L1 Thermal Concepts

Data booklet
Formulae not in the data booklet

Thermal Physics
2
L1 Thermal concepts
Learning objectives:
● Define the terms heat, thermal energy and
temperature
● Discuss the history of scientific discoveries
regarding thermal energy and the evolution
of knowledge
● Convert between Kelvin and celsius,
defining the Kelvin as we go along.
3
By the end of the lessons 1-2:
● What is the difference between heat and thermal
energy?
● What different temperature scales exist?
● What is temperature?
● How can I calculate the equilibrium temperature of
two objects in contact?
● What are the limitations of a liquid-in-glass
thermometer?
● How can we calibrate a thermometer?
● How can we calibrate a thermistor?
4
What do you know or think right now?
note: ‘Lengness’ is
Let’s discuss the following ideas: not what we mean
by hot in physics
1. What do you think ‘hot’ means?

2. What is your understanding of temperature?
3. What is ‘hotness’?
4. What happens to hot soup on a cold day, and an
ice cream on a hot day? Why?
5. What is the fundamental unit of temperature?
It doesn’t matter at this stage if you are wrong -

it is helpful to know your thoughts.
5
Our understanding has changed...
Early humans discovered fire - and with this they

were able to inadvertently transform society. The
control of fire allows the control of energy flow -
they used it to stay warm or for cooking foods.
There commonly are misconceptions in the

understanding of thermal energy, heat and
temperature. These stem from past (now defunct)
theories.
6
History of heat
Between the 17th and 19th Century it was
commonly believed that heat (called ‘phlogiston’ or
‘caloric’) was a substance that flowed between hot
and cold objects.
Some even believed that there was a substance

called ‘frigoric’ that flowed cold to hot - it is weird
how much basic understanding we take for granted -
yet back then, this was ‘advanced knowledge’ -
even if it was incorrect.
7
History of heat
James Joule (1840 - the energy
guy) showed that the temperature
of a substance would be increased
by doing work on that substance,
and that doing work was
equivalent to heating.
As the masses drop, they spin the

paddles - which move the water
and eventually there was a
temperature rise.
Eventually ‘Caloric theory’ was abandoned - thank goodness, but we still

have some relics of it today - such as the food calorie, and calorimeters.
I prefer the Joule, because Physics > Biology 8
Thermal energy
AKA Internal energy.
• It is equal to the sum of the random distribution of the kinetic and
potential energies of the object’s molecules.
• Molecular kinetic energy increases with temperature.
• Potential energy increases in the state change process, due to
intermolecular forces being pulled apart, but because attractive
forces are seen to be negative, this negative starting point means
that when the substance becomes a gas (‘ideal gas’), the potential
energy is zero. So from a negative start, it ends at zero, this is still
considered an increase.
If the internal energy is represented by the potential energy and kinetic energy in
the bonds of any material, why do gases not have potential energy?
In a gas, the molecules are so far apart that there are no intermolecular
interactions. So there is no potential energy. Therefore the energy is entirely kinetic.
The attractive forces are seen as negative and repulsive is positive.
9
Thermal energy
AKA Internal energy.
• It is equal to the sum of the random distribution of the kinetic and
potential energies of the object’s molecules.
• Molecular kinetic energy increases with temperature.
• Potential energy increases in the state change process, due to
intermolecular forces being pulled apart, but because attractive
forces are seen to be negative, this negative starting point means
that when the substance becomes a gas (‘ideal gas’), the potential
energy is zero. So from a negative start, it ends at zero, this is still
considered an increase.
If the internal energy is represented by the potential energy and kinetic energy in
the bonds of any material, why do gases not have potential energy?
In a gas, the molecules are so far apart that there are no intermolecular
interactions. So there is no potential energy. Therefore the energy is entirely kinetic.
The attractive forces are seen as negative and repulsive is positive.
10
Heat
Heating is the flow of energy, from a high temperature object to
a lower temperature object.
When something absorbs heat its internal energy (or the energy
of its atoms/molecules) increases
When something releases heat its internal energy decreases.
What is the SI unit of thermal energy? Joule, J
What two •The temperature will change (which is

