Contemporary World ● Social media fails to establish global
● Expansion- It refers to both the creation of
new social networks and the multiplication
of connections that cut across traditional
political, economic, cultural, and geographic
boundaries.
● Intensification- refers to the expansion,
stretching, and acceleration of these
networks.
● Globalization- as the process of expansion
and intensification of social relations and
consciousness across world-time and
across world-space is a definition given by
Manfred Stanger
● Time, Space- “Globalization processes do
not occur merely at an objective, material
level but they also involve the subjective
plane of human consciousness”.
● Anthropologist Arjun Apparudai, different
kinds of globalization occur on multiple and
intersecting dimensions of integration that
he calls “scapes”.
● Technoscope- It refers to the global
circulation of mechanical goods and
software.
● Ideoscope- It is the realm where political
ideas move around.
● Ethnoscope- refers to the global movement
of people.
● Mediascape- is about the flow of culture.
● Financescape- denotes the global
circulation of money.
● Globalism- It is a widespread belief among
powerful people that the global integration
of economic markets is beneficial for
everyone, since it spreads freedom and
democracy across the world; a common
belief forwarded in media and policy circles.
● Globalization is a system of ideas, beliefs,
norms, values, and ideals that are accepted
as truth by some groups of people. True
● Most accounts view globalization as
primarily a political process. False
connections between people. False
● According to a common belief forwarded in
media and policy circles, global integration
of economic markets is beneficial for
everyone. True
● The world that we live in now is a product of
globalization in the past. True
● Economic globalization refers to the
increasing interdependence of world
economies as a result of the growing scale
of cross-border trade of commodities and
services, flow of international capital and
wide and rapid spread of technologies
● The International Monetary fund regards
economic globalization as a historical
process representing the result of human
innovation and technological progress. True
● The oldest known international trade route
was the Silk Road
● Galleon Trade (16th-18th century)-
Countries, primarily in Europe, competed
with one another to sell more goods as a
means to boost their country’s income
● Gold Standard (19th century)- Folllowing
the lead of the United Kingdom, the United
States, and other European Nations
adopted the gold standard at an
international monetary conference in Paris
● The Great Depression (20th century)-
This depression was the worst and longest
recession ever experienced by the Western
world. Some economists argued that it was
largely caused by the gold standard.
● The Great Depression started during the
1980's and extended up to the 1990's, was
the worst and longest recession ever
experienced by the Western world. False
● Fiat Currencies- Currencies that are not
backed by precious metals and whose value
is determined by their cost relative to other
currencies. Any money declared by a
government to be legal tender.
● Bretton Woods System- This system was
inaugurated in 1944 during the United
Nations Monetary and Financial Conference
to prevent the catastrophes of the early
decades of the century from reoccurring and
affecting international ties.
● It was largely influence by the ideas of
British economist John Maynard Keynes
who believed that economic crises occur not
when a country does not have enough
money, but when money is not being spent
and, thereby, not moving.
● Delegates at Bretton Woods agreed to
create two (2) financial institutions: the
International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development (IBRD, or World Bank
and the International Monetary Fund
(IMF).
● Shortly after the Bretton Woods, various
countries also committed themselves to
further global economic integration through
the General Agreement on Tariffs and
Trade (GATT) in 1947.
● The main purpose of the General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was
to reduce tariffs and other hindrances to
free trade. True
● Mercantilism- It was a system of global
trade with multiple restrictions happened
between the 16th century to the 18th
century wherein countries, primarily in
Europe, competed with one another to sell
more goods as a means to boost their
country's income.
● Neoliberalism- typically supports fiscal
austerity, deregulation, free trade,
privatization, and a reduction in government
spending.
● Neoliberalism is often associated with the
economic policies of Margaret Thatcher in
the United Kingdom and Ronald Reagan
in the United States.
