UNIT-1

Introduction:
● Biological psychology is defined as “the branch of psychology that studies the biological
foundations of behavior, emotions, and mental processes”.
● Biopsychology is a branch of psychology that analyzes how the brain, neurotransmitters,
and other aspects of our biology influence our behaviors, thoughts, and feelings.
● This field of psychology is often referred to by a variety of names including
biopsychology, physiological psychology, behavioral neuroscience, and psychobiology.
Timeline:
● 5000 BC: Our earliest ancestors apparently had at least a rudimentary understanding
about the brain’s essential role in maintaining life. Archaeological evidence of brain
surgery suggests that as long as 7,000 years ago, people tried to cure others by drilling
holes in the skull. The skull showed signs of healing, suggesting that the surgery had
worked (Trephination)
● 3000 BC: The Egyptians did not seem to view the brain as an important structure. During
mummification, the brain was removed through the nostrils and replaced with
resin.Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus - oldest known medical writing in history. The
original author discussed the membranes covering the brain, or meninges. The author
clearly understood that paralysis and lack of sensation in the body resulted from nervous
system damage. (Papyrus)
● 400 BC: Hippocrates declares that the brain is the source of intellect. Galen makes
accurate observations from dissection; however, believed that fluids transmitted
messages. (Monism)
Monism: Hippocrates believed that the mind was a function of the brain’s physiological
processes. Mind and body are both biological phenomena. There are two basic types of
monism: Materialism- It is the belief that nothing exists apart from the material world
(i.e. physical matter like the brain); materialist psychologists generally agree that
consciousness (the mind) is the function of the brain. Mental processes can be identified
with purely physical processes in the central nervous system, and that human beings are
just complicated physiological organisms, no more than that.
 Phenomenalism- (also called Subjective Idealism) believes that physical objects and
events are reducible to mental objects, properties, events. Ultimately, only mental objects
(i.e. the mind) exist.
● 1600–1800: René Descartes suggests mind-body dualism; hydraulic transmission.
Dualism most commonly refers to: Mind–body dualism, a philosophical view which
holds that mental phenomena are, at least in certain respects, not physical phenomena, or
that the mind and the body are distinct and separable from one another. Descartes /
Cartesian dualism argues that there is a two-way interaction between mental and physical
substances. Descartes argued that the mind interacts with the body at the pineal gland.
This form of dualism or duality proposes that the mind controls the body, but that the
body can also influence the otherwise rational mind.
● Anton van Leeuwenhoek invented the light microscope. Galvani and du Bois-Reymond
discover that electricity transmits messages in the nervous system.
● 1800–1900: Bell and Magendie determine that neurons communicate in one direction and
that sensation and movement are controlled by separate pathways. Gall and Spurzheim
demonstrate that phrenology is inaccurate, but the notion of localization of function in the
nervous system is accurate. Paul Broca discovers localization of speech production.
Fritsch and Hitzig identify localization of motor function in the cerebral cortex
● 1900–Present: Ramón declares that the nervous system is composed of separate cells.
John Jackson explains brain functions as a hierarchy, with more complicated functions
carried out by higher levels of the brain. Otto Loewi demonstrates chemical signaling at
the synapse. Charles Sherrington coined the term “synapse,” winning the Nobel Prize in
1932. Sir John Eccles, Andrew Huxley, and Alan Hodgkin share the 1963 Nobel Prize for
their work in advancing our understanding of the way neurons communicate. Bernard
Katz received the 1970 Nobel Prize or his work on chemical transmission at the synapse.
The Society for Neuroscience counted more than 38,000 members in 2007.

Origins of Biopsychology:
● Biopsychology developed out of physiology and philosophy as early psychologists
adopted empiricism. Most psychologists and neuroscientists treat the mind as a product
of the brain believing that mental activity can be explained in terms of the brain function.
 Localisation describes brain functioning better than equipotentiality but a brain process is
more likely to be carried out by a network of structures than a single structure.

Nature and Nurture:

● Biological psychology – also known as biopsychology or psychobiology – is the
application of the principles of biology to the study of mental processes and
behavior.
● Biological explanations of thoughts and behavior fall into four categories:
● Physiological, ontogenetic,evolutionary, and functional
● Physiological: A physiological explanation relates a behavior to the activity of the
brain and other organs. It deals with the machinery of the body— for example, the
chemical reactions that enable hormones to influence brain activity and the routes by
which brain activity controls muscle contractions.
● Ontogenetic: An ontogenetic explanation describes how a structure or behavior
develops, including the influences of genes, nutrition, experiences, and their
interactions. For example, the ability to inhibit impulses develops gradually from
infancy through the teenage years, reflecting gradual maturation of the frontal parts of the
brain.
● Evolutionary: An evolutionary explanation reconstructs the evolutionary history of a
structure or behavior. For example, frightened people get “goose bumps”—erections of
the hairs, especially on their arms and shoulders. Goose bumps are useless to humans
because our shoulder and arm hairs are so short. In most other mammals, however, hair
erection makes a frightened animal look larger and more intimidating. An evolutionary
explanation of human goose bumps is that the behavior evolved in our remote ancestors
and we inherited the mechanism.
● Functional: A functional explanation describes why a structure or behavior evolved
as it did. For example, many species have an appearance that matches their background.
Some species use their behavior as part of the camouflage. For example, zone-tailed
hawks, which live in Mexico and parts of the southwestern United States, fly among
vultures and hold their wings in the same posture as vultures. Functional explanations of
 human behavior are often controversial because many behaviors alleged to be part of our
evolutionary heritage could have been learned instead.

Scope of Biopsychology
● The current scope of biological psychology is broad including the following topics:
● Evolution of brain and behavior; Development of the nervous system and behavior over
the life span; Psychopharmacology; Sensory and perceptual processes; Control and
coordination of movements and actions; Control of behavioral states (motivation),
including sex and reproductive behavior, and regulation of internal states; Biological
rhythms and sleep; Emotions and mental disorders; Neural mechanisms of learning and
memory, language and cognition; Recovery of function after damage to the nervous
system.
Major Divisions/ Fields: Six of its major divisions:
(1) physiological psychology, (2) psychopharmacology, (3) neuropsychology, (4)
psychophysiology, (5) cognitive neuroscience, and (6) comparative psychology.

Physiological psychology: Physiological psychology uses controlled experimental conditions

to stimulate the brain and study its effects on behavior. It involves direct manipulation and
recording of the brain by primarily using surgical or electrical stimulation on animals for
research. Their aim is to develop theories about how neural mechanisms control behavior.
Psychopharmacology: Psychopharmacologists use drugs to stimulate neural systems and
then observe their effects on behavior. The purpose is to study the interaction between brain
and behavior, but majorly the experiments are applied in nature,focusing on developing
therapeutic drugs and reducing drug use.
Neuropsychology: Neuropsychologists study the patients who have had some head injury or
trauma and are suffering from brain damage. The neuropsychological tests help to diagnose
the impairments and work out a suitable treatment for dealing with it. This sub-discipline
specially uses case studies and quasi-experimental studies of patients with brain damage caused
due to disease, accident or neurosurgery. The focus of these studies is the cerebral cortex, the
most prominent part of the mammalian brain which consists of cellular layers on the outer
surface of cerebral hemispheres.
Psychophysiology: Psycho Physiologists use non-invasive techniques (the physiological
activity is recorded from the surface of the body) to examine the relationship between
physiological activity and psychological processes as attention, learning, memory, emotions
in human participants. Various measures that are used are scalp electroencephalogram (EEG),
muscle tension, eye movement, galvanic skin response (GSR), heart rate, blood pressure, and
pupil dilation.
Cognitive Neuroscience: Cognitive neuroscientists study the neural bases of cognition and
higher order cognitive processes, like, thinking, memory, attention as well as perceptual
processes. Hence, human participants are taken for research. The techniques used are
non-invasive. Functional brain imaging is the main method of recording brain activity.
Comparative Psychology: Comparative psychologists study the behavior of different species
to understand their behavior from evolutionary, genetic and adaptation perspective.
Behaviour is studied in either laboratory condition or it may be observed in its natural
environment. The latter is known as ethological research.