things occur why they expand/contract, due to
changes in molecular motion)
when an object
absorbs or •The object (or part of it) will change
releases heat phase (solid, liquid, gas)
energy?
11
Heat
Heating is the flow of energy, from a high temperature object to
a lower temperature object.
When something absorbs heat its internal energy (or the energy
of its atoms/molecules) increases
What is the SI unit of thermal energy? Joule, J
What two •The temperature will change (which is

things occur why they expand/contract, due to
changes in molecular motion)
when an object
absorbs or •The object (or part of it) will change
releases heat phase (solid, liquid, gas)
energy?
12
The old definition of temperature is ‘a measure of
Temperature the ‘degree’ of hotness of a substance’.
Now we should mention that it is really a quantity
What is temperature? that is proportional to the random kinetic energy
for substances above absolute zero.
Heat energy normally moves from regions of higher to lower

temperature.
What is the condition for thermal equilibrium?
Two objects are said to be in thermal equilibrium with each other if

there is no net transfer of heat energy between them.
This will only occur if both objects are at the same temperature.
In an isolated system of two objects with different temperatures

(impossible but assume it for simplicity), the hot one will transfer heat
energy to the colder one, until they are both at the same temperature. 13
14
energy?
thermometer?
15
16
Solids, liquids and gases
What do you know about them?
discuss with the person next to you, be ready for feedback.
17
Do these variables Shape Volume (m3) movement of particles
change?
Solid
Liquid
Gas 18
Please find Slide 19 of C3 L1
19
recap points: L1
● Temperature is a quantity measured in Kelvin, proportional to the kinetic energy
of a substance.
● Internal energy.
It is equal to the sum of the random distribution of the kinetic and potential
energies of the object’s molecules.
Molecular kinetic energy increases with temperature.
Potential energy increases in the state change process, due to intermolecular
forces being pulled apart, but because attractive forces are seen to be negative,
this negative starting point means that when the substance becomes a gas (‘ideal
gas’), the potential energy is zero. So from a negative start, it ends at zero, this is
still considered an increase.
--
● Heat is the flow of energy, emitted from a high temperature object to a lower
temperature object (e.g. a heater to the air inside your home).
When something absorbs heat its internal energy (or the energy of its
atoms/molecules) increases
20
so there is a link
between kinetic
energy and
temperature… we
will revisit this later
what happens as we
move from solid to
liquid to gas?
21
Heating curves - look at the states…
time 22
Heating curves - thinking about PE, KE
EK increases
EP = 0
EK increases
EP = negative but
increasing towards
positive
EK increases
time 23
Temperatures: Celsius vs Kelvin
if internal energy
is about kinetic
energy, when do
things have zero
kinetic energy?
24
Absolute Zero (0K)
William Kelvin,
b. 1824, Belfast
Absolute zero is the lowest possible temperature

where objects have minimal KE - essentially where
particles stop moving.
25
Absolute zero
The graph opposite shows that
the pressure of all gases will fall
to zero at absolute zero which is
approximately - 273oC.
What effect will this have on

atomic spacing?
Since pressure is Force/area -
this means at zero pressure,
objects are not exhibiting any
force over any area.
cooling
hot solid cool solid 26

energy?
thermometer?
27
28
Temperature Scales
A temperature scale is defined by two fixed points which are
standard degrees of hotness that can be accurately reproduced.
What fixed points might be used?
29
Temperature Scales
A temperature scale is defined by two
fixed points which are standard
degrees of hotness that can be
accurately reproduced.
What fixed points might be used?
Celsius Scale (symbol: θ – unit: oC)
Fixed points:
ice point, 0oC: the temperature of
pure melting ice
steam point, 100oC: the temperature

at which pure water boils at standard
atmospheric pressure 30
The Absolute scale
Fixed points:
absolute zero, 0K: the lowest
possible temperature. This is equal
to – 273.15oC
triple point of water, 273.16K: the
temperature at which pure water
exists in thermal equilibrium with
ice and water vapour. This is equal
to 0.01oC.
Converting between scales
A change of one degree celsius is the same as a
change of one kelvin.
Therefore:
o
C = K - 273.15 OR K = oC + 273.15
31
Converting between scales
A change of one degree celsius is the same as a change of one kelvin.
Therefore:
o
C = K - 273.15 OR K = oC + 273.15
Situation Celsius (oC) Absolute (K)