● Keynesian theory (mid 1940s to early
1970s) argues that as prices increased,
companies would earn more, and would
have more money to hire workers which is a
necessary trade-off for economic
development. True
● On October 17, 1973, the Organization of
Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
declared an embargo that drastically limited
the shipment of oil to the United States.
● Economists, such as Friedrich Hayek
and Milton Friedman argued that the
governments’ practice of pouring money
into their economies had caused inflation by
increasing demand for goods without
necessarily increasing supply.
● Washington Consensus- It dominated the
global economic policies from the 1980's
until the early 2000's. Its advocates
pushed for minimal government spending to
reduce government debt and also, they
called for the privatization of
government-controlled services, like water,
power, communications, and transport,
believing that the free market can produce
the best results.
● Neoliberalism came under significant strain
during the global financial crisis of
2007-2008 when the world experienced the
greatest economic downturn since the Great
Depression.
● Economic globalization remains an uneven
process, with some countries, corporations,
and individuals benefiting a lot more than
others. True
● State- It refers to a country and its
government. Four (4) attributes: citizen,
territory, government, and sovereignty.
● Benedict Anderson- He asserted that “A
nation is an imagined community…”
● Nations often limit themselves to people
who have imbibed a particular culture,
speak a common language, and live in a
specific territory.
● Sovereignty is, thus, one of the
fundamental principles of modern state
politics.
● Nation and state are closely related
because it is nationalism that facilitates
state formation. In the modern and
contemporary era, it has been the
nationalist movements that have allowed
for the creation of nation-states. States
become independent and sovereign
because of nationalist sentiment that
clamors for this independence.
● The Interstate System- The origins of the
present-day concept of sovereignty can be
traced back to the Treaty of Westphalia,
which was a set of agreements signed in
1648 to end the Thirty Years’ War between
the major continental powers of Europe.
● Napoleonic (War, 1803-1815) Code- In
Europe, this code forbade the birth
privileges, encouraged freedom or religion,
and promoted meritocracy in government
service.
● Internationalism- a system of heightened
interaction between various sovereign
states, particularly the desire for greater
cooperation and unity among states and
peoples. The principle may be divided into
two (2) broad categories: liberal
internationalism and socialist
internationalism.
● Liberal internationalism- Immanuel Kant,
Jeremy Bentham, and Guiseppe Mazzini.
● Immanuel Kant- Imagined a form of global
government. He Likened states in a global
system to people living in a given territory.
● Jeremy Bentham- He believed that
objective global legislators should aim to
propose legislation that would create “the
greatest happiness of all nations taken
together.”
● Guiseppe Mazzini- first thinker to reconcile
nationalism and liberal internationalism.He
believed in a Republican government and
proposed a system of free nations that
cooperated with each other to create an
international system.
● Woodrow Wilson- US president
(1913-1921), became one of the 20th
century’s most prominent
internationalists. He saw nationalism as a
prerequisite for internationalism.
● Self-determination- the belief that the
world’s nations had a right to a free, and
sovereign government.
● Socialist internationalism- He believed
that any true form of internationalism should
deliberately reject nationalism, which rooted
people in
domestic concerns instead of global ones.
● Karl Marx- He placed a premium on
economic equality; he did not divide the
world into countries, but into classes
(capitalist vs. proletariat).
● To encourage these socialist revolutions
across the world, Lenin established the
Communist International (Comintern) in
1919.
● There are countries or states that are
independent and govern themselves. True
● Nation VS State- The nation-state is
composed of two non- interchangeable
terms. Not all states are nations and not all
nations are states. True
● It is idealism that facilitates state formation.
False
● The Soviet Union took over the countries in
Eastern Europe when the US, Soviet
Union, and UK divided the war-torn Europe
into their respective spheres of influence.
● The best evidence of liberal internationalism
is the rise of the United Nations as the
center of global governance. True
 Art Appreciation
● Art- is an expression made visible by a
form. Intrinsic to our existence as humans is
our quest to create meaning, and art allows
that process to take place. Making meaning
involves understanding our surroundings
and marking our experiences.
