FLUID MECHANICS AND HYDRAULICS

Fluid mechanics and hydraulics represent that branch of applied mechanics that deals with the
behavior of fluids at rest and in motion. In the development of the principles of fluid mechanics, some
fluid properties play principal roles, others only minor roles or no roles at all. In fluid statics, specific
weight (or unit weight) is the important property, whereas in fluid flow, density and viscosity are
predominant properties. Vapor pressure becomes important when negative pressures (gage) are involved,
and surface tension affects static and flow conditions in small passages.

DEFINITION OF A FLUID

Fluids are substances that are capable of flowing and conform to the shape of containing vessels.

CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID

Fluids can be classified as liquids or gases. The chief differences between liquids and gases are

(a)liquids are practically incompressible whereas gases are compressible and usually must be so treated
and

(b) liquids occupy definite volumes and have free surfaces whereas a given mass of gas expands
until it occupies all portions of any containing vessel.

PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

VISCOSITY OF A FLUID

The viscosity of a fluid is that property which determines the amount of its resistance to a shearing
force. Viscosity is due primarily to interaction between fluid molecules. Referring to Fig. 1-1, consider
two large, parallel plates a small distance y apart, the space between the plates being filled with a fluid.
To keep the upper plate moving at constant velocity V, it is found that a constant force F must be applied.
Thus there must exist a viscous interaction between plate and fluid, manifested as a drag on the former
and a shear force on the latter. The fluid in contact with the upper plate will adhere to it and will move at
velocity 17, and the fluid in contact with the fixed plate will have velocity zero. If distance y and velocity
U are not too great, the velocity profile will be a straight line. Experiments have shown that shear force F
varies with the area of the plate A, with velocity U, and inversely with distant y. Since by similar triangles. U/y = dV
/dv We have
VAPOR PRESSURE

When evaporation takes place within an enclosed space, the partial pressure created by the vapor
molecules is called vapor pressure. Vapor pressures depend upon temperature and increase with it.

SURFACE TENSION

A molecule in the interior of a liquid is under attractive forces in all directions, and the vector sum
of these forces is zero. But a molecule at the surface of a liquid is acted on by a net inward cohesive
force that is perpendicular to the surface. Hence it requires work to move molecules to the surface
against this opposing force, and surface molecules have more energy than interior ones.
The surface tension б (sigma) of a liquid is the work that must be done to bring enough molecules
from inside the liquid to the surface to form one new unit area of that surface (J/m2 or ft-lb/ft2).
Equivalently, the energized surface molecules act as though they compose a stretched sheet, and

б = AF/AL (9)

where AF is the elastic force transverse to any length element AL in the surface. Definition (9) gives
the units N/m or Ib/ft. The value of surface tension of water with air is 0.0756 N/m at 0°C, or 0.00518
Ib/ft at 32°F.
CAPILLARITY
Rise or fall of liquid in a capillary tube (or in porous media) is caused by surface tension and
depends on the relative magnitudes of the cohesion of the liquid and the adhesion of the liquid to the
walls of the containing vessel. Liquids rise in tubes they wet (adhesion > cohesion) and fall in tubes
they do not wet (cohesion > adhesion). Capillarity is important when using tubes smaller than about
| inch (10 mm)indiameter. For tube diameters larger than ^ in(12 mm), capillary effects are negligible.
Figure 1-2 illustrates capillary rise (or depression) in a tube, which is given approximately by

ISOTHERMAL CONDITIONS

For a fixed temperature, the ideal gas law becomes

Fluid Statics
The term pressure refers to the effects of a force acting against and distributed over a surface. The
force may be exerted by a solid, liquid, or gas. Often, the force causing a pressure is simply the weight
of a material. Pressure is a very important factor in many fluid mechanics and hydraulics problems.

FLUID PRESSURE

Fluid pressure is transmitted with equal intensity in all directions and acts normal to any plane. In
the same horizontal plane the pressure intensities in a liquid are equal. Measurements of unit pressures
are accomplished by using various forms of gages. Unless otherwise stated, gage or relative pressures will
be used.
VACUUM AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

In the context of pressure, the term vacuum is used to refer to a space that has a pressure less than
atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric pressure refers, of course, to the prevailing pressure in the air around
us. It varies somewhat with changing weather conditions, and it decreases with increasing altitude. At
sea level, average atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psi, 101.3 kPa, 29.9 in (760 mm) of mercury, or 1
atmosphere. This is commonly referred to as "standard atmospheric pressure."
A vacuum is quantified in terms of how much its pressure is below atmospheric pressure. For
example, if air is pumped out of a pressure vessel until the internal pressure is 10.0 psi, and if atmospheric
pressure is standard (i.e., 14.7 psi), the pressure in the vessel could be indicated as a vacuum of
14.7 - 10.0, or4.7psi