Boiling water 100
Vostok Antarctica 1983 - 89
Average Earth surface 288
Gas flame 1500
Sun surface 6000
32
Answers:
Situation Celsius (oC) Absolute (K)

Boiling water 100 373
Vostok Antarctica 1983 - 89 184
Average Earth surface 15 288
Gas flame 1500 1773
Sun surface 5727 6000
33
energy?
thermometer?
34
35
Last lesson: in pictures
36
Heating curve
time 37
What is a standard thermometer?
a ‘liquid in glass’ thermometer
what are the limitations of such thermometers?
38
What is a standard thermometer?
a ‘liquid in glass’ thermometer is constructed from a substance with thermometric

properties. This means that the substance has a property which changes with
temperature changes. For example, alcohol or mercury both expand with the
addition of thermal energy. So the liquid expands along the tube.
what are the limitations of such thermometers?
● Think: capillary/tube?
● expansion is constant?
● does the tube/glass itself expand?
● is the entirety of the liquid at the same temperature?
● glass takes a while to heat up…
● the graduations on the side - are they accurate?
39
energy?
thermometer?
40
41
C3 L2:
Thermometers and Specific Heat capacity
Explain how to calibrate a Define and calculate specific heat
thermistor capacity (c) using different
parameters
42
Resistors and Thermistors
A resistor is a component which
can slow down current. This is
useful in controlling current in a
circuit.
NTC thermistor - ‘Negative Temp. Coefficient’
A thermistor is a special type of
resistor. It changes resistance
dependent on the temperature.
Generally it will decrease
resistance when the temperature
is higher.
These are useful in things such as

heat/fire alarms to allow current Temperature probes (digital thermometers) are one
to a buzzer when a certain useful application of a thermistor. They are more
sensitive and less prone to error than a glass
temperature has been reached. thermometer
43
Thermistor at work
Temperature low = high temperature =

high resistance = low resistance =
no/low current flow = current flow is higher =
no alarm sound alarm sounds
44
The setup
http://htv-au.vlabs.ac.in/heat-therm
odynamics/Characteristics_of_Ther
mistor/experiment.html
A multimeter is a
useful ‘measurer’ of
different quantities,
for things such as
volts, amps, ohms,
etc - it can do many
things!
45
Reverse engineering the practical...
https://www.youtube.com Method
/watch?v=Tkl9flzli0I
Risk assessment
What would your results table look
like? heading 1? 2? (units)
Thermistor symbol (circuit diagrams)
46
Sources of error?
● Thermometer?
● Homogenous?
● Level of submersion?
● Is the water distilled? how could this affect the result?
Things to think about

● why are systematic errors not accounted for? These errors are usually
caused by measuring instruments that are incorrectly calibrated or are used incorrectly
● Would there be a linear relationship?
47
48
NTC thermistor
(Negative
temperature
Coefficient)
49
energy?
thermometer?
50
Gas thermometers
Make use of the temperature – pressure
relationship
Are more accurate than glass

thermometers, less so than thermistors
The height of the mercury column, h,

gives a measure of the pressure of the
gas. This pressure can be used as a
measure of temperature.
gives easily reproducible results over a

wide range of temperatures and
conditions
51
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53
54
55
56
57
Slide 58 starting point
L2: Specific heat
To use the formula for specific heat capacity in a range of
situations, including thermal equilibrium
To define specific heat capacity
To derive the units for specific heat capacity
58
Why does a jacket potato cool
more slowly than a pea?
Why does water take more

energy to boil than milk?
in the case of the pea, this is a slightly unfair comparison as the mass of the potato is much higher
59
Why does a jacket potato cool
more slowly than a pea?
Why does water take more

energy to boil than milk?
The specific heat capacity, c of a substance is:

the energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of
the substance by one oC without change of state.
Which have the higher heat