● Elements of Art: Line, Shapes, Space,
Value, Color, Texture, and Form
● Lines- A mark with length and direction. A
continuous mark made on a surface by a
moving point.May be vertical, horizontal or
diagonal, curved, straight, zigzag or show
emotion.
● Colors- creates the mood or tone, intensity
and meaning. Color has three properties:
hue, value, and intensity.
● Tints- adding the color white to lighten a
hue. Shades- adding black to darken a hue
● Space- refers to the distance between,
around, above, below or within things.
● Positive space- filled with something.
Negative space- empty areas.
● Shapes- Two types of shape: Geometric:
These are the shapes you recognize and
know the names for. They have exact
measurements and are not frequently seen
in nature. Examples: square, circle,
octagon, triangle. Organic: These are also
known as “free form”. They are
unpredictable and flowing in appearance.
Many of these are found in nature.
● Positive shapes- are shapes of the
subjects drawn on the artwork. One or more
subjects may occupy space in the artwork,
and the shape representing the object and
space occupied in the artwork.
● A negative shape is an area around a
positive shape.
● Shape can be described as a figure
separate from its surrounding area or
background. While Form is slightly similar
to shape. BUT, remember that shape is
two-dimensional, while form is
three-dimensional.
● Texture- Surface of an artwork. A texture
can be actual or tactile, simulated or illusory,
and/or quality of a style of a composition.
● Rhythm- Alternating, Progressive, and
Flowing.
● Perspective- atmospheric and linear
perspective
● Subject of Art: Still life, Landscapes,
Seascapes, and Cityscapes, Animals,
Portraits, Figures, Everyday Life, History
and Legends, Religion and Mythology,
Dreams and Fantasies
● Still life- These are groups of inanimate
objects arranged in an indoor setting.
● Landscapes, Seascapes, and
Cityscapes- artists have always been
fascinated with their physical environment
● Animals- they have been represented by
artists almost every age and place.
● Portraits- people have always been
intrigued by the human face as an index of
the owner’s character. As an instrument of
expression, it is capable of showing a
variety o f moods and feelings
● Figures- the structures ’ chief subject has
traditionally been the human body, nude or
clothed.
● Everyday Life- Arts have always shown a
deep concern about life around them. Many
of them have recorded in paintings their
observation of people going about their
usual ways and performing their usual tasks
● History and Legends- History consists of
verifiable facts, legends, or unverifiable
ones.
● Visual Art- refer to still, unmoving pictures,
painting, sculpture, photographs, digital
images, installation or architecture that are
created by artists.
● Visual Art- They are representation or
embodiment of an idea, an experience, a
concept. a surge of vitality, emotion, feeling
 or a result of interaction with the
environment, and a product of human
thinking.
● Elements of Visual art: Line, Shapes and
Form, Texture, Color, Space and Movement.
● Principles of Organization: Unity and
Harmony, Variety, Rhythm, Proportion,
Balance, and Perspective
● Unity and Harmony- creates unity by
showing similarities of separate but related
parts
● Variety- a difference of elements of objects
within an artwork.
● Rhythm- repetition of design, line, or other
elements within the frames.
a. Alternating rhythm- motif or pattern
of shapes
b. Flowing rhythm- curved lines or
waves
c. Progressive pattern- shapes or
pattern repeating in varying size or
varying intensity of color
● Proportion- the comparative size of the
parts of a single work
● Balance- sense of equilibrium.
● Perspective- graphic system that creates
the illusion of depth and volume on a
two-dimensional surface.
a. Atmospheric perspective - achieved
through colors. Bright colored-seem
closer and dull colored
objects-seems farther.
b. Linear perspective - show distance
and depth.
● Analysis of Visual arts: Form, Medium,
and Subject matter, and Style.
● Form- What are the dominant elements in
the artwork? How are these used? How is
the main subject matter treated in relation to
the background?