BASIC CYTOLOGY:
Cell : It is the smallest living unit and is mostly microscopic. It constitutes the basic structural
and functional units of the human body. Cells are the smallest working units of all living things.
All living things are made up of cells. All cells come from preexisting cells through cell division.
EXAMPLE OF CELLS: Bacteria, Neuron, Red Blood Cell
Types of Cells Classified in many ways: Number cells, shape of cells, Function of cells.
Basic Classification - Presence or absence of nucleus.
Prokaryotes (have no nucleus): It is a cell type of bacteria. It has no membrane bound nucleus. It
has a nucleoid, which is a region of DNA concentration such cells.
Eukaryotes (have a nucleus): It’s nucleus is bound by a membrane. These cells Include fungi,
protists, plant, and animal cells. They possess many organelles in the cell body.

Cellular Process
Respiration: Cells break down carbohydrates and other molecules to produce energy Oxidation
of glucose is one of most common forms Breaking down of sugar into water, carbon dioxide, and
energy
Energy is used to do the work of the cell
● Osmosis & Diffusion: Transport of raw materials, wastes, and synthesized materials out of the
cell.Diffusion - Movement of molecules, especially gasses and liquids from areas of high
concentration to areas of low concentration. Osmosis - Specific type of diffusion - Movement of
water through a membrane from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration
Equilibrium -▪ Diffusion and osmosis happen to enable a cell to reach equilibrium
Cell Reproduction: Three ways
– Fission: Occurs in Prokaryotes. The cell grows larger and makes a second copy of its DNA. At
some point the cell membrane divides the cell by the growth of a transverse septum. Two new
cells are formed as the division grows inward from either side of the cell. Two cells are now
called “daughter cells”.
– Mitosis: Occurs in Eukaryotes. It requires 6 stages. It creates cells that are identical to the
original cell. Have the entire complement of chromosomes existing in pairs – diploid
– Meiosis: Division of sex cells. Stages of Meiosis-6. Each cell receives one chromosome from
each pair randomly.
Biochemistry: Science concerned with the chemical basis of life. Since cells are the structural
unit of living systems. Thus it is also described as the science concerned with the chemical
constituents of living cells and with the reactions they undergo. This term was introduced to us
by Carl Neuberg, the father of biochemistry in the year 1930. This field combines biology as
well as chemistry to study the chemical structure of a living organism. The biochemists get into
the investigation of the chemical reactions and combinations which are involved in various
processes like reproduction, heredity, metabolism, and growth, thus performing research in
different kinds of laboratories.
Aim of Biochemistry: The major aim of biochemistry is the complete understanding at the
molecular level, of all the chemical processes associated with living cells. Biochemists sought to
isolate the numerous molecules found in cells, determine their structure and analyze how they
function. The four major types of biomolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and
proteins.
● Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates are macronutrients and are one of the three main ways
by which our body obtains its energy. They are called carbohydrates as they comprise
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen at their chemical level. Carbohydrates are essential
nutrients which include sugars, fibers and starches. They are found in grains,
vegetables, fruits and in milk and other dairy products. They are the basic food groups
which play an important role in a healthy life. The food containing carbohydrates are
converted into glucose or blood sugar during the process of digestion by the
 digestive system. Our body utilizes this sugar as a source of energy for the cells, organs
and tissues. The extra amount of energy or sugar is stored in our muscles and liver for
further requirement. The term ‘carbohydrate’ is derived from a French term ‘hydrate de
carbone‘ meaning ‘hydrate of carbon‘. The general formula of this class of organic
compounds is Cn(H2O)n. The main function of carbohydrates is to provide energy and
food to the body and to the nervous system. Carbohydrates are known as one of the
basic components of food, including sugars, starch, and fiber which are abundantly found
in grains, fruits and milk products.Carbohydrates are also known as starch, simple sugars,
complex carbohydrates and so on. It is also involved in fat metabolism and prevents
ketosis.Inhibits the breakdown of proteins for energy as they are the primary source of
energy.
● Proteins: Basically, proteins are the fundamental building blocks of our body. They are
large and complex macromolecules or bio-molecules which perform a major role in the
functioning and regulating of our body cells, tissues and other organs in the human
body. They are also used in providing strength to our body in producing hormones,
enzymes, and other metabolic chemicals. Proteins are composed of amino acids, arranged
into different groups. These fundamental amino acid sequences are specific and their
arrangements are controlled by the DNA. Since our body cannot synthesize these
essential amino acids by itself, we should have plenty of protein foods in our everyday
diet to keep our body metabolisms stable.
● Enzymes: Enzymes mostly carry out all numerous chemical reactions which take
place within a cell. They also help in regenerating and creating DNA molecules and
carry out complex processes. Hormones: Proteins are involved in the creation of various
types of hormones which help in balancing the components of the body. For example
hormones like insulin, which helps in regulating blood sugar and secretion. It is also
involved in the digestion process and formation of digestive juices.Antibody: Antibody
also known as an immunoglobulin. It is a type of protein which is majorly used by the
immune system to repair and heal the body from foreign bacteria. They often work
together with other immune cells to identify and separate the antigens from increasing
until the white blood cells destroy them completely. Energy: Proteins are the major
source of energy that helps in the movements of our body. It is important to have the right
 amount of protein in order to convert it into energy. Protein, when consumed in excess
amounts, gets used to create fat and becomes part of the fat cells.
● Nucleic acids: Nucleic acids refer to the genetic material found in the cell that carries all
the hereditary information from parents to progeny. There are two types of nucleic acids
namely, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). The main function of
nucleic acid is the transfer of genetic information and synthesis of proteins by
processes known as translation and transcription. The monomeric unit of nucleic
acids is known as nucleotide and is composed of a nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, and
phosphate. The nucleotides are linked by a 3’ and 5’ phosphodiester bond. The nitrogen
base attached to the pentose sugar makes the nucleotide distinct. There are 4 major
nitrogenous bases found in DNA: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. In RNA,
thymine is replaced by uracil. The DNA structure is described as a double-helix or
double-helical structure which is formed by hydrogen bonding between the bases of two
antiparallel polynucleotide chains.
● Lipids: Lipids are organic substances that are insoluble in water, soluble in organic
solvents, are related to fatty acids and are utilized by the living cell. They include
fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins, mono-, di- or triglycerides, phospholipids, etc.
Unlike carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids, lipids are not polymeric molecules.
Lipids play a great role in the cellular structure and are the chief source of energy.
Lipids are organic compounds that are fatty acids or derivatives of fatty acids, which are
insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. For eg., natural oil, steroids, waxes.
Lipids play a very important role in our body. They are the structural component of the
cell membrane. They help in providing energy and produce hormones in our body.
They help in the proper digestion and absorption of food. They are a healthy part of our
diet if taken in proper amounts. They also play an important role in signalling.There are
two major types of lipids- simple lipids and complex lipids. Simple lipids are esters of
fatty acids with various alcohols. For eg., fats and waxes. On the contrary, complex lipids
are esters of fatty acids with groups other than alcohol and fatty acids. For eg.,
phospholipids and sphingolipids.
Anatomical Methods: Histological Methods (The study of tissues): Ablation Methods Ablation
means removal of a brain area, generally with a surgical knife. It is different from lesions.
Both ablation and lesion methods are invasive and involve cutting a part of the brain. This is
followed by assessing the changes that occur in behavior due to the removal or destruction
of the tissue. Any wound or injury thereby, is known as a lesion.
Lesion methods: Lesion methods focus on the destruction of a small brain area to see how it
affects behavior. A lesion is an abnormal disruption of a tissue, produced by injury or
disease. The study of naturally occurring brain lesions in human beings has formed the
cornerstone of train research in the field of neurology. The discovery of the sensory and motor
areas of the human brain, for example, was the result of localizing lesions in individuals who
suffered a disruption of sensory or motor functions as a result of brain damage.
Staining techniques
Degeneration techniques: e.g., Silver degeneration technique - Cell bodies are destroyed. Cell
processes i.e., axons, dendrites etc. degenerate, silver solution follows the path of degenerating
structures. Can then be imaged using methods that pick up the silver. Pathway tracing - double
labeling techniques.
Chemical procedures are also useful in producing specific brain lesions. Chemical Stimulation
There are various ways to chemically stimulate the brain and make lesions.
Drugs can be given by injections or by inserting a tube into the stomach directly or into a
vein or fatty tissue in the body. The chemical activity of the brain can be assessed by using
various techniques.
One is by using 2- deoxyglucose technique (2-DG). 2-DG is a radioactive drug and when this
drug is injected in the animal, the researcher waits till it is absorbed by the brain. Thereafter, the
animal is killed and the brain is removed and slices are made. Autoradiography is conducted,
that is the slices are coated with photographic emulsion.These are then developed as a film.
Neurons that have taken the drug appear like black spots on the slide.
A stereotaxic apparatus is a mechanism that fastens to the head in a fixed position relative to
standard features of the skull. From these skull landmarks, the approximate location of hidden
brain structures can be determined. A stereotaxic atlas, a map of the typical brain and skull for
the species, is used to calculate the coordinates of the tissue to be lesioned.
Stereotaxic Surgery / procedures are also used in human neurosurgery - using radiographic rather
than skull landmarks - to produce therapeutic brain lesions in deep regions of the brain that are
inaccessible for visually guided dissection.
Microelectrodes Microelectrodes studies have emerged as an important tool used by scientists to
study biological changes in the brain and in single cells.
Microelectrodes : an electrode with a tip no larger than a few micrometers in diameter that
can be inserted into a single cell. In the microelectrode technique, used in studies of
neurophysiology and disorders of the nervous system, intracellular microelectrodes with tips less
than 1 μm in diameter are able to stimulate and record activity within a single neuron
(single-cell or single-unit recording).
Electrical Stimulation (using microelectrodes) The brain can be stimulated electrically to gain
information about the working of its various neural systems.
When the brain is stimulated, there is a change in the resting membrane potential and an action
potential is initiated. This causes behavioral changes depending upon which part of the area has
been stimulated.
For stimulating the brain electrically, electrodes are used. Microelectrodes are made of fine metal
wires through which the nerves are electrically stimulated. Macro electrodes are made of steel
wires and are placed either on top of the scalp or inside the brain to record the functioning
of tracts, which are a large number of neurons together. The electrical recordings can be made
over a long period of time, such as when the animal is recovering from any surgery. This is
known as chronic recording. If the scientist is focusing on studying a particular nerve pathway or
where the information is going, then acute recording is done. These recordings of the electrical
signals are then displayed through an oscilloscope or ink writing oscilloscope.
Oscilloscope: It helps to display the electrical recordings per unit time. It has a cathode ray
tube on which the display is done. It is used to record the activity of one single neuron. When the
action is detected,it is amplified and easily heard by the researcher.
Brain scans: Computerized tomography (CT) was the first of the new brain-imaging
technologies, having been commercially introduced in 1973, although the critical patent for the
process was issued in 1960.
CT is an enhancement of the familiar X-ray procedure.Instead of producing the usual shadow
imaging of a conventional X-ray, in CT an image of a horizontal slice of tissue is
reconstructed. It is as if a slice of brain were surgically removed and placed on a table for
inspection. In CT, narrow X-ray beams are passed through the head in a particular cross-sectional
slice from a wide variety of angles. The amount of radiation absorbed along each line is
measured. From the measurements associated with each beam, a computer program can
determine the density of tissue at each point in the slice.
There are three major types of brain scans. They are computed tomography (CT), magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI), and positive emission tomography (PET).

