curvature using
spherometer?
Ans: Following is the formula used to find the radius of curvature using spherometer:
𝑙2 ℎ
𝑅= + 𝑐𝑚
6ℎ 2
Q2. What is Len’s maker formula?
𝟏 𝒏 𝟏 𝟏
Ans: = [𝒏𝟐 − 𝟏][𝑹 − 𝑹 ]
𝒇 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
Q3. What is the principle of spherometer?

Ans: The spherometer works on the principle of a micrometre screw.
Q4. Why is spherometer known by this name?
Ans: Spherometer is used to measure the radius of curvature of spherical surfaces.
So, it is known by that name.
Q5. What does the pitch of spherometer mean?
Ans: the pitch of spherometer is the distance between two consecutive threads of
the screw which is parallel to the axis of rotation.
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Experiment No. 4
Aim
To Determine the specific heat of a solid using the method of mixtures.
Material Required
Calorimeter with insulated box and stirrer, heating arrangement, brass bob, two
thermometers, measuring glass cylinder, cotton thread, spring balance to find the
mass of bob.
Diagram
Procedure
1. Put two thermometer A and B in a beaker containing water and note their
reading. Take one of them, say A to be standard and find the correction to be
applied to the other, say B.
2. Put thermometer B in copper tube of hypsometer containing the power of given
solid. Put sufficient water in hypsometer and place it on a burner.
3. Weigh the calorimeter with stirrer and lid over it by the physical balance. Record
it.
4. Fill about half of calorimeter with water at about temperature 5 to 8°C below room
temperature. Now, weigh it again and record it.
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5. Heat the hypsometer about 10 minutes till the temperature of solid remains
steady.
6. Note the temperature of water in the calorimeter. Now, transfer the solid from
hypsometer to the calorimeter quickly. Stir the contents and record the final
temperature of the mixture.
7. Remove the thermometer A from calorimeter and weigh the calorimeter with its
contents and lid.
Observation
1. Least count of measuring cylinder = 25 ml
2. Least count of spring balance = 1 gm wt.
3. Mass of brass bob mb = 83.7 gm
4. Mass of calorimeter and stirrer = mc = 45.5 gm
5. Least count of thermometer = 0.2 degrees
6. Initial temperature of water in the calorimeter = t 1 = 32.5 °C
7. Temperature of boiling water = t3 = 100 °C
8. Final temperature of water and bob = t 2 = 38 °C
9. Specific heat of copper = Sc (from the table) = 0.093 Cal g–1 °C–1.
10. Volume of cold water in the calorimeter = 60 mL (as given in the procedure) mass
of cold water = 60g (density of water ≈1 g/mL).
Calculation
Heat given by hot brass bob = mb × S × (t3 –t2) cal.
(ii) Heat taken by water in calorimeter = 60 × 1 × (t 2 –t1) cal. {Specific heat of water =
1 Cal g–1 oC–1}
(iii) Heat taken by calorimeter = mc × Sc × (t2 –t1) cal. We have from method of
mixtures, Heat given by hot body = heat taken by cold body mb × S × (t3 –t2) = {60 +
mc × Sc} (t2 –t1)
Precautions
1. Sufficient solid power should be taken to cover the tip of thermometer properly.
2. Sufficient water should be taken in hypsometer.
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3. Solid should be dropped quickly and gently.

4. Calorimeter should be polished from outside to avoid excessive radiation losses.
5. Temperature of cold water should not be below the dew point.
Sources of Error
1. Some heat is lost while transferring hot solid into calorimeter.

2. Some heat is lost in conduction, convection and radiation.
3. The bulbs of the thermometer may not be well inside the solid.
Viva Questions
Question. 1. What is heat?

Answer. It is the energy which produces the sensation of warmth.
Question. 2. Define specific heat of a substance.

Answer. It is-defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit
mass of substance through 1°C.
Question. 3. State the principle of calorimetry.

Answer. Whenever substances at different temperature are mixed so as to exchange
the heat. Heat lost – Heat gained.
Question. 4. Why do we use calorimeter made of copper?

Answer. Copper has very low value of specific heat. Due to this a large size in
temperature takes place, when some quantity of heat is supplied to it.
Question. 5. Is heat gained always equal to heat lost?