● Medium- refers to the materials used by the
artist.
a. Drawing - two dimensional art that
can be done using chalk charcoal,
pastel or pencil and ink on paper.
i. Chalk - use of heavy or light
pressure you create a blend
of shades.
ii. Charcoal - burnt wood
iii. Pastel - light and pale color
b. Painting in oil - most popular
medium in 2-dimensional expression
because it offers a variety of colors.
Pigments mixed with oil.
c. Watercolor painting - to do
transparent painting on paper.
d. Acrylic - dissolves in water and uses
acrylic polymer as a binding agent.
e. Clay - medium used in sculpture. It
comes in three forms:
i. earthenware - sun-baked
ii. stoneware - goes through
much higher firing that
verifies the clay so that it
becomes close=grained.
iii. porcelain - smooth finish,
color, and decorative effects.
f. Metal and bronze - inserting a core
or pouring in molten metal or bronze.
g. Wood - commonly used in the
Philippines, for sculpture, we use
narra, langka, santol, and molave.
Other mediums include paper
(origami), discarded junk, shells,
rubber tires, and many other
materials.
● Subject matter- What is the main figure in
the artwork? How do the other figures in the
artwork affect the main figure? What is the
significance of the figure/s to you in terms of
personal, historical, social, and political
value?
● Style- The treatment of the artwork's
subject matter is very much affected by
artistic style. Artists are recognized by their
viewers and the art world through their style
 "The manner in which artists express
themselves constitutes their style. Style
gives us that body of characteristics that
identifies an artwork ." What are the
characteristic does this artwork have that
are also present in other works by the same
artist?
● Painting- Painting is making images on a
surface using color. The surface may be flat
canvas or wood, or even the wall.
● Composition of Painting
○ Oil painting
○ Watercolor painting- the pigment is
dissolved in water.
○ Tempera- mixes color pigment with egg
yolk and applied to a panel of wood
covered with plaster.
○ Fresco- applying paint on wet plaster
○ Acrylic- modern synthetic product.
 Industrial Psychology
What is I/O Psychology?
● Industrial/ organizational psychology is a
branch of Psychology that applies the
principles of psychology to the workplace.
● The purpose is to enhance the dignity and
performance of human beings, and the
organizations they work in, by advancing
the science and knowledge of human
behavior.
● I/O psychologists can also improve the
quality of life by increasing employee
effectiveness, which reduces the cost of
goods sold by improving product
quality.
● Relies extensively on research, quantitative
methods and testing techniques
(scientist-practitioner model)
● I/O psychologists are not clinical
psychologists who happen to be in the
industry
Major Fields
● Personnel Psychology- analyzing jobs,
recruiting applicants, selecting employees,
determining salary levels, training
employees, and evaluating employee
performance.
● Organizational Psychology- issues of
leadership, job satisfaction, employee
motivation, organizational communication,
conflict management, organizational
change, and group processes within an
organization.
● Human Factors/ ergonomics- workplace
design, human-machine interaction,
ergonomics, and physical fatigue and stress
Brief History of I/O
● First big impact is during WWI
● Thomas Edison’s knowledge test
● The Gilbreths’ on productivity and
fatigue reduction
● Hawthorne studies- a series of studies,
conducted at the Western Electric plant in
Hawthorne, Illinois, that have come to
represent any change in behavior when
people react to a change in the environment
● Hawthorne effect- when employees
change their behavior due solely to the fact
that they are receiving attention or are being
observed
● In the 1980s-1990s the use of sophisticated
statistical techniques, Cognitive
Psychology: the manager’s thought
processes when making performance
appraisals, Effects of work on family life and
leisure activities, and Developing methods
to select employees.
● In the 2000s, Rapid advances in
technology, Changing demographic makeup
of the workforce, and The global economy.
● 1960s- landmark civil rights legislation in the
US, sensitivity trainings, laboratory training
groups (T-groups)
● 1970s- employee satisfaction and
motivation; use of behavior modification
techniques inspired by BF Skinner’s
Beyond Freedom and Dignity
Why conduct research?