Ethics:
‘Ethical conduct’ literally means simply doing the right thing, but in reality, it means more. It
involves acting in the right spirit, out of an unending respect and concern for one's fellow
creatures. Research ethics govern the standard of scientific researchers. In case of
biopsychological research, it involves both human and animal as a research subject. APA's 2002
Ethics Code, which takes effect June 1, mandates that psychologists who use animals in research.
These ethics are-
● Acquire, care for, use and dispose of animals in compliance with state and local laws and
regulations, and with professional standards.
● Ensure that all individuals under their supervision who are using animals have received
instruction in research methods and in the care, maintenance and handling of the species
being used, to the extent appropriate to their role.
● Make reasonable efforts to minimize the discomfort, infection, illness and pain of animal
subjects.
● Use a procedure subjecting animals to pain, stress or privation only when an alternative
procedure is unavailable and the goal is justified by its prospective scientific, educational
or applied value.
● Perform surgical procedures under appropriate anesthesia and follow techniques to avoid
infection and minimize pain during and after surgery.
● Proceed rapidly when it is appropriate that an animal's life be terminated, with an effort to
minimize pain and in accordance with accepted procedures.
● Moreover, psychologists trained in appropriate research methods and experienced in the
care of laboratory animals must supervise all procedures involving these animals and are
 "responsible for ensuring appropriate consideration of their comfort, health and humane
treatment," says the code.
Human research involves significant risks and it is possible for things to go wrong. In 1964, the
World Medical Association established recommendations guiding medical doctors in biomedical
or psychological research involving human subjects. The Declaration governs international
research ethics and defines rules for ‘research combined with clinical care’ and ‘non-therapeutic
research.’ The Declaration of Helsinki was revised in 1975, 1983, 1989, and 1996, and is the
basis for Good Clinical Practices used today. Issues addressed in the declaration of Helsinki
include
● Research with humans should be based on the results from laboratory and animal
experimentation.
● Research protocols should be reviewed by an independent committee prior to initiation.
● Informed consent from research participants is necessary.
● Research should be conducted by medically / scientifically qualified individuals.
● Risks should not exceed benefits.

UNIT-2
Neurons: Neurons are the information-conducting units of the nervous system.A neuron has
many characteristics in common with other cells in the body, but it also has special
characteristics that allow it to send electrical impulses by using changes in chemical charges on
its cell membrane.Neurons, or nerve cells, carry out the functions of the nervous system by
conducting nerve impulses.
Nerve Tissue- Although the nervous system is very complex, there are only two main types of
cells in nerve tissue. The actual nerve cell is the neuron. It is the "conducting" cell that transmits
impulses and the structural unit of the nervous system.
The other type of cell is neuroglia, or glial, cell. The word "neuroglia" means "nerve glue."
These cells are
nonconductive and provide a support system for the neurons. They are a special type of
"connective tissue"for the nervous system.
This process helps us see, taste, touch, and move. In order to instantly facilitate these bodily
processes, highly specialized neurons are used to transmit these signals and coordinate the body.
Types of neuron based on function:
Based on function into three broad types:
Sensory neurons / Afferent (to CNS / Spinal) : carry nerve impulses from tissues and organs to
the spinal cord and brain.
Motor neurons / Efferent (away from CNS or Spinal): carry nerve impulses from the brain and
spinal cord to muscles and glands.
Interneurons carry nerve impulses back and forth between sensory and motor neurons.