Generally the objects which take more time
capacities? to heat up and cool down are those with a
higher heat capacity
in the case of the pea, this is a slightly
unfair comparison as the mass of the
potato is much higher 60
When 2 objects receive the same amount of energy, they are unlikely to increase
or change temperature by the same amount.
Regardless of the masses of the objects, different materials take in energy and
store it differently.
Specific heat capacity is the amount of energy required to raise the

temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1 K, without a change in state.
Q = heat energy (J)

m = mass
c = specific heat capacity
(delta) T = (change in)
temperature
61
Specific heat capacity
ΔQ = m c Δθ What is the effect of using

where: K or oC on the SHC?
ΔQ = heat energy required in joules
m = mass of substance in kilograms Explain.
c = specific heat capacity (shc) in J kg -1 oC
-1
Δθ = temperature change in oC
If the temperature is measured in Kelvin:
ΔQ = m c ΔT
where:
c = specific heat capacity (shc) in J kg -1 K -1
ΔT = temperature change in K
the other variables as above.
62
Specific heat capacity
ΔQ = m c Δθ What is the effect of using

where: K or oC on the SHC?
m = mass of substance in kilograms Explain.
c = specific heat capacity (shc) in J kg -1 oC
-1
None.
o
Δθ = temperature change in C
The interval of each is the same.
If the temperature is measured in Kelvin:
However it would make a slight
ΔQ = m c ΔT
difference in the way you
where:
approach questions - you have
c = specific heat capacity (shc) in J kg -1 K -1
to think in Kelvin or celsius
ΔT = temperature change in K
dependent on the information
the other variables as above.
given - or you may have to
convert if they want the answer
in K, etc
63
Examples of SHC You might notice that steam and ice
are the same, but water is not.
Substance SHC (Jkg-1K-1) Substance SHC (Jkg-1K-1)

water 4 200 helium 5240
ice or steam 2 100 glass 700
air 1 000 brick 840
hydrogen 14 300 wood 420
gold 129 concrete 880
copper 385 rubber 1600
aluminium 900 brass 370
mercury 140 paraffin 2130
64
Q = heat energy (J)
Complete m = mass
c = specific heat capacity
(delta) T = (change in) temperature
Substance Mass SHC Temperature Energy (J)

(Jkg-1K-1) change
water 4 kg 4 200 50 oC
gold 4 kg 50 oC 25 800
air 4 kg 1 000 50 K
glass 700 40 oC 84 000
hydrogen 5 mg 14 300 400 K
brass 400 g 50oC to 223K 14 800
65
Answers
Substance Mass SHC Temperature Energy (J)
(Jkg-1K-1) change
water 4 kg 4 200 50 oC 840 000
gold 4 kg 129 50 oC 25 800
air 4 kg 1 000 50 K 200 000
glass 3 kg 700 40 oC 84 000
hydrogen 5 mg 14 300 400 K 28.6
brass 400 g 370 50oC to 223K 14 800
66
Recap:
1. What is temperature?
2. What is thermal energy?
3. What is heat?
4. What is specific heat capacity? (in your own words, or in physics terms)
5. What is the equation that governs energy and specific heat capacity?
6. What are the units of specific heat capacity?
67
Recap:
1. What is temperature? the measure of hotness or coldness of an object
in K (or oC, non-physicists), proportional to the kinetic energy of a
substance
2. What is thermal energy? is the sum of the random distributions of
potential and kinetic energies of a substance.
3. What is heat? the transfer of thermal energy
4. What is specific heat capacity? (in your own words, and in physics terms)
P - the energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass (1kg) by 1K.
L - a low SHC means that something will warm up quickly, and cool down
quickly.
5. What is the equation that governs energy and specific heat capacity?
Q = mcΔT Q thermal energy, m = mass, c = SHC, ΔT - change