Answer. No, it is only correct if there is no chemical reaction takes place between its
components.
21
Experiment No. 05
Aim
To find the weight of a given body using the parallelogram law of vectors.
Material Required
Parallelogram law of forces apparatus (Gravesand’s apparatus), plumb line, slotted

weights, thin strong thread, white drawing, paper sheet, drawing pins, mirror strip,
pencil, set square/ protractor, a body whose weight is to be determined.
Diagram
Procedure
1. Set up the Gravesand’s apparatus with its board vertical and with the help of a
plumb line.
2. Oil the pulleys P1 and P2 if they are not friction-less.
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3. With the help of drawing pins, fix the white sheet on the board.
4. Let O be the knot made from three-piece of strong thread.
5. Let P and Q be the weights that are tied at both the ends of the hanger and S be
the given body tied to the third end.
6. Let the third weight S be vertically in the middle of the board and weights P and Q
are passed over the pulley.
7. Junction O should be maintained at equilibrium by adjusting weights P and Q.
8. Disturb the weights P and Q and leave them free.
9. The position of junction O will be closer to the earlier position.
10. Taking a scale, 1 cm = 50 g, OA = 3 cm and OB = 3 cm to represent P =150g
and Q = 150g.
11. R is represented by completing the parallelogram OACB and by joining OC with
the help of set squares.
12. When OC is measured, it comes to 3.9 cm.
13. P and Q can be changed for different sets.
14. By using spring balance, find the weight of the wooden box.
Observation
Least count of spring balance = 100 g
Weight of unknown body by spring balance = 150 g
Sl. Forces Diagonal AC Resultant Unknown

no Y (cm) force R (g wt) weight S (g
wt)
P (g Q (g OA OB OC
wt) wt) (cm) (cm) (cm)
1. 150 150 6.9 7.0 20.0 149 149
2. 100 100 4.7 4.6 7.2 150 150
3. 50 50 2.3 2.4 6.9 151 151
23
Unknown weight, S = 150g
Mean unknown weight,
𝑆1 + 𝑆2 + 𝑆3
𝑆=
3
= 150g
Result
The unknown weight of given body = 150g
Precautions
1. The board should be stable and placed verticle.

2. There shouldn’t be any friction in the pulleys.
3. The board or the table should not be in touch with the hangers.
4. The middle of the paper should have junction O.
5. When the weights are at rest, the points should be marked.
6. A sharp pencil should be used to mark the points.
7. To show the direction of forces, arrows should be marked.
8. To make a fairly big parallelogram, a proper scale should be taken.
Sources of Error
1. There might be friction in the pulleys.

2. Weights might not be accurate.
3. Points marked may be correct.
4. Weight measured by spring balance may not be accurate.
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Viva Questions
Q1. Define scalar quantity.
Ans: It is defined as the physical quantity which has only magnitude like length,
mass, etc.
Q2. Define vector quantity.
Ans: It is defined as the physical quantity which has magnitude and direction like
force, velocity, etc.
Q3. Define addition of vector.
Ans: The addition of vector is defined as the operation of adding two or more vectors
together into a vector sum.
Q4. What is resolution of vectors?
Ans: Resolution of the vector is defined as the breaking of a single vector into its
components.
Q5. Why is addition of vector different from the addition of scalars?
Ans: Addition of vector has direction and magnitude whereas the addition of scalar
has only magnitude. Therefore, the addition of vector is different from the addition of
scalar.
25
Experiment No. 06
Aim
To study the relation between the length of a given wire and tension for constant
frequency using a sonometer resonating with a given tuning fork. Use the graph to
determine the mass per unit length of the string.
Materials Required
1. A sonometer
2. A set of eight tuning forks
3. ½ kg hanger
4. Seven ½ kg slotted weights
5. Rubber pad
6. Paper rider
7. Metre-scale
8. Screw gauge
Diagram
Procedure
26
1. Place the sonometer with a load of 4 kg on the table as shown in the above
diagram.
2. Frictionless pulley should be used for the experiment.
3. The hanger should carry a maximum weight that is suitable for it.
4. To have a maximum length of the wire, move the wooden bridges accordingly.
5. From the set of tuning fork, select 256 Hz fork and strike it against the rubber pad
to make it vibrate. After striking the fork, bring it near your ear.
6. Reduce the distance between the wooden bridges as the frequency from the wire
is less. Check for the frequencies again.
7. The length of the wire AB should be reduced continuously until the frequency of
the wire becomes equal to the frequency of the tuning fork.
8. Place a V shaped paper rider R in the middle of the wire. Strike the tuning fork
against the rubber pad and touch the lower end of the handle with the sonometer
board. The wire AB will start to vibrate and the rider R falls off the wire AB.
9. Record the increase in the length of the wire under “length increasing” in the
table.
10. Record the observations in a tabular form.
Observations
Constant frequency of tuning fork, v = 256 Hz
Variation of length with tension.
Sl. Load Tension Resonant length of wire l2 (cm2) l2/T