There are three main kinds of neurons. Sensory neurons are coupled to receptors specialised to
detect and respond to different attributes of the internal and external environment. The receptors
sensitive to changes in light, sound, mechanical and chemical stimuli subserve the sensory
modalities of vision, hearing, touch, smell and taste. When mechanical, thermal or chemical
stimuli to the skin exceed a certain intensity, they can cause tissue damage and a special set of
receptors called nociceptors are activated; these give rise both to protective reflexes and to the
sensation of pain. Motor neurons, which control the activity of muscles, are responsible for all
forms of behaviour including speech. Interposed between sensory and motor neurons are
Interneurons. These are by far the most numerous (in the human brain). Interneurons mediate
simple reflexes as well as being responsible for the highest functions of the brain. Glial cells,
long thought to have a purely supporting function to the neurons, are now known to make an
important contribution to the development of the nervous system and to its function in the adult
brain.
Scientists also classify neurons into four groups based on structural differences:
Unipolar: These neurons have a single long axon that is responsible for sending electrical
signals. The axon in unipolar neurons is myelinated, which allows for rapid signal
transmission. Unipolar neurons have only one structure extending from the soma
Multipolar: These neurons are able to receive impulses from multiple neurons via dendrites.
Multipolar neurons contain one axon and many dendrites
Bipolar: These neurons send signals and receive information. Bipolar neurons have one axon
and one dendrite extending from the soma.
Pseudo-unipolar: Pseudounipolar neurons have a single structure that extends from the
soma, which later branches into two distinct structures.

ACTION POTENTIAL:
● The dendrites receive information and the cell body processes and integrates that
information. The axon carries the information along a long distance. The axon terminal
transmits the information.
● If the stimulation is strong enough the signal is transmitted along the entire length of the
axon called action potential. Where the neuron fires transmission of a neuronal signal
is dependent on the movements of ions or charged particles. Various ions including
sodium, potassium and chloride are unequally distributed between the inside and outside
of the cell
● In resting state the concentration of sodium ions is higher outside the cells than
inside. The relative concentration of potassium ions is more inside the cells, this ionic
separation occurs at the cell membrane and creates a chemical gradient across the
membrane.
● They are more positively charged outside the cells this creates a difference in charge
across the membrane called electrical gradient. The ionic imbalance is called an
electrochemical gradient.
● The inside of the cell is approximately -70 mV less positive than the outside. The
resting potential is the point where the cell has achieved electrochemical
equilibrium.
 ● Ions move through channels by passive diffusion along their concentration gradient.
Graded potential can vary in size and can be either positive or negative.
Transmission of Neuronal signals is entirely dependent on the movement of ions.
● Various ions Sodium (Na+), Potassium (K+) & Chloride (Cl) are unequally distributed
between inside the cell and outside of the cell. The presence and movements of these ions
are not only important when a neuron fires but also at rest.
● To start with, think about positively charged Na & K ions.When a neuron is not sending
a signal, it is considered to be at rest.
● An action potential is defined as a sudden, fast, transitory, and propagating change of the
resting membrane potential.
● When reaching Threshold Potential (Approx -55mV). An action potential is generated
when a stimulus changes the membrane potential to the values of threshold potential. The
threshold potential is usually around -50 to -55 mV.
Phases: An action potential has three phases: depolarization, overshoot, repolarization.
There are two more states of the membrane potential related to the action potential.The first one
is hypopolarization which precedes the depolarization, while the second one is
hyperpolarization, which follows the repolarization.
Hypopolarization is the initial increase of the membrane potential to the value of the
threshold potential.The threshold potential opens voltage-gated sodium channels and causes a
large influx of sodium ions. This phase is called the depolarization.
During depolarization, the inside of the cell becomes more and more electropositive, until the
potential gets closer to the electrochemical equilibrium for sodium of +61 mV. This phase of
extreme positivity is the overshoot phase. After the overshoot, the sodium permeability
suddenly decreases due to the closing of its channels.
The overshoot value of the cell potential opens voltage-gated potassium channels, which causes a
large potassium efflux, decreasing the cell’s electropositivity. This phase is the repolarization
phase, whose purpose is to restore the resting membrane potential. Repolarization always
leads first to hyperpolarization, a state in which the membrane potential is more negative than
the default membrane potential. (approx below – 70mV) But soon after that, the membrane
establishes again the values of membrane potential (approx -70mV)
NEUROTRANSMITTER:
● A neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger that allows nerve cells to communicate
with each other. A neurotransmitter signal travels from a neuron, across the synapse, to
the next neuron.
● The synapse is the name given to the space between the two neurons. In order for neurons
to send messages via neurotransmitters, they need to communicate with each other,
which they do through synapses.
● When signals travel through a neuron and reach the end of that neuron, they cannot
simply travel through to the next one. Instead, the neuron must trigger the release of
neurotransmitters, which then carry signals across the synapses with the goal of
reaching the next neuron.
● During synaptic transmission, the action potential (an electrical impulse) triggers the
synaptic vesicles of the presynaptic neuron to release neurotransmitters (a chemical
message).
● These neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic gap (the gap between the pre and
postsynaptic neurons) and bind to specialized receptor sites on the postsynaptic
neuron. The neuron which releases the neurotransmitters is called the presynaptic
neuron. The neuron which receives the neurotransmitters is called the postsynaptic
neuron.
● The end of each neuron has presynaptic endings and vesicles, which are sacs containing
neurotransmitters.When a nerve impulse (or action potential) triggers the release of
neurotransmitters, these chemicals are then released into the synapse and then is taken up
by the receptors on the next neuron. This process is known as neurotransmission.
UNIT - 3

THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM

STRUCTURE:
● Two basic types of cells are present in the nervous system;
1. Neurons
2. Glial cells
● Neurons or nerve cells, are the main structural and functional units of the nervous system.
● Glial cells, also called neuroglia or simply glia, are smaller non-excitatory cells that act to
support neurons.
● Nervous tissue, composed of neurons and neuroglia, forms our nervous organs (e.g. the
brain, nerves). These organs unite according to their common function, forming the
evolutionary perfection that is our nervous system.
● The nervous system is a complex collection of nerves and specialized cells known as
neurons that transmit signals between different parts of the body.

Functions of the Nervous System

The 4 main functions of the nervous system are:
● Reception of general sensory information (touch, pressure, temperature, pain,
vibration)
● Receiving and perceiving special sensations (taste, smell, vision, sounds)
● Integration of sensory information from different parts of the body and processing
them
● Response generation
Meninges:
● The meninges are the three membranes that envelop the brain and spinal cord and
separate them from the walls of their bony cases (skull and vertebral column).
● Meninges are continuous with each other and consist of the same three meningeal layers:
1. Dura mater
2. Arachnoid mater
3. Pia mater
● Functions: a) Primary protection to CNS b) connects brain and spinal cord to skull and
spinal canal c) forms protective barrier and safeguard CNS from trauma d) contains
ample blood vessels that deliver to CNS tissue e) produces CSF which acts as a cushion
Dura Mater:
● The dura mater is the outermost meningeal layer, consisting of dense irregular connective
tissue.
● It is composed of two layers and they are attached to each other. (outer endrosal and inner
meningeal)
● It contains a drainage system, called the dural venous sinuses, which allows blood to
leave your brain and allows cerebrospinal fluid to re-enter the circulation.
● It folds inward onto itself to form four thin membrane layers called dural reflections.
● Each dural reflection envelopes different hemispheres of the brain.