temperature
6. What are the units of specific heat capacity?
68
Specific Heat Capacity and Latent heat
Define and calculate specific heat capacity (c) using
different parameters
When 2 objects receive the same amount of energy, they are unlikely to change
temperature at the same rate. Regardless of masses of the objects, different materials
‘take in’, release and store energy differently.
The specific heat capacity c, of a material is the energy required to change the
temperature of 1kg of a substance by 1K.
It has units JK-1kg-1

Remember that specific heat capacity works both for warming up and cooling down. So
a lower c value means that not only does a substance warm up quickly, but the reverse
too, it also cools down quickly.
69
Exam questions - ‘Student forum’
You will have 10 minutes to complete 2 questions on specific heat

capacity.
Once the time is up - you will swap answers with someone else, and
look through their answers (share a screenshot with someone else)
Take a few minutes to see what they have done, and mark their
answer.
Make a comment on their work / on what they missed / what they did
well.
You will get the mark scheme/worked answer to guide you.
70
Calculate the heat energy
required to raise the
Question temperature of a copper can
(mass 50g) containing 200cm3
of water from 20 to 100oC
ΔQ = m c Δθ
For the copper can: For the water:
TOTAL HEAT ENERGY =

71
At what
temperature did
the Iron get
heated to?
72
1mL = 1g
c = 900 Jkg-1K-1
c = 385 Jkg-1K-1
73
74
Question
Calculate the heat energy
required to raise the
temperature of a copper can
(mass 50g) containing 200cm3
of water from 20 to 100oC
ΔQ = m c Δθ
For the copper can: For the water:
ΔQ = Density of water = 1 g cm-3.

0.050 kg x 385 J kg -1 oC -1
x (100 – 20) oC Therefore mass of water = 200g.
= 0.050 x 385 x 80 = 1 540 J ΔQ = 0.200 kg x 4200 J kg -1 oC -1 x

80 oC = 67 200 J
TOTAL HEAT ENERGY = 68 740 J 75

The idea of steady temperature gives the clue about thermal equilibrium -the
temperature of the Iron decreases to match the temperature of the water, so the
difference in temperature here is the max T to 45 degrees.
Essentially - take what you know and rearrange - with a twist.
76
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80
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82
Measuring SHC (metal solid)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CJTfyD
7aiL4
TASK: take notes on
the method - what is
done, and how is SHC
calculated at the end?
There are a lot of

different recorded
values, so pay careful
attention to the
reasoning for the
different components
83
Measuring SHC (metal
solid) -
the maths
• Metal has known mass, m.
• Initial temperature θ1 measured.

t
• Heater switched on for a known time, during which the average
p.d. (‘potential difference’ or voltage), V and electric current I is
measured.
• Final maximum temperature θ2 measured.

here, the Energy supplied is
• Energy supplied = VIt = mc(θ2 - θ1 ) derived from 2 equations - Power =
Energy/time and Power = Voltage x
current
• Hence: c = VIt / m(θ2 - θ1 ) So Energy = power x time
Energy = voltage x current x time

84
Example calculation
Metal mass, m. = 500g = 0.5kg
Initial temperature θ1 = 20oC
Heater switched on for time, t = 5 minutes = 300s.
p.d., V = 12V; electric current I = 2.0A
Final maximum temperature θ2 = 50oC
Energy supplied = VIt = 12 x 2 x 300 = 7 200J
= mc(θ2 - θ1 ) = 0.5 x c x (50 – 30) = 10c
One more thing to consider - As the block is
Hence: c = 7 200 / 10 heated it will generally lose heat (a reality of
the ‘system’) - we can combat this by
-1 o -1
= 720 J kg C cooling down the block to below room
temperature before heating and this will
allow for the energy lost whilst heating
(approximately, it won't be perfect)
85
Measuring SHC (liquid)
This uses a similar method to measuring

the SHC of a substance.
What additional factor must we consider?
86
Measuring SHC (liquid)
This uses a similar method to measuring

the SHC of a substance.
What additional factor must we consider?
The heat absorbed by the liquid’s

container (called a calorimeter).
87
The temperature at which a substance changes from a liquid to a gas is called the:
a. Boiling point
b. Freezing point
c. Melting point
d. Sublimation point
What is the SI unit of temperature?