● Answering questions and making decisions
● Research in everyday life
● Common sense is often wrong
Considerations in Conducting Research:
ideas, hypotheses, theories
● The first step in conducting research is to
decide what to research, many research
ideas stem from a person starting a
sentence with “I wonder.…”
● The next step is to form a hypothesis- an
educated prediction about the answer to a
question.
● This prediction is usually based on a
theory, previous research, or logic.
Literature reviews
● Journals- a written collection of articles
describing the methods and results of new
research.
● Trade magazines- a collection of articles
from those in the “biz” about related
professional topic, seldom directly reposting
the methods and results of new research
● Magazines- an unscientific collection of
articles about a wide range of topics.
Location of the study
● Laboratory research- Usually, this is done
at a university, but research is also
conducted in such organizations.
Disadvantage of laboratory research is
external validity or generalizability.
○ external validity/or generalizability,
extent to which research results can be
expected to hold true outside the
specific setting in which they were
obtained.
● Field research- Another location for
research is away from the laboratory and
out in the “field,” which could be the
assembly line of an automotive plant, the
secretarial pool of a large insurance
company, or the interviewing room at a
personnel agency.
● leadership training was more effective in
laboratory studies than in field studies; and
teams, group cohesion and group
personality composition were related to
performance more in field studies of real
groups than in laboratory studies of groups
created for the experiment.
● Field research also provides researchers
with an ethical dilemma. Psychologists
require that subjects participate in studies of
their own free will—a concept called
informed consent.
○ informed consent- the formal process
by which subjects give permission to be
included in a study.
● In laboratory studies, informed consent is
seldom an issue. They are then asked to
sign an informed consent form indicating
that they understand their rights as subjects
and have chosen to voluntarily participate.
In field studies, however, obtaining informed
consent can not only be difficult but change
the way people behave.
● Universities have institutional review
boards to monitor research to ensure
ethical treatment of research participants.
These review boards pay close attention to
confidentiality.
Research Method to be Used
● Experiments- A type of research study in
which the independent variable is
manipulated by the experimenter. The
experimental method is the most powerful of
all research methods because it is the only
one that can determine cause-and-effect
relationships.
● Quasi-experiments- Research method in
which the experimenter either does not
manipulate the independent variable or in
which subjects are not randomly assigned
to conditions.
● Archival research- Research that involves
the use of previously collected data or
records to answer a research question..
Research method that is commonly used
in I/O psychology.
● Surveys- Another method of conducting
research is to ask people their opinion on
some topic. Surveys can be conducted via a
variety of methods such as mail, personal
interviews, phone, email, and the Internet.
Additionally, such methods as the interview
can vary in the extent to which the
questions are being asked by a live person,
voice or video recording, computer assisted
interviewing, or self-administered paper
questionnaire.
○ How to Improve Response Rate:
■ Notifying participants that they will
be receiving a survey
 ■ Providing monetary or non-monetary
incentives
■ Personalizing the survey
■ Ensuring that survey responses will
be anonymous by using
identification numbers
■ Having a university sponsor the
survey
■ Distributing the survey in person
rather than through mail
● Meta-analysis- is a statistical method of
reaching conclusions based on previous
research. Prior to meta-analysis, a
researcher interested in reviewing the
literature on a topic would read all of the
available research and then make a rather
subjective conclusion based on the articles.
Subject Sample
● Random sample- which every member of
the relevant population had an equal
chance of being chosen to participate in the
study. The problem is that researchers are
unlikely to get a 100% return rate if study
participation is voluntary, and the ethics of
the APA require that participation be
voluntary.
● Convenience sample- A nonrandom
research sample that is used because it is
easily available.
● Random assignment- unbiased
assignment of subjects in a research
sample to the various experimental and
control conditions. Each subject in a
nonrandom sample is randomly assigned to
a particular experimental condition.