Arachnoid Mater:
● The arachnoid mater is a spider web-like meningeal layer, interposed between the dura
and pia.
● It doesn’t contain blood vessels or nerves. The potential space between the arachnoid and
dura is called the subdural space and it contains a very thin layer of fluid.
● The outer surface of the arachnoid attaches to the dura mater forming a barrier that
prevents the leakage of CSF into the subdural space.

Pia Mater:
● The pia mater is the innermost layer and thin layer.
● It is a highly vascular membrane that closely follows the contours of the brain.
● Many superficial blood vessels of the brain are related to the pia mater.
● The space between the arachnoid and pia is called the subarachnoid space and it is filled
with the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
● The function of the pia mater is to physically separate the neural tissue from the blood
vessels in the subarachnoid space, adding to the efficacy of the blood-brain barrier.
● It contributes to the degradation of the neurotransmitters, preventing their prolonged
action on the nervous tissue.
Meningeal Spaces: The meningeal spaces are the spaces between the meningeal layers. There
are three clinically significant meningeal spaces; epidural, subdural, and subarachnoid.
1.Epidural spaces:
● The epidural space is a space between skull and dura mater and the dura mater of
spinal cord and the bones of your vertebral column.
● Analgesics (pain medicine) and anesthesia are sometimes injected into this space along
your spine.
2.Subdural Spaces:
● It is the space between dura mater and your arachnoid mater.
● Under normal conditions, this space isn’t a space, but can be opened if there’s trauma to
your brain (such as a brain bleed) or other medical condition.
3.Subarachnoid space:
● It is a space between arachnoid mater and pia mater.
● It’s filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
● Cerebrospinal fluid cushions and protects your brain and spinal cord.

THE SPINAL CORD

● The spinal cord begins at the bottom part of your brainstem, called the medulla
oblongata. At your lower back, your spinal cord forms a cone shape called the conus
medullaris. In most adults, your spinal cord is about 18 inches (45 centimeters) long.
● The spinal cord is a tube-like structure that extends from the brain and consists of 31
segments. A pair of spinal nerves comes out of each segment.
● Motor and sensory nerves are located in both the spinal segment and the motor and
sensory precursors.
● Several spinal nerves emerge out of each segment of the spinal cord. There are 8 pairs of
cervical, 5 lumbar, 12 thoracics, 5 sacral and 1 coccygeal pair of spinal nerves
● The majority of the spinal cord blood supply is provided by the segmental spinal arteries,
with further supply coming from the vertebral arteries via a single anterior spinal artery
and paired posterior spinal arteries.
● It performs the primary processing of information as it carries sensory signals from all
parts of the body to the Central Nervous System through afferent fibers.
● The spinal cord plays a vital role in various aspects of the body’s functioning. Examples
of these key functions include:
● Carrying signals from the brain: The spinal cord receives signals from the brain that
control movement and autonomic functions.
● Carrying information to the brain: The spinal cord nerves also transmit messages to the
brain from the body, such as sensations of touch, pressure, and pain.
● Reflex responses: The spinal cord may also act independently of the brain in conducting
motor reflexes. One example is the patellar reflex, which causes a person’s knee to
involuntarily jerk when tapped in a certain spot.
 ● These functions of the spinal cord transmit the nerve impulses for movement, sensation,
pressure, temperature, pain, and more.

VENTRICULAR SYSTEM:

● The cerebrospinal fluid is produced in the ventricular system of the brain. There are four
such hollow spaces in the brain that house cerebrospinal fluid (CSF): two lateral
ventricles, a third ventricle and a fourth ventricle.
● These cerebral ventricles are a series of interconnected, fluid-filled spaces that lie in the
core of the forebrain and brainstem.
● Each ventricle is home to a choroid plexus. The choroid plexuses in each ventricle are
responsible for the synthesis of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

Cerebrospinal Fluid:
● Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless plasma-like fluid that bathes the central
nervous system (CNS).
● This fluid is made by a group of cells, called the choroid plexus, that are deep inside your
brain.
● It circulates through a system of cavities found within the brain and spinal cord;
ventricles, subarachnoid space of the brain and spinal cord and the central canal of the
spinal cord.
● It performs vital functions, including providing nourishment, waste removal, and
protection to the brain.
● The constant secretion of CSF contributes to complete CSF renewal four to five times
per 24-hour period in the average young adult. And around 500 ml per day
 ● The reduction of CSF turnover may contribute to the accumulation of metabolites seen in
aging and neurodegenerative diseases.

Functions of CSF:
● Support - The CSF supports the weight of the brain estimated at 1500 gm and suspends
it in neutral buoyancy to a net weight of about 25 gm. Hence, the entire brain density is
cushioned, protecting it from crashing into the bony cranium.
● Shock absorber - It protects the brain from damage during head trauma. Otherwise, even
minor head bopping will result in severe brain injury.
● Homeostasis - The biochemical constituents and volume of the CSF play vital cerebral
homeostatic roles.
● Nutrition - The CSF contains glucose, proteins, lipids, and electrolytes, providing
essential CNS nutrition.
● Immune function - The CSF contains immunoglobulins and mononuclear cells.

BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER:

● Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB) is a selectively permeable membrane that regulates the
passage of a multitude of large and small molecules into the microenvironment of
the neurons.
● This is a barrier between the brain’s blood vessels (capillaries) and the cells and other
components that make up brain tissue.
● The purpose of the blood–brain barrier is to protect against circulating toxins or
pathogens that could cause brain infections, while at the same time allowing vital
nutrients to reach the brain.
● Its other function is to help maintain relatively constant levels of hormones, nutrients
and water in the brain – fluctuations which could disrupt the finely tuned environment.
● It is made up of endothelial cells of capillary walls, intercellular junctions and
relative lack of vesicular transport.
● BBB preserves neural connectivity, allows immune surveillance and response with
minimal inflammation and cell damage
● The endothelial cells are fused together at the intercellular junctions which restricts
diffusion on and across blood vessels.
● Some areas of the brain dont have BBB as in Posterior Pituitary and certain ventricular
organs because they are consistent with their physiological functions.
● Disruption of BBB occurs in a variety of pathological conditions as in Brain tumor ,
bacterial meninges etc. Damage leads to depression, anxiety, diffuse white matter, nerve
damage etc
Peripheral Nervous System:
● The nervous system of the body is split into two parts: the central nervous system (CNS)
and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
● The PNS is all the nerves that branch out from the CNS components and extend to other
parts of the body – to the sense organs, muscles, and glands.
● The primary function of the peripheral nervous system is to connect the brain and spinal
cord to the rest of the body and the external environment.
● The peripheral nervous system transmits information to and from the CNS.
● The main functions of the PNS are voluntary movements such as chewing food, walking,
and facial expressions.
● The PNS also regulates autonomic functions such as breathing, heart rate, and digesting –
the unconscious bodily behaviors.
CRANIAL NERVES:
● The cranial nerves are composed of twelve pairs of nerves that emanate from the nervous
tissue of the brain.
● In order to reach their targets they must ultimately exit/enter the cranium through
openings in the skull.
● Hence, their name is derived from their association with the cranium.

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM:

Peripheral nervous system:
1. Somatic nervous system: This includes muscles you can control, plus all the nerves
throughout your body that carry information from your senses.
 2. Autonomic nervous system: This is the part of your nervous system that connects your
brain to most of your internal organs.
Autonomic nervous system breaks down into 2 divisions, each with its own job:
1. Sympathetic nervous system: This system activates body processes that help you in
times of need, especially times of stress or danger. This system is responsible for your
body’s “fight-or-flight” response.
2. Parasympathetic nervous system: This part of your autonomic nervous system does the
opposite of your sympathetic nervous system. This system is responsible for the
“rest-and-digest” body processes or homeostasis.