no M Mg T(N) (cm2N-1)
(kg) Length Length Mean
increasing decreasing =(
l1 (cm) l2 (cm) l1+
l2)/2
l(cm)
1. 0.5 4.9 13 13 13 169 34.48
2. 1 9.8 17.8 17.8 17.8 316.84 32.33
27
3. 1.5 14.7 21.3 21.3 21.3 453.69 30.86
Calculations
Plot the graph between T and l 2, taking T along the x-axis and l2 along the y-axis.
The graph will be a straight line.
Result
1. We found that l2/T = constant.

2. From the graph, it is concluded that T ∝ l2 for constant frequency v and it
corresponds to the formula:
1 𝑇
𝑣= √
𝑙𝐷 𝜋𝜌
This verifies the law of tension of transverse vibrations of strings.
28
Precautions
1. Frictionless pulleys should be used.

2. The wires should be of uniform cross-section and kinkless.
3. The maximum load on the wire should not exceed the elastic limit.
4. Soft rubber pad should be used to strike the tuning forks.
5. For calculations, the mean of length decreasing and increasing should be used.
6. While transferring the vibrations, the lower end of the handle should be touched
gently to the sonometer board.
7. The load should include hanger weight too.
8. After the experiment, the load should be removed.
Sources of Error
1. Frictionless pulley might not be used.

2. The rigid and uniform cross-sectional wire might not be used.
3. Correct weights are not used.
4. Sharpe wooden bridges might not be used.
Viva Questions
Q1. What is the law of length?
1
Ans: Mathematical form of the law of length when T and m are constant is: 𝑣 ∝ 𝑙
Q2. What is the law of tension?
Ans: Mathematical form of the law of tension when l and m are constant is: 𝑣 ∝ √𝑇
Q3. What is the law of mass?
1
Ans: Mathematical form of the law of mass when l and T are constant is: 𝑣 ∝ √𝑚
Q4. What is pitch of sound and on what factor does it depend?

Ans: Pitch of sound is defined as the sensation of sound when it is either shrill or
grave. It depends upon the frequency of sound.
Q5. What is a sonometer?
Ans: Sonometer is a hollow rectangular wooden box.
29
Experiment No. 07
Aim
To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror and find its
focal length (f) by plotting graph between 1/u and 1/v.
Material Required
Concave mirror, optical bench with three uprights, mirror holder, two pins, knitting
needle, metre rod, spirit level.
Diagram
Ray Diagram
Optical Bench
30
Procedure
Determination of bench-correction
1. Place the knitting needle along the metre scale. Read the position of its two
ends, avoiding error due to parallax. Find the length of the knitting needle l.
2. Using knitting needle, adjust the object-pin, so that the distance between the
pole of the mirror and the tip of the pin is l.
3. Find bench correction (l-l1) for pin A.
4. Repeat the same procedure for image pin ‘B’ also.
Determination of approximate focal length of the mirror
1. Take out the mirror from mirror-holder and hold it in such a way so that a clear
distinct image of a distant object is obtained on the wall.
2. Measure the distance between the mirror and the wall with the help of a metre
scale. This gives the approximate focal length, f 1 of the mirror.
Determination of v for different values of u
1. Fix the mirror again in the mirror-holder.
2. Fix the object-pin A at a point between, f1 and 2f1 but so that looking into the
mirror, you will see a clear real, inverted and highly enlarged image of A.
3. Position the image-pin B beyond 2 f1, so that there is no parallax between the
tip of B and the tip of image of A.
4. Plot a graph with 1/u on x-axis and 1/v on y-axis, taking scone scale on both
axes and start from zero on either axes.
5. Read the intercept on y-axis. Reciprocal of it gives the focal length.
31
Observations
The rough focal length of the given concave mirror = -18 cm
The actual length of the knitting needle, x = 30.1 cm
Observed distance between the mirror and object needle when knitting needle is
placed in between them, y = 31.5 cm
Observed distance between the mirror and image needle when knitting needle is
placed in between the, z = 43.1 cm
Index correction for the object distance, u = x – y = ± 1.4 cm
Index correction for the image distance, v = x -z = ± 13 cm
S.No. Position of Object distance Image distance 1/u 1/u