● Random assignment is important when
using convenience samples, as research
indicates that random and nonrandom
assignment result in different outcomes.
Running the study
● Debriefed- Informing the subject in an
experiment about the purpose of the study
in which he or she was a participant and
providing any other relevant information.
Statistical Analysis
● In psychology, we use the .05 level of
significance: If our analysis indicates that
the probability that our data resulted from
chance is 5% or less, we consider our
results to be statistically significant.
● Correlation- A statistical procedure used to
measure the relationship between two
variables.
● Intervening variable- A third variable that
can often explain the relationship between
two other variables.
● The result of correlational analysis is a
number called a correlation coefficient.
The values of this coefficient range from -1
to +1; the further the coefficient is from
zero, the greater the relationship
between two variables.
● A positive (+) correlation means that as the
values of one variable increase, so do the
values of a second variable. A negative (-)
correlation means that as the values of
one variable increase, the values of a
second variable decrease.
Ethical Dilemma
● Ethical dilemmas are ambiguous situations
that require a personal judgment of what is
right or wrong because there are no rules,
policies, or laws guiding such decisions.
● We often encounter two types of ethical
dilemmas: Type A and Type B:
● In a Type A dilemma, there is a high level of
uncertainty as to what is right or wrong,
there appears to be no best solution, and
there are both positive and negative
consequences to a decision.
● In a Type B dilemma, also called
rationalizing dilemmas, the difference
between right and wrong is much clearer
than in a Type A dilemma. Usually,
individuals know what is right but choose
the solution that is most advantageous to
themselves.
 Job Analysis and Evaluation
● Job Analysis- Is the process of gathering
and analyzing information about the work an
employee performs, the conditions under
which the work is performed, and the worker
characteristics under the identified
conditions.
● Job Analysis plays an important role in
recruitment and selection, job evaluation,
job designing, deciding compensation and
benefits packages, performance appraisal,
analyzing training and development needs,
assessing the worth of a job and increasing
personnel as well as organizational
productivity.
● Recruitment and selection- Job Analysis
helps in determining what kind of person is
required to perform a particular job. It points
out the educational qualifications, level of
experience and technical, physical,
emotional and personal skills required to
carry out a job in desired fashion. The
objective is to fit a right person at a right
place.
● Performance analysis- Job analysis is
done to check if goals and objectives of a
particular job are met or not. It helps in
deciding the performance standards,
evaluation criteria and individual’s output.
On this basis, the overall performance of an
employee is measured and he or she is
appraised accordingly.
● Training and Development- Job Analysis
can be used to assess the training and
development needs of employees. The
difference between the expected and actual
output determines the level of training that
needs to be imparted to employees. It also
helps in deciding the training content, tools
and equipment to be used to conduct
training and methods of training.
● Compensation management- Job analysis
plays a vital role in deciding the pay
packages and extra perks and benefits and
fixed and variable incentives of employees.
After all, the pay package depends on the
position, job title and duties and
responsibilities involved in a job. The
process guides HR managers in deciding
the worth of an employee for a particular job
opening.
● Job Designing and Redesigning- The
main purpose of job analysis is to
streamline the human efforts and get the
best possible output. It helps in designing,
redesigning, enriching, evaluating and also
cutting back and adding the extra
responsibilities in a particular job. This is
done to enhance employee satisfaction
while increasing the human output.
How to write a Job Description?
● A job description is a brief 2-5 pages
summary of the tasks and job requirements
found in the job analysis. It must describe a
job in enough detail that decisions about
activities such as selection and training can
be made.
● Job title- An accurate title describes the
nature of the job, its power and status level,
and the competencies needed to perform
the job. An accurate title also aids in
employee selection and recruitment. If the
job title indicates the true nature of the job,
potential applicants for a position will be
better able to determine whether their skills
and experience match those required for the
job.
● Brief summary- The summary need be
only a paragraph in length but should briefly
describe the nature and purpose of the job.