ABSOLUTE AND GAGE PRESSURE

Pressure measurements are generally indicated as being either absolute pressure or gage pressure.
Absolute pressure uses absolute zero, which is the lowest possible pressure and the pressure
that would exist in a perfect vacuum, as its base (i.e., zero reading). Gage pressure is measured with
atmospheric pressure as its base. Thus if a fluid pressure is 5.5 kPa above standard atmospheric pressure
(101.3 kPa), its gage pressure would be 5.5 kPa and its absolute pressure 5.5 + 101.3, or 106.8 kPa.
Sometimes absolute and gage pressures are indicated by appending "a" or "g," respectively, to the
pressure units (e.g., psia or psig). If no a or g (or other indication) is given, pressure is usually gage
pressure.
BAROMETERS
A barometer is a device for measuring atmospheric pressure. A simple barometer consists of a tube
more than 30 in (762 mm) long inserted in an open container of mercury with a closed tube end at the
top and an open tube end at the bottom and with mercury extending from the container up into the tube.
Mercury rises in the tube to a height of approximately 30 in (762 mm) at sea level. Inasmuch as the
tube is longer than 30 in, there will be a vacuum (pressure near absolute zero) above the mercury in the
tube. The only pressure causing the mercury to rise in the tube is that of the atmosphere; and, of course,
the amount the mercury rises varies with the applied atmospheric pressure.

A Mercury Barometer

1lb/in2 =144 lb/ft2 ; 1kg/l=62.428 lb/ft3

PIEZOMETERS AND MANOMETERS

Although a barometer can be used to measure atmospheric pressure, it is often necessary to measure
pressures of other fluids. There are a number of ways to accomplish this task. For liquids, a tube may be
attached to the wall of the container (or conduit) in which the liquid resides so liquid can rise in the tube.
By determining the height to which liquid rises and using equation (2), the pressure of the liquid in the
container (or conduit) can be determined. Such a device is known as a piezometer. To avoid capillary
effects, a piezometer tube's diameter should be about \in (13 mm) or greater. For applications, see
Problems 2.11 and 2.12.

A somewhat more complicated device for measuring fluid pressure consists of a bent tube (or tubes)
containing one or more liquids of different specific gravities. Such a device is known as a manometer.
In using a manometer, generally a known pressure (which may be atmospheric) is applied to one end
of the manometer tube and the unknown pressure to be determined is applied to the other end. In some
cases, however, the difference between the pressures at the ends of the manometer tube is desired rather
than the actual pressure at either end. A manometer to determine this pressure difference is known as
a differential manometer. The liquids in a manometer will rise or fall as the pressure at either end (or both
ends) of the tube changes. The pressure in a container (or conduit) using a manometer is determined by
transforming heights of liquids within the manometer tube to pressures, using equation (2). The general
procedure in calculation is to start at one end of the manometer tube and proceed from each fluid level to
the next, adding or subtracting pressures as the elevation decreases or increases, respectively.

Piezometer

Manometer

MOTION OF FLUID

The motion of fluid can be described fully by an expression describing the location of a fluid particle in
space at different times thus enabling determination of the magnitude and direction of velocity and
acceleration in the flow field at any instant of time.

STEADY FLOW

The type of flow in which the fluid characteristics like velocity, pressure, density, etc. at a point do not
change with time is called steady flow. Mathematically, we have:
UNSTEADY FLOW

It is that type of flow in which the velocity, pressure or density at a point change with reference to time.
Mathematically, we have:

LAMINAR FLOW

A laminar flow is one in which paths taken by the individual particles do not cross one another and move
along well defined paths (Fig. 5.5), This type of flow is also called stream-line flow or viscous flow.

Examples.

(i) Flow through a capillary tube.

(ii) Flow of blood in veins and arteries.

(iii) Ground water flow.

TURBULENT FLOW

A turbulent flow is that flow in which fluid particles move in a zig zag way (Fig. 5.6).

Example.

High velocity flow in a conduit of large size.

Nearly all fluid flow problems encountered in engineering practice have a turbulent character.

Laminar and turbulent flows are characterised on the basis of Reynolds number (refer to

chapter 10).
For Reynolds number (Re) < 2000 ... flow in pipes is laminar.

For Reynolds number (Re) > 4000 ... flow in pipes is turbulent

For Re between 2000 and 4000 ... flow in pipes may be laminar or turbulent.

the reynolds number formula is: “re = vdρ/μ” or “re = vd/v” where “v” is the fluid velocity, “d”
is the characteristic distance, “ρ” is the fluid density, “ν” is the kinematic viscosity, and “μ” is
the dynamic viscosity both of which can be acquired from data tables.

BASIC PHYSICAL LAWS OF FLUID MECHANICS

First, the system is a fixed quantity of mass, denoted by m. Thus the mass of the system is conserved and does not
change. This is a law of mechanics and has a very simple mathematical form, called conservation of mass:

Second, if the surroundings exert a net force F on the system, Newton’s second law states that the mass in the
system will begin to accelerate:

In fluid mechanics Newton’s second law is called the linear momentum relation. Note that it is a vector law that
implies the three scalar equations

Fx=max, Fy=may, and Fz =maz.