BRAIN:

● The human brain is not only one of the most important organs in the human body; it is
also the most complex.
● The brain is made up of billions of neurons and it also has a number of specialized parts
that are each involved in important functions.
● The brain is composed of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem.
Cerebrum: is the largest and most recognisable part of the brain. It consists of gray matter (the
cerebral cortex) and white matter at the center. The cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres,
the left and right, and contains the lobes of the brain (frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital
lobes). The cerebrum produces higher functioning roles such as thinking, learning, memory,
language, emotion, movement, and perception.
 ● The cerebrum is divided into two halves: the right and left hemispheres. The left
hemisphere controls the right half of the body, and the right hemisphere controls the left
half of the body.The two hemispheres are connected by a thick band of neural fibers
known as the corpus callosum, consisting of about 200 million axons.
● The corpus callosum allows the two hemispheres to communicate with each other and
allows for information being processed on one side of the brain to be shared with the
other side.
● Hemispheric lateralization is the idea that each hemisphere is responsible for different
functions. Each of these functions are localized to either the right or left side.
● The left hemisphere is associated with B, such as formulating grammar and vocabulary,
and containing different language centers (Broca’s and Wernicke’s area).
● The right hemisphere is associated with more visuospatial functions such as
visualization, depth perception, and spatial navigation. These left and right functions are
the case in the majority of people, especially those who are right-handed.

Cerebellum: is located under the cerebrum and is responsible for monitoring and regulating
motor behaviors, especially automatic movements. This structure is also important for regulating
posture and balance, as well as recently being suggested for being involved in learning and
attention.
● Lobes of the Brain :Each cerebral hemisphere can be subdivided into four lobes, each
associated with different functions.
1.The frontal lobes :
● Located at the front of the brain, behind the forehead . Their main functions are
associated with higher cognitive functions, including problem-solving,
decision-making, attention, intelligence, and voluntary behaviors.
● The frontal lobes contain the motor cortex, which is responsible for planning and
coordinating movements.
● It also contains the prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for initiating
higher-level cognitive functioning, and Broca’s Area, which is essential for
language production.
2.Temporal Lobe:

● The temporal lobes are located on both sides of the brain, near the temples of the head,
hence the name temporal lobes. The main functions of these lobes include understanding,
language, memory acquisition, face recognition, object recognition, perception, and
processing auditory information.
● There is a temporal lobe in both the left and right hemispheres. The left temporal lobe,
which is usually the most dominant in people, is associated with language, learning,
memorizing, forming words, and remembering verbal information.
● The left lobe also contains an important language center known as Wernicke’s area,
which is essential for language development. The right temporal lobe is usually
associated with learning and memorizing non-verbal information and determining facial
expressions.

3.Parietal Lobe:
● The parietal lobe is located at the top of the brain, between the frontal and occipital lobes,
above the temporal lobes .
● The parietal lobe is essential for integrating information from the body’s senses in order
to allow us to build a coherent picture of the world around us.
● These lobes allow us to have a perception of our bodies through somatosensory
information (e.g. through touch, pressure, and temperature). It can also help with
visuospatial processing, reading, and number representations (mathematics).
● The parietal lobes also contain the somatosensory cortex, which receives and processes
sensory information, integrating this into a representational map of the body.
 4.Occipital Lobe:

● The occipital lobes are located at the back of the brain behind the temporal and
parietal lobes and below the occipital bone of the skull .
● The occipital lobes receive sensory information from the retinas of the eyes which
is then encoded into different visual data. Some of the functions of the occipital
lobes include being able to assess size, depth, and distance, determine colour
information, object and facial recognition, and mapping the visual world.
● The occipital lobes also contain the primary visual cortex which receives sensory
information from the retinas, transmitting this information relating to location,
spatial data, motion, and the colours of objects in the field of vision.

Brainstem: is located at the base of the brain. This area connects the cerebrum and the
cerebellum to the spinal cord, acting as a relay station for these areas. The brainstem works by
regulating automatic functions such as sleep cycles, breathing, body temperature, digestion,
coughing, and sneezing.

UNIT - 4
BIOPSYCHOLOGY OF EMOTIONS:

EMOTIONS: Emotion is a complex psychological state that involves three distinct

components: a subjective experience, a physiological response, and a behavioral or expressive
response.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF EMOTIONS :

● In 1972, psychologist Paul Ekman suggested that there are six basic emotions that are
universal throughout human cultures: fear, disgust, anger, surprise, happiness, and
sadness.
● 1980s, Robert Plutchik - Emotion classification system known as the "wheel of
emotions." This model demonstrated how different emotions can be combined or mixed
together.
● 1999, Ekman - Include a number of other basic emotions, including embarrassment,
excitement, contempt, shame, pride, satisfaction, and amusement.
Key Elements of Emotions :
● three key elements, known as the subjective experience, the physiological response, and
the behavioral response.
A. Subjective experience : While basic emotions are expressed by all individuals regardless
of culture or upbringing, the experience that produces them can he highly subjective.
Subjective experiences can range from something as simple as seeing a color to
something as major as losing a loved one or getting married.
B. Physiological response : increases or decreases in heart rate, cutaneous blood flow
(blushing or turning pale), piloerection, sweating, and gastrointestinal motility can all
accompany various emotions.
C. Behaviour Response : the behavioral response aspect of the emotional response is the
actual expression of the emotion. Behavioral responses can include a smile, a grimace, a
laugh or a sigh, along with many other reactions depending on societal norms and
personality.

EMOTIONS AS RESPONSE PATTERNS : FEAR , ANGER AND AGGRESSION :

1. Fear : Fear can increase heart rate, cause racing thoughts, or trigger the fight-or-flight
response. It can be a reaction to actual or perceived threats. Some people enjoy the
adrenaline rush that accompanies fear in the form of watching scary movies, riding roller
coasters, or skydiving.
 Fear pathway : The fight-or-flight response begins in the amygdala, which is an
almond-shaped bundle of neurons that forms part of the limbic system. It plays an
important role in the processing of emotions, including fear. The amygdala signals the
hypothalamus, which then activates the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland is where the
nervous system meets the endocrine, or hormone, system. The pituitary gland then
secretes adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) into the blood. At this time, the
sympathetic nervous system — a division of the nervous system responsible for the
fight-or-flight response — gives the adrenal gland a nudge, encouraging it to squirt a dose
of epinephrine, also known as adrenaline, and other catecholamines into the bloodstream.
The body also releases cortisol in response to ACTH, which brings about the rise in blood
pressure, blood sugar, and white blood cells. Circulating cortisol turns fatty acids into
energy, ready for the muscles to use, should the need arise. CatecholamineTrusted Source
hormones, including epinephrine and norepinephrine, prepare muscles for violent action.
2. Anger : Anger can be expressed with facial expressions like frowning, yelling, or violent
behavior. Anger can motivate you to make changes in your life, but you need to find a
healthy outlet to express anger so it doesn't cause harm to yourself or others.
Anger pathway: become angry your body's muscles tense up. Inside your brain,
neurotransmitter chemicals known as catecholamines are released causing you to
experience a burst of energy lasting up to several minutes. This burst of energy is behind
the common angry desire to take immediate protective action. At the same time your
heart rate accelerates, your blood pressure rises, and your rate of breathing increases.
Your face may flush as increased blood flow enters your limbs and extremities in
preparation for physical action. Your attention narrows and becomes locked onto the
target of your anger. Soon you can pay attention to nothing else. In quick succession,
additional brain neurotransmitters and hormones (among them adrenaline and
noradrenaline) are released which trigger a lasting state of arousal. You're now ready to
fight.