a. Celsius
b. Kelvin
c. Fahrenheit
d. Rankine
True or false:
● The Kelvin scale is based on the properties of water, specifically its freezing and boiling points.
● The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one
kilogram of the substance by one degree Celsius.
● Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of particles in a substance.
88
ChatGPT fails…
89
Electrical heater applied question
What could the advantages and
disadvantages be of using paraffin
rather than water in some forms of
portable electric heaters?
specific heat capacity
90
Electrical heater question
What could the advantages and
disadvantages be of using paraffin
rather than water in some forms of
portable electric heaters?
Advantages:
Electrical insulator – safer
Does not corrode metal container
Lower SHC – heats up quicker
Disadvantages:
Lower SHC – cools down quicker
91
water 4 200
sand 830
Applied climate question soil 800
wood (trees) 420
Why might coastal regions be cooler in
summer but milder in winter compared
with inland regions?
• Think about the SHC

• Think about what a shiny surface might have
advantageous to a rough surface
• What have you experienced in your time
abroad at seasides? what do you notice at
night by the beach?
92
water 4 200
sand 830
Climate question soil 800
wood (trees) 420
• Water has about 4 to 5 x higher SHC than land.
93
water 4 200
sand 830
wood (trees) 420
• Water has a ‘polished’ reflective surface.
94
water 4 200
sand 830
wood (trees) 420
• Therefore in summer the sea takes much longer to warm

up than land. It is reflecting some heat away as it is
heating up.
95
water 4 200
sand 830
wood (trees) 420
• Therefore in summer the sea takes much longer to warm up

than land.It is reflecting some heat away as it is heating up.
• And in winter the sea cools far more slowly than the land.
(polished surfaces radiate heat less quickly) so for example, at
night, it is milder
96
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98
99
100
101
102
103
104
circuit
diagram
rheostat = variable resistor

(like a controllable resistor)
(rheostat - old fashioned name)
105
107
108
Heating curve
Specific heat
capacity
Specific heat
capacity
Specific heat
NOT Specific
capacity
heat capacity
NOT Specific
heat capacity
time 109
C3 L2:
Thermometers and Specific Heat capacity
Explain how to calibrate a Define and calculate specific heat
thermistor capacity (c) using different
parameters
110
111
112
C3 L3:
Latent heat and Gas laws (I)
Explain the term latent heat. Understand Boyle’s law
Calculate Latent heat
SLIDE
113
113
114
Latent Heat of Fusion solid → liquid
If you have a glass of a cool drink, well supplied with ice, you
can expect its temperature to drop until it is close to 0ºC.
You also can expect (and can easily check with a thermometer)
that it will remain cold, regardless of the outside temperature,
as long as there remains some unmelted ice in the drink.
Only after all the ice has melted will the temperature of the
drink begin to rise.
Why is this?
Latent Heat of Fusion solid → liquid
If you have a glass of a cool drink, well supplied with ice, you can expect its
temperature to drop until it is close to 0ºC. You also can expect (and can easily
check with a thermometer) that it will remain cold, regardless of the outside
temperature, as long as there remains some unmelted ice in the drink. Only after
all the ice has melted will the temperature of the drink begin to rise.
Why is this?
Latent heat of fusion