This summary can be used in help-wanted
advertisements, internal job postings, and
company brochures.
● Work Activities- The work activities section
lists the tasks and activities in which the
worker is involved. These tasks and
activities should be organized into
meaningful categories to make the job
 description easy to read and understand.
The category labels are also convenient to
use in the brief summary.
● Tools and equipment used- A section
should be included that lists all the tools and
equipment used to perform the work
activities in the previous section. Even
though tools and equipment may have been
mentioned in the activities section, placing
them in a separate section makes their
identification simpler.
● Job Context- Describes the environment in
which the employee works and mentions
stress level, work schedule, physical
demands, level of responsibility,
temperature, number of coworkers, degree
of danger, and any other relevant
information.
● Work Performance- This section contains
a relatively brief description of how an
employee’s performance is evaluated and
what work standards are expected of the
employee.
● Compensation information- This section
of the job description should contain
information on the salary grade, whether the
position is exempt, and the compensable
factors used to determine salary.
● Job Competencies- These are the
knowledge, skills, abilities, and other
characteristics (KSAOs) that are necessary
to be successful on the job.
Job Analysis Preparations
● Who will conduct job analysis?- Some
companies prefer getting it done by their
own HR department while some hire job
analysis consultants. Job analysis
consultants may prove to be extremely
helpful as they offer unbiased advice,
guidelines and methods. They don’t have
any personal likes and dislikes when it
comes to analyze a job.
● How to conduct the process- Deciding the
way in which job analysis process needs to
be conducted is surely the next step. A
planned approach about how to carry the
whole process is required in order to
investigate a specific job.
● Strategic Decision Making- Now is the
time to make strategic decisions. It’s about
deciding the extent of employee
involvement in the process, the level of
details to be collected and recorded,
sources from where data is to be collected,
data collection methods, the processing of
information and segregation of collected
data.
● Training of Job Analyst- Next is to train
the job analyst about how to conduct the
process and use the selected methods for
collection and recoding of job data.
Preparation of Job Analysis
● Process- HR managers need to
communicate the whole thing properly so
that employees offer their full support to the
job analyst. The stage also involves
preparation of documents, questionnaires,
interviews and feedback forms.
● Data Collection- is to collect job-related
data including educational qualifications of
employees, skills and abilities required to
perform the job, working conditions, job
activities, reporting hierarchy, required
human traits, job activities, duties and
responsibilities involved and employee
behavior.
● Documentation, Verification and Review-
Proper documentation is done to verify the
authenticity of collected data and then
review it. This is the final information that is
used to describe a specific job.
● Developing Job Description and Job
Specification- Now is the time to segregate
the collected data into useful information.
Job Description describes the roles,
activities, duties and responsibilities of the
job while job specification is a statement of
educational qualification, experience,
 personal traits and skills required to perform
the job.
Conducting a Job Analysis
● Step 1: Identifying Task Performed-
Identify the major dimensions and the tasks
performed for each dimension, the tools and
equipment used to perform the tasks, and
the conditions under which tasks are
performed.
○ Techniques
■ Gather existing information
(internally or externally), prior to
interviewing incumbents, it is always
a good idea to gather information
that has already been obtained.
■ Interview subject-matter experts
(SMEs) or people who are
knowledgeable about the job and
include the job incumbents,
supervisors, customers and
upper-level management.
■ For one-on-one session with SMEs
● *Prepare for the interview
● *Open the interview with rapport
● *Use open-ended questions, use
easy-to-understand vocabulary,
and allow sufficient time for the
employee to talk and answer
questions. Avoid being
condescending and disagreeing
■ Ammerman Technique- a group of
job experts identifies the objectives
and standards to be met by the ideal
worker
● *Convene a panel from all levels
of the organization
● *Identify the objectives and
standards to be met by by ideal
incumbent
● *List the specific behaviors
necessary for each objective or
standard to be attained
● *Identify critical behaviors
● *Rank-order the objectives on
the basis of importance
■ Observation or watching the job
incumbents perform their jobs
■ Job participation or actually
performing the job. A job analysis
method in which the job analyst
actually performs the job being
analyzed.