Mirror Object Image Observed Corrected Observed Corrected
O cm Needle Needle Value OA value value OA’ value OA’ m -1 m -1
A cm A’ cm cm OA’cm cm cm
1. 0 36.4 36.4 -36.4 -36.4 -36.4 -36.4 -0.0274 -0.0274
2. 0 31.5 43.1 -31.5 -31.5 -43.1 -43.1 -0.0317 -0.0232
3. 0 30.0 46.2 -30.0 -30.0 -46.2 -46.2 -0.0333 -0.0216
4. 0 27.0 55.8 -27.0 -27.0 -55.8 -55.8 -0.0370 -0.0179
5. 0 25.0 67.0 -25.0 -25.0 -67.0 -67.0 -0.0400 -0.0149
Conclusions
1 1
(i) Graph between 𝑢 and 𝑣 is a straight line with a slope = 1.05
(ii) Focal length of the given concave mirror = -0.1819 m
32
Graph
Result
The focal length of the given concave mirror is determined from the following:
1. Focal length is calculated as,
𝒖𝒗
𝒇 = 𝒖+𝒗
= -18.19 cm
2. (u – v) graph = -18.25 cm
𝟏 𝟏
( 𝒖 − 𝒗)
3. graph = - 18.51 cm
Precautions
1. The uprights should be vertical.
33
2. The principal axis of the mirror should be perpendicular while the central line of
the optical bench should be parallel.
3. The eye should be at least 30 cm away from the needle to locate the position of
the image.
4. Tip to tip parallax should be removed between the needle and the image
obtained from the needle.
5. The tips of object and image should be at the same height when compared to the
pole of the concave mirror.
6. Index correction should be applied for u and v.
Sources of Error
1. Parallax removed may not be perfect.
2. The uprights may not be vertical.
Viva Questions
Q1. Define lens formula.
Ans: Lens formula is defined as the equation which explains the relation between
object distance (u), image distance (v), and focal length of the lens (f).
Q2. What is the optical centre of a lens?
Ans: Optical centre of a lens is defined as the fixed point inside the lens on the
principal axis through which light ray passes.
Q3. What is the principal axis of a lens?
Ans: Principal axis of a lens is the straight line passing through the centre of
curvature of the lens.
34
Experiment No. 8
Aim
To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph
between angle of incidence and angle of deviation.
Materials Required
 A drawing board
 A white sheet of paper
 A prism
 Drawing pins
 Pencil
 A half-metre scale
 Office pins
 Protractor
 Graph paper
Ray Diagram
35
Procedure
1. Place the white sheet of paper on the drawing board and fix it with the help of
drawing pins.
2. XX’ is the straight line drawn parallel to the length of the paper such that it is in
the middle of the paper.
3. Mark points Q1, Q2, Q3…… on the straight line XX’ at a distance of 5 cm each.
4. N1Q1, N2Q2,… are the normal that are drawn on the points Q1, Q2,… as shown in
the ray diagram.
5. Make angles of 35°, 40°,….,60° by drawing straight lines R 1Q1, R2Q2,…….. With
respect to the normals.
6. To take one edge of the prism for all the observations, mark any corner of the
prism as A.
7. Mark the boundary of the prism.
8. On the line, R1Q1, fix office pins vertically and mark them as P 1 and P2. the
distance between these pins should not be less than 10mm.
9. Through the prism face, AC, look for the images of the points P1 and P2.
Observations
The angle of prism, A = 60°
Serial no. Angle of incidence ∠i Angle of deviation ∠D
1 35° 43°
2 40° 39°
3 45° 38°
4 50° 38°
5 55° 39°
6 60° 42°
36
Calculations
To plot the graph between the angle of incidence ∠i and the angle of deviation ∠D,
take ∠i along the x-axis and ∠D along the y-axis. Minimum deviation Dm can be
found from the graph which would corresponding to the lowest point in the graph.
Let the value of angle of minimum deviation, Dm = 37°
𝐴+𝐷𝑚
𝑠𝑖𝑛( )
2
Then, 𝑛 = 𝐴
𝑠𝑖𝑛( )
2
Putting the A = 60° and Dm = 37° in the above equation, we get n = 1.5
Result
 The angle of minimum deviation, Dm = 37°
 Refractive index of the material of the prism, n = 1.5
 The graph indicates as the angle of incidence increases, the angle of deviation
first decreases to attain the minimum value of Dm and then again increases with
the angle of incidence.
Precautions
37
 35°-60° is the angle of incidence that needs to be maintained.
 The placement of the pins must be vertical.
 The placement of two pins should be such that the distance is not more than
10mm.