Although it is possible for your emotions to rage out of control, the prefrontal cortex of
your brain, which is located just behind your forehead, can keep your emotions in
proportion. If the amygdala handles emotion, the prefrontal cortex handles judgment. The
left prefrontal cortex can switch off your emotions. It serves in an executive role to keep
things under control. Getting control over your anger means learning ways to help your
prefrontal cortex get the upper hand over your amygdala so that you have control over
how you react to anger feelings. Among the many ways to make this happen are
relaxation techniques (which reduce your arousal and decrease your amygdala activity)
and the use of cognitive control techniques which help you practice using your judgment
to override your emotional reaction.
3. Aggression : Aggressive Behavior involves expressing your feelings indirectly through
insults, sarcasm, labels, put-downs, and hostile statements and actions. Aggressive
 behavior involves expressing thoughts, feelings, and opinions in a way that violates
others' rights to be treated with respect and dignity.
Pathway of aggression :

HORMONAL CONTROL OF AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR :

● Hormones are also important in creating aggression. Most important in this regard is the
male sex hormone testosterone, which is associated with increased aggression in both
animals and in humans. Research conducted on a variety of animals has found a strong
correlation between levels of testosterone and aggression.
● one study showing the relationship between testosterone and behavior, James Dabbs and
his colleagues- - found that the fraternities that had the highest average testosterone levels
were also more wild and unruly, and in one case were known across campus for the
crudeness of their behavior. The fraternities with the lowest average testosterone levels,
on the other hand, were more well-behaved, friendly, academically successful, and
socially responsible.
● positive relationship between testosterone and aggression and related behaviors (such as
competitiveness) in women. women have lower levels of testosterone overall, they are
more influenced by smaller changes in these levels than are men.
● It must be kept in mind that the observed relationships between testosterone levels and
aggressive behavior that have been found in these studies cannot prove that testosterone
causes aggression—the relationships are only correlational.
● the effect of aggression on testosterone is probably stronger than the effect of testosterone
on aggression. Engaging in aggression causes temporary increases in testosterone. People
who feel that they have been insulted show both more aggression as well as more
testosterone.
● Not only testosteron, researches have shown that serotonin is also important, as serotonin
tends to inhibit aggression. Low levels of serotonin have been found to predict future
aggression.

NEURAL BASIS OF THE COMMUNICATION OF EMOTION : RECOGNITION AND

EXPRESSION :

● The neural basis of the communication of emotions consists of recognition and

expression. The right hemisphere of the brain plays an important role in recognition. It is
responsible for the acoustic and visuospatial analysis of emotions, the nonverbal
communicative representations of emotions, and comprehension of emotions.
● Recognition of another person’s facial expression of emotions is generally automatic,
rapid, and accurate.Tracy and Robbins (2008) found that observers quickly recognized
 brief expressions of a variety of emotions. If they were given more time to think about
the expression they had seen, they showed very little improvement.
● The right hemisphere plays a more significant role in recognizing emotions in the voice
or facial expressions of other people—especially negative emotions. The same
hemispheric specialization appears to be true for expressing emotions. When people show
emotions with their facial muscles, the left side of the face usually makes a more intense
expression.

HEALTH AND STRESS :

Stress is a biological and psychological response experienced on encountering a threat that we

feel we do not have the resources to deal with. A stressor is the stimulus (or threat) that causes
stress, e.g. exam, divorce, death of loved one, moving house, loss of job.Stress is a fact of life
and can affect individuals in a variety of ways. At some point in life, every individual
experiences some degree of stress; some individuals experience stress more often than others and
some have difficulty dealing with stress. Stress can be manifested from any situation or thought
that causes an individual to experience frustration, anger, and nervousness, whereas anxiety is a
feeling of fear and apprehension. individuals experience physical and/or psychological
symptoms.
Types of Stress:
a. Acute Stress : Acute stress is the most common form of stress and is short term. It is
described as a reaction to an immediate threat, commonly referred to as the fight or flight
response. Common causes of acute stress include noise, danger, crowding, or isolation.
b. Episodic Acute Stress : Episodic acute stress is prevalent among those individuals
whose lives are constantly chaotic and demanding. These individuals are always in a rush
and tend to take on too many tasks at one time.Individuals who worry a lot are also prone
to episodic acute stress.
c. Chronic Stress : Chronic stress is defined as a type of stress that occurs over a long
period of time from either internal or external stressors.4 Common causes of chronic
stress include financial problems, death of a loved one, long-term relationship issues, or
having a demanding job or work schedule.

STRESS RESPONSE :
General stress response that out body produces are :
● Increase in heart rate
● Increase in breathing (lungs dilate)
● Decrease in digestive activity (don’t feel hungry)
● Liver releases glucose for energy
 ★ Firstly, our body judges a situation and decides whether or not it is stressful. This
decision is made based on sensory input and processing and also on stored
memories.
★ If the situation is judged as being stressful, the hypothalamus (at the base of the
brain) is activated. The hypothalamus in the brain is in charge of the stress
response.
★ When a stress response is triggered, it sends signals to two other structures: the
pituitary gland, and the adrenal medulla.These short term responses are produced
by The Fight or Flight Response via the Sympathomedullary Pathway (SAM).
Long term stress is regulated by the Hypothalamic Pituitary-Adrenal.
★ Chronic stress response: hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system (HPA) system. :
1. The stressor activates the Hypothalamic Pituitary Axis.
2. The hypothalamus stimulates the pituitary gland.
3. The pituitary gland secretes adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).
4. ACTH stimulates the adrenal glands to produce the hormone
corticosteroid.
5. Cortisol enables the body to maintain steady supplies of blood sugar.
6. Adequate and steady blood sugar levels help a person to cope with
prolonged stress, and helps the body to return to normal.
7. The adrenal cortex releases stress hormones called cortisol. This has a
number of functions including releasing stored glucose from the liver (for
energy) and controlling swelling after an injury. The immune system is
suppressed while this happens.
STRESS AND GASTRIC ULCER :

a. Triggers of mouth ulcers may include:

★ viral infection
★ biting or injuring your lip, tongue, or the inside of your cheek
changes in hormones for women
★ Stress
★ some foods
★ certain medical conditions.
Causes and triggers of ulcers can include:
● H. pylori infectioN.
● NSAIDs include aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen, and others severe stress, major depression,
and certain other mental illnesses, perhaps related to the brain-gut interaction.
Symptoms of gastric ulcer : Burning discomfort and indigestion are two classic signs of a
stomach ulcer. It can be described as an intense sensation that sometimes accompanies gut pain.
The discomfort typically grows when you have an empty stomach.
★ Other common symptoms include
 ★ A bloated stomach.
★ Nausea or vomiting.
★ Does a stomach ulcer