Third, if the surroundings exert a net moment M about the center of mass of the system, there will be a rotation
effect

where H=S(r × V)δm is the angular momentum of the system about its center of mass. Here we call Eq. (3.3) the
angular momentum relation. Note that it is also a vector equation implying three scalar equations such as Mx=dHx/dt.
For an arbitrary mass and arbitrary moment, H is quite complicated and contains nine terms (see, for example, Ref.
1). In elementary dynamics we commonly treat only a rigid body rotating about a fixed x axis, for which Eq. (3.3)
reduces to

where ωx is the angular velocity of the body and Ix is its mass moment of inertia about the x axis. Unfortunately,
fluid systems are not rigid and rarely reduce to such a simple relation, as we shall see in Sec. 3.6.

Fourth, if heat δQ is added to the system or work δW is done by the system, the system energy dE must change
according to the energy relation, or fi rst law of thermodynamics:
Finally, the second law of thermodynamics relates entropy change dS to heat added
dQ and absolute temperature T:

FLUID MOMENTUM

It is the expression describing the relationship of the force applied onto the fluid unit and the
mass of the fluid in the unit and velocity of fluid movement.

MOMENTUM EQUATION
The momentum equation is used in open channel flow problems to determine unknown forces
(F) acting on the walls or bed in a control volume.
Using Newton’s second law of motion, which equates the rate of change of momentum (M=mV)
with the algebraic sum of all external forces, the momentum equation can be written as:

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

The law of conservation of energy can also be used in the analysis of flowing fluids.
Bernoulli’s equation can be considered a statement of the conservation of energy
principle appropriate for flowing fluids. It is one of the most important/useful equations in fluid
mechanics. It puts into a relation pressure and velocity in an inviscid incompressible flow. The
general energy equation is simplified to:

P1= pressure at elevation 1

ρ=fluid density

g=acceleration due to gravity

P2= pressure at elevation 2

h1=height of elevation 1
h2=height of elevation 2

v1=velocity at elevation 1

v2=velocity at elevation 2

Bernoulli’s equation
Bernoulli’s equation describes the qualitative behavior flowing fluid that is usually labeled with
the term Bernoulli’s effect. This effect causes the lowering of fluid pressure in regions where the
flow velocity is increased. This lowering of pressure in a constriction of a flow path may seem
counterintuitive but seems less so when you consider the pressure to be energy density. In the
high-velocity flow through the constriction, kinetic energy must increase at the expense
of pressure energy. The dimensions of terms in the equation are kinetic energy per unit volume.

Hydraulic Power
also called fluid power, power transmitted by the controlled circulation of pressurized fluid,
usually a water-soluble oil or water–glycol mixture, to a motor that converts it into a mechanical
output capable of doing work on a load. Hydraulic power systems have greater flexibility than
mechanical and electrical systems and can produce more power than such systems of equal size.
They also provide rapid and accurate responses to controls. As a result, hydraulic power systems
are extensively used in modern aircraft, automobiles, heavy industrial machinery, and many
kinds of machine tools.

THERMAL POWER SYSTEM

In any type of thermal power system, a portion, generally 20%–45%, of the input thermal power should
be converted to electrical energy, and the remainder is released to the environment as waste thermal
energy.

SOLAR THERMAL POWER PLANT

Solar thermal power systems use concentrated energy. Solar thermal power (electricity)
generation systems collect and concentrate sunlight to produce high temperatures needed to
generate electricity. All solar thermal power systems have solar energy collectors with two main
components: reflectors (mirrors) that capture and focus sunlight onto a receiver and a heat
transfer fluid heated and circulated in the receiver and used to produce steam. The steam is
converted into energy in a turbine, which powers a generator to produce electricity.

HEAT EXCHANGERS
A heat exchanger is a heat transfer device that exchanges heat between two or more process
fluids. Heat exchangers have widespread industrial and domestic applications. Many types of
heat exchangers have been developed for use in steam power plants, chemical processing plants,
building heat and air conditioning systems, transportation power systems, and refrigeration units.
Heat exchangers are used to reject unwanted heat to a cooling medium.
Most heat exchangers may be classified as one of several basic types. The four most common
types, based on flow path configuration, are illustrated in Fig. 2.1 below [1].

Fig. 2.1 Types of flow path configuration through heat exchanger

1. In concurrent, or parallel-flow, units the two fluid streams enter together at one end, flow
through in the same direction, and leave together at the other end.

2. In countercurrent, or counter-flow, units the two streams move in opposite directions.

3. In single-pass crossflow units one fluid moves through the heat transfer matrix at right angles
to the flow path of the other fluid.

4. In multipass crossflow units one fluid stream shuttles back and forth across the flow path of
the other fluid stream, usually giving a crossflow approximation to counterflow.

The most important difference between these four basic types lies in the relative
amounts of heat transfer surface area required to transfer the desired amount of heat
between the two fluids.