 To represent incident and emergent rays, arrowheads must be marked.
 The angle of prism used should be the same for all the observations.
Sources of Error
 The pricks made by the pins might be thick.
 Angles might go wrong while measuring them.
Viva Questions
Q1. Name the factors on which the angle of deviation depends.
Ans: Following are the factors on which the angle of deviation depends:
 The angle of incidence
 The refracting angle of the prism
 Refractive index of the material used in the prism
 The wavelength of the light ray
Q2. Define angular deviation.
Ans: Angular deviation is defined as the ratio of the angular dispersion of the two
colours to produce the deviation by the prism.
Q3. Name the factor on which dispersive power depends.
Ans: Dispersive power depends on the refractive index of the material used in the
prism.
Q4. Name the colours with the highest and smallest refractive index.
Ans: Violet colour has the highest refractive index while the red colour has the
smallest refractive index.
38
Experiment No. 9
Aim
To find resistance of a given wire using a metre bridge and hence determine the
resistivity (specific resistance) of its material.
Materials Required
1. A metre bridge
2. A Leclanche cell (battery eliminator)
3. A galvanometer
4. A resistance box
5. A jockey
6. A one-way key
7. A resistance wire
8. A screw gauge
9. A metre scale
10. A set square
11. Connecting wires
12. A piece of sandpaper
Theory
Metre bridge apparatus is also known as a slide wire bridge. It is fixed on the
wooden block and consists of a long wire with a uniform cross-sectional area. It has
two gaps formed using thick metal strips to make the Wheatstone’s bridge.
Then according to Wheatstone’s principle, we have:
𝑋 𝑙
= (100−𝑙)
𝑅
The unknown resistance can be calculated as:
𝑙
𝑋=𝑅
(100 − 𝑙)
39
Then the specific resistance of the material of the is calculated as:
𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝑿
𝝆=
𝑳
Where,
 L is the length of the wire
 r is the radius of the wire
Circuit Diagram
Procedure
1. The arrangement of the apparatus should be as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. The wire whose resistance is to be determined should be connected in the right
gap between C and B without any formation of loops.
3. The resistance box should be connected in the left gap between A and B.
4. All the other connections should be as shown in the circuit diagram.
5. Plug the key K in place of 2-ohm resistance in the resistance box.
40
6. The jockey should be first touched gently to the left end and then to the right end
of the bridge.
7. The deflections in the galvanometer should be in opposite directions and if it is in
one direction then the circuit connections are not correct. Note the galvanometer
deflection.
8. Let D be the null point where the jockey is touching the wire. The movement of
the jokey should be gentle from left to the right of the galvanometer.
9. Take a 12 value from the resistance box should be taken such that when the
jockey is nearly in the middle of the wire, there shouldn’t be any deflection.
10. Record the observations in the table.
Observations
Length of given wire L = 100 cm
Table for unknown resistance (X)
Unknown
S.No Resistance from Length AB Length BC = Resistance X =
box, R (Ohm) = l (cm) (100-l) (cm) [R(100-l)]/L
(Ohm)
1. 0.5 58.3 41.7 0.35
2. 0.7 60.7 39.3 0.45
3. 1 61.9 38.1 0.61
4. 1.5 61.1 38.9 0.95
Least count of the screw gauge
Pitch of screw gauge = 1 mm
Total no. of divisions on the circular scale = 10
∴ L.C of the given screw gauge =
41
𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
= 0.1 mm
Radius of the resistance wire
S.No. Mean
Main scale Circular Total reading
Mean D radius
reading scale (diameter)
(mm) (D/2)
(mm) reading (mm)
(mm)
1 0 48 0.48 0.48 0.24
2 0 49 0.49 0.49 0.245
3 0 51 0.51 0.51 0.255
Calculations
Calculation for X
The value of l is determined from the position of D and recorded in column 3 of Table
1.
Find length (100 – l) cm
𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + 𝑋3 + 𝑋4
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑋 = = 0.59 𝑜ℎ𝑚
4
Result
1. The value of unknown resistance X = 0.59 Ω