UNIT-5
PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY:
● psycho-' means thoughts and emotions; '-neuro-' means that the physical brain is
involved; '-endo-' brings in the endocrine system; '-immunology' explains how your
immune system protects you from illness
● PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY (PNI) is the study of the interaction between
psychological processes and the nervous and immune systems of the human body. PNI
takes an interdisciplinary approach, incorporating psychology, neuroscience,
immunology, physiology, genetics, pharmacology, molecular biology,
psychiatry,behavioral medicine, infectious diseases, endocrinology, and rheumatology.
● Psychoneuroimmunology is important in improving the understanding of how the mind
affects the processes of the body and how the body's processes affect the mind. Including
several aspects of human health in the understanding of health and disease can lead to
improvements to medicine.
● The nervous system has more control than we might have guessed over the immune
system. The study of this relationship, called psychoneuroimmunology, deals with the
ways experiences alter the immune system and how the immune system in turn
influences the central nervous system.
● Stress affects the immune system in several ways. In response to a stressful experience,
the nervous system activates the immune system to increase its production of natural
killer cells and the secretion of cytokines Even fear or anger enhances the immune system
response, temporarily.
● The elevated cytokine levels help combat infections, but they also trigger the brain to
produce the same symptoms as if one were ill. Rats subjected to inescapable shocks show
symptoms resembling illness, including fever,sleepiness, and decreased appetite.
● Psychoneuroendocrinology is the clinical study of hormone fluctuations and their
relationship to human behavior. It may be viewed from the perspective of psychiatry,
where in certain mood disorders, there are associated neuroendocrine or hormonal
changes affecting the brain.
● Brain dysfunctions such as in the hypothalamus can affect the endocrine system, which in
turn can result in psychiatric symptoms. This complex blend of psychiatry, neurology and
endocrinology is needed to comprehensively understand and treat psychiatric illnesses.
● One example of psychoneuroimmunology is the association of stress with several
diseases. Long-term stress is associated with incidence of gastrointestinal disorders and
disease. Stress, along with decreased social support, is linked with the progression of HIV
infection. Stress is also linked to psoriasis outbreaks in patients.
 ● The main interests of PNI are the interactions between the nervous and immune systems
an
● d the relationships between mental processes and health.

STRESS AND HIPPOCAMPUS:

● Stress has mostly been studied in regards to memory. However, it’s also an important part
of the brain involved in the stress response whereas the hippocampus has two parts – the
dorsal (top) and ventral (bottom). The dorsal hippocampus is important for memory. The
ventral hippocampus helps in the regulation of the stress response. This could be why
abnormalities in the hippocampus are linked with stress and stress-related disorders (e.g.
depression and PTSD).
● Numerous human studies have shown that perceived stress is linked with decreased
hippocampal volume. For example, post-mortem studies on people with coronary artery
disease (CAD), a type of cardiovascular disease (CVD) linked with high levels of stress,
have shown a correlation between CAD and reduced volume in the hippocampus. One
possible explanation is that stress has caused the reduced volumes in these parts of the
hippocampus.
● However, longitudinal studies and twin studies have also found that reduced volume in
the hippocampus is a risk factor for increased levels of stress. Therefore, a small
hippocampus could increase our chances of chronic stress and CVD because of its role in
inhibiting our stress response.
● Responding to stress allows us to adapt and change with our environment. Our bodies
cannot stay in a relaxed state during stressful events, so upon encountering a stressor, the
brain sends signals to the rest of the body to get ready to fight or flee. The
hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is the brain’s control center for this reaction
to stress.
● Norepinephrine, epinephrine, and cortisol are some of the main signals the body uses to
initiate the fight-or-flight response.They redirect metabolism to the limbs, slow digestion,
increase blood sugar and blood pressure, and provide energy for conquering or running
from the stressful situation.
● The HPA axis works in conjunction with many other areas of the brain and glands
throughout the body. The hippocampus, located in the medial temporal lobe of the brain,
is necessary for cognitive functions such as learning, memory, and regulation of behavior
It plays a key role in gathering and encoding information and then later retrieving that
information.
● During times of stress, your brain needs to focus on sensory stimuli and quick
problem-solving, so hippocampus function is altered.
● The hippocampus is less functional during times of both acute and chronic stress. There
are corticosteroid (cortisol) receptors all over the hippocampus, which is why stress can
so readily impede this part of the brain.
 ● The two important receptors to know are called MRs (mineralocorticoid receptors) and
GRs (glucocorticoid receptors). MRs have a high affinity for cortisol and are bound to
cortisol even when a stress response isn’t occurring, which is necessary for normal
hippocampus function and flow of information.8 GRs have much less affinity for cortisol
and are typically only activated when cortisol levels are high (when you are stressed).
When GRs are activated, the neuronal formation of new memories is suppressed.9
● This balance of cortisol promoting information flow but hindering hippocampus function
during times of stress is necessary for a healthy response to stress.

FEAR CONDITIONING AND AMYGDALA

● Pavlovian fear conditioning in laboratory rodents as well as humans. These studies have
established the amygdala as a key player in the circuits that process fear and led to a
model where fear learning results from long-term potentiation of inputs that convey
information about the conditioned stimulus to the amygdala.
● Cells in the lateral and basolateral parts of the amygdala receive visual and auditory
information and then send messages to the central amygdala, which then sends its output
to the central gray area of the midbrain, which relays the information to a nucleus in the
pons responsible for the startle reflex.
● Damage at any point along the route from amygdala to pons interferes with learned fears,
although only damage to the pons would block the startle reflex itself.

● Fear conditioning is thought to depend upon an area of the brain called the amygdala. The
amygdala is involved in acquisition, storage, and expression of conditioned fear memory.
● Lesion studies have revealed that lesions drilled into the amygdala before fear
conditioning prevent the acquisition of the conditioned response of fear, and lesions
drilled in the amygdala after conditioning cause conditioned responses to be forgotten.
● Electrophysiological recordings from the amygdala have demonstrated that cells in that
region undergo long-term potentiation (LTP), a form of synaptic plasticity believed to
underlie learning.
● Pharmacological studies, synaptic studies, and human studies also implicate the amygdala
as chiefly responsible for fear learning and memory.
● *Additionally, inhibition of neurons in the amygdala disrupts fear acquisition, while
stimulation of those neurons can drive fear-related behaviors, such as freezing behavior in
rodents. This indicates that proper function of the amygdala is both necessary for fear
conditioning and sufficient to drive fear behaviors.
● The amygdala is not exclusively the fear center, but also an area for responding to
various environmental stimuli. Several studies have shown that when faced with
unpredictable neutral stimuli, amygdala activity increases.
 ● Therefore, even in situations of uncertainty and not necessarily fear, the amygdala plays a
role in alerting other brain regions that encourage safety and survival responses.

CONTEXTUAL FEAR CONDITIONING AND HIPPOCAMPUS

● Contextual fear conditioning is an associative learning test in which a test subject, most
often a mouse or rat, learns to associate an environment (context) with a fear-inducing
stimulus.
● As with other forms of associative learning, such as cued fear conditioning, this form of
learning is dictated by a neutral stimulus (termed “conditioned stimulus”) and a
valence-associated stimulus (termed “unconditioned stimulus”).
● Contextual fear conditioning, however, may also be performed with the context itself
acting as the conditioned stimulus, rather than a presented stimulus such as a tone.
● Most commonly, contextual fear conditioning is achieved through the use of a foot shock
as the unconditioned stimulus,which the animal learns to associate with a novel
environment.
● Unlike with cued fear conditioning, no variations in the timing of acquisition protocols
are used with contextual fear conditioning, since the absence of a manipulated
conditioned stimulus implies that no such modification can be made.
● Contextual fear conditioning is a remarkably consistent feature of learning that has been
conserved throughout evolution, due to its evident utility in natural environments. In
 essence, all animals must learn to associate certain environments with the threat of danger
in order to survive.
● Thus, when an environment is paired with an aversive stimulus, animals exhibit defensive
mechanisms which, in rodents, is primarily the freezing reflex. As a translational model,
contextual fear conditioning has been used both as a simple means of understanding the
mechanisms underlying memory formation and recall, as well as a basis for studying
human-centric disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
● The most basic variant of contextual fear conditioning is known as the one-trial
procedure, in which an animal is placed into a novel environment, after which an aversive
stimulus is delivered.
● The animal may then be tested for context-dependent fear responding at a variety of
intervals following this procedure in order to assess the strength and duration of the
memory.