● Step 2: Write Task Statement
○ After identifying the task, the next step
is to write the task statements that will
be used in the task inventory and
included in the job description.
○ Task inventory – a questionnaire
containing a list of tasks each of which
the job incumbent rates on a series of
scales such as importance and time
spent.
○ It must contain and action (what is
done) and an object (to which the
action is done). Often task statements
also include where the task is done,
how it is done, why it is done and when
it is done
○ Characteristics of well-written task
statements
■ *One action should be done to one
object.
■ *Written at a level that can be read
and understood by the incumbent
■ *All statements are written in the
same tense
■ *Include the tools and equipment
used
■ *Not be a policy
■ *Should make sense by itself
■ *Indicate level of authority if it
involves decision making
● Step 3: Rate task statements or task
analysis- Task Analysis is identifying the
task for which employees need to be
trained. Use a group of SMEs to rate each
task statement
● Step 4: Determine Essential KSAO’s
○ Knowledge- a body of information
needed to perform a task.
○ Skill- the proficiency to perform a
learned task.
○ Ability- the basic capacity for
performing a wide range of tasks,
acquiring knowledge, or developing a
skill.
○ Other Characteristics- factors that are
not knowledge, skills or abilities such
as personality, willingness, interest and
degrees.
● Step 5: Selecting test to tap KSAO’s-
After the important KSAOs have been
identify, the next step is to determine the
best methods to tap the KSAOs needed at
the time of hire.
● Using other job analysis methods
○ Methods Providing General Information
About Worker Activities
■ Position Analysis Questionnaire
■ Job Structure Profile
■ Job Elements Inventory
■ Functional Job Analysis
○ Methods Providing Information About
Tools and Equipment
■ Job Components Inventory
○ Methods Providing Information About
the Work Environment
■ AET, an ergonomic job analysis
method developed in Germany
○ Methods Providing Information About
Competencies
■ Critical Incident Technique
■ Job Components Inventory
■ Threshold Traits Analysis
■ Fleishman Job Analysis Survey
■ Job Adaptability Inventory
■ Personality-related Position
Requirements Form
■ Performance Improvements
Characteristics
Job Evaluation
● This is the process of determining the
monetary work of a job.
● It is typically done in two stages:
determining internal pay equity and
determining external pay equity.
● Determining Internal Pay Equity- It
involves comparing jobs within an
organization to ensure that the people in
jobs worth the most money are paid
accordingly.
● Step 1: Determining compensable job
factors- factors that differentiate the relative
worth of jobs.
○ Level of responsibility
○ Physical demands
○ Mental demands
○ Education requirements
○ Training and experience requirements
○ Working conditions
● Step 2: Determining the levels for each
compensable factor.
○ Level of responsibility
○ Physical demands
○ Mental demands
○ Education requirements
○ Training and experience requirements
○ Working conditions
● Step 3: Determining the factor weights
○ A job evaluation committee determines
the total number of points to be
distributed among the factors. Usually,
the number is some multiple of 100 and
is based on the number of
compensable factors.
○ Each factor is weighted by assigning a
number of points.
○ The number of points assigned to a
factor is then divided into each of the
levels
○ The total number of points for a job is
compared with the salary currently
being paid for the job
○ Wage Trend Line- a line that represents
the ideal relationship between the
 number of points that a job has been
assigned and the salary range for the
job
● Determining External Pay Equity- With
external equity the worth of a job is
determined by comparing the job to the
external market (other org.) It is important if
an organization is to attract and retain
employees.
● To determine external equity, organizations
used salary surveys- a questionnaire sent to
other organizations to see how much they
are paying their employees in positions
similar to those in the organization sending
the survey.