2. The specific resistance of the material of the given wire = 1Ω
Precautions
1. The connections should be neat, tight and clean.
42
2. Plugs should be tightly connected in the resistance box.

3. The movement of the jockey should be gentle and it shouldn’t be rubbed.
4. The key K should be inserted only when the observations are to be taken.
5. The null point should be between 45cm and 55cm.
6. To avoid the error of parallax, the set square should be used to note the null
point.
7. There shouldn’t be any loops in the wire.
8. The diameter of the wire should be measured in two perpendicular directions that
are mutual.
Sources of Error
1. The screws of the instrument might be loose.

2. The wire might be of non-uniform diameter.
3. There might be a backlash error in the screw gauge.
Viva Questions
Q1. Why is the metre bridge called so?
Ans: It is called a metre bridge because the bridges use one-meter long wire.
Q2. What is the null point?
Ans: Null point is defined as the point at which a galvanometer reads 0 deflections.
Q3. Why is the bridge method better than the Ohms law of measurement?
Ans: Bridge method is better than the Ohms law of measurement because of the
null method.
Q4. What is the range of measurement of resistance using a Wheatstone
bridge?
Ans: The resistance measurement range using a Wheatstone bridge is between 1Ω
to a few megaohms.
Q5. How can a Wheatstone bridge be used for the measurement of physical
parameters?
Ans: Wheatstone bridge is used to measure the physical parameters like
temperature, light, etc, using an operational amplifier and rectifiers are used for the
conversion of A.C to D.C.
43
Experiment No.10
Aim
To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by a half-deflection method and to
find its figure of merit.
Materials Required
 A battery
 A Weston type galvanometer
 Two one-way keys
 Rheostat
 Screw gauge
 Metre-scale
 Ammeter
 Connecting wires
 A piece of sandpaper
 Two resistance boxes
Circuit Diagram
44
Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.

2. Make sure that all the plugs in the resistance boxes are tight
3. Eliminate the high resistance from the resistance box and insert plug key K1 only.
4. Adjust the value of R to make the deflection maximum both in number and within
the scale.
5. Note the deflection θ.
6. Now insert the key K2 without changing the value of R. Adjust the value of S such
that the value of the deflection reduces to half of θ, i.e. θ/2
7. Note down the value of resistance S.
8. Repeat steps 4 to 7 three times and obtains different values of R for different
values of S.
9. Find the value of the E.M.F of one of the cells with the help of a voltmeter.
Observations and Calculations
S.No Resistance Deflection in Shunt Half Galvanometer

the Resistance Deflection Resistance
R
Galvanometer
S θ/2 𝑅𝑆
𝐺=
θ 𝑅−𝑆
1 5000 28 110 14 112.47
2
5300 26 110 13
3 112.33
5800 24 110 12
112.13
Table for the resistance of the galvanometer by half deflection method
45
S.No Number of e.m.f of Resistance Deflection θ (div) Figure of

cells the cells from R.B. merit
or the
(Battery R (ohm) 𝐸
reading of 𝑘=
Eliminator) (𝑅 + 𝐺)Θ
the
battery
eliminator
E(V)
1. 1 3 5000 28 0.00002095
2.
1 3 5300 26 0.00002132
3. 1 3 5800 24 0.00002144
4. 1 3 6200 22 0.00002160
The number of divisions in the galvanometer scale, n = 10.
1. Calculation for G
𝑅𝑆
 Using the formula: 𝐺 = 𝑅−𝑆
calculate G and note it down.
2. The calculation for k
𝐸
 Using the formula: 𝑘 = (𝑅+𝐺)Θ calculate the value of k.
Result
1. The resistance of the given galvanometer = 112.23 Ω.

2. The figure of merit of a given galvanometer = 0.00002125 A/dn.
Precautions
46
1. All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight.

2. The e.m.f of the cell or battery should be constant.
3. High resistance from the resistance box should be introduced in the circuit
otherwise excessive current will flow through the ammeter and it can be
damaged.
Viva Questions
1. What is a Galvanometer?
Ans: A galvanometer is a device that is used to detect feeble electric currents in the
circuit.
2. Define the figure of merit of a galvanometer.
Ans: The figure of merit of a galvanometer is the quantity of current required to

produce a deflection of one division in the galvanometer. It has a unit ampere per
division and it is represented by K.
3. Why is the method called the half deflection method?
Ans: It is called so because the deflection is made half by using a shunt resistance
S.
4. Under what condition is the resistance of a galvanometer (E 1) equal to the

shunt resistance S?
Ans: E1 = S, only when series resistance R is high.

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NIOS CLASS 12TH Physics (312)

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2. To Determine the diameter of a given wire using a screw gauge.

8. To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a

10. To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by a half-deflection method and to

What is least count?

The least count of Vernier callipers = Least count of Vernier callipers =

𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆

2. Observe the number of Vernier divisions(n) which match against one a

Least count = 1 main scale division – 1 Vernier scale division

= 1 main scale division – (n-1)/n main scale division

= 1/n main scale division

∴ 1 V.S.D = 9/10 M.S.D = 0.9 mm

Table for internal diameter (D)

Sl. Main Vernier scale reading Total reading

No. of Vernier Value Observed Corrected

1. 6.2 9 0.09 6.29 D1= 6.29

2. 6.2 2 0.02 6.22 D2= 6.22

3. 6.2 6 0.06 6.26 D3= 6.26

4. 6.2 4 0.04 6.24 D4= 6.24

Mean observed diameter = d’= 6.25 cm

Mean corrected depth = d = d’ + zero correction

Mean corrected depth = d = 6.25 cm

Radius = 6.25/2 = 3.12 cm

Table for the depth (d)

Sl.no Position Main Vernier scale reading Total reading

No.of Value Observed Corrected

1. at A 9.3 3 0.03 9.33 d1= 9.33

2. at B 9.3 9 0.09 9.39 d2= 9.39

3. at C 9.3 4 0.04 9.34 d3= 9.34

4. at D 9.3 6 0.06 9.36 d4= 9.36

Mean observed depth = h’= 9.35 cm

Mean corrected depth = h = h’ + zero correction

Mean corrected depth = h = 9.35 cm

The volume of a cylinder is given by the relation:

V = πr2h = π(d/2)2h = 1/4 × πd2h

Volume = 3.14 x (3.12)2 x 9.35

Volume = 28,579 cm3

1. Not accounting for the zero error in the instrument.

Question. 1. Why is a slide callipers called a Vernier Callipers?

Question.2. What is the principle of a Vernier scale?

Question.3. Define Vernier constant.

Question.4. Define least count of a measuring instrument.

Question.7. How does zero error arise in the instrument?

Question.8. When is zero error positive and when is it negative?

Question.9. How is zero error applied?

Question.10. What is zero correction? How is it applied?

Question.11. What is the utility of Vernier scale over meter scale?

Question.12. What are other measurements that can be made by a Vernier

1. Find the value of one linear scale division (L.S.D).

1. Determination of the least count of the screw gauge L.S.D = 1 mm

Hence, pitch p = 4 mm/4 = 1 mm

No. of divisions on circular scale = 100

Hence, the least count = 1 mm/100 = 0.01 mm = 0.001 cm