Energy must be
is the amount of heat
supplied to overcome
required to convert a
molecular attractive
unit mass of solid
forces.
into liquid (or vice
versa) without a
Ice to water change in
temperature.
This energy is supplied externally, As the effects are not measurable
normally as heat, and does not as a temperature change, we call
increase the temperature. this heat latent heat, meaning
“invisible” heat.
Latent Heat of Vaporization liquid → gas
Latent heat of
water to water vapour vaporisation is the
amount of heat
Energy must also be required to convert
supplied to overcome a unit mass of solid
molecular attractive into liquid (or vice
forces in a liquid. versa) without a
change in
temperature.
As for a solid, this energy is As a fluid changes from liquid to

supplied externally, normally as vapor at its boiling point, its
heat, and does not increase the temperature will not rise above its
temperature. boiling point.
Latent heat This is the energy required to change the state of a substance.
e.g. melting or boiling. Latent comes from the word ‘hidden’ in
latin, greek or something (I’m not a linguist but trust me).
EK increases
EP = 0
EK increases
EP = negative but
increasing towards
positive
EK increases
118
Latent heat
Is harder to notice in practice as things tend to heat quite quickly when heated in
a lab (water, etc). There are two categories of latent heat, and refer to the two
places where phase change occurs.
The two
plateaus in the
graph indicate
places where Specific latent heat of Fusion: The energy
phase required to change the PHASE of 1kg of
changes are
substance from solid to liquid WITHOUT
taking place.
causing temperature change.
Specific latent heat of Vaporisation: The energy

required to change the PHASE of 1kg of
substance from liquid gas WITHOUT causing
temperature change.
119
120
Units?
Q - heat energy
m - mass This equation seems easy enough,
however the application to questions
L - Latent heat (fusion or vaporisation,
is important to be able to extract
dependent on situation)
(especially from power, etc equations).
what are the units of specific latent heat?
how does this unit differ to specific heat

capacity? why?
121
122
123
In this case, let’s pretend we have used an electric heater
to heat 1kg of a substance, which would also be assumed
to have a constant power supply to the material.
time
124
125
126
With a known power supplied (energy rate) the gradient of
the red lines (non-plateaus) can help us calculate the
specific heat capacity of the material, at different phases.
time
127
1. We know the units for
SHC.
2. Power is energy/time
3. the gradient of temp vs
time gives Ks-1
4. and our known mass is
1kg (usually)
128
129
At the plateaus, we can calculate the Specific latent heat
too. It is a little more tricky - let’s do an example question to
take us through the process.
time
130
Mass of liquid ‘boiled away’ is the
mass that has changed state.
131
132
so from the graph...
that is -
Latent heat = (Power supplied x time) / mass of substance that changed
133
Task
The diagram shows the uptake of heat by 1 kg of water, as it
passes from ice at -50 ºC to steam at temperatures above 100 ºC
Identify what is happening at each stage.
134
A: Rise in
Answer temperature as
ice absorbs heat.
B: Absorption of
latent heat of
fusion.
C: Rise in
temperature as
liquid water
absorbs heat.
D: Water boils and

absorbs latent
heat of
vaporization.
E: Steam absorbs
heat and thus
increases its
temperature.
135
Specific latent heat, l
The specific latent heat, l of a substance is the
What is specific latent heat ? energy required to change the state of unit
mass of the substance without change of
temperature.
ΔQ = m l
where:
m = mass of substance in kilograms
l = specific latent heat in J kg -1
136
Examples of SLH
Substance State change SLH (Jkg-1)
ice → water solid → liquid 336 000
specific latent heat of fusion
water → steam liquid → gas / vapour 2 250 000
specific latent heat of vaporisation
carbon dioxide solid → gas / vapour 570 000
specific latent heat of sublimation
lead solid → liquid 26 000
solder solid → liquid 1 900 000
petrol liquid → gas / vapour 400 000
mercury liquid → gas / vapour 290 000
137
Complete
Substance Change SLH Mass Energy (J)
(Jkg-1)
water melting 336 000 4 kg
water freezing 336 000 200 g
water boiling 2.25 M 9M
water condensing 2.25 M 600 mg
CO2 subliming 570 k 8g
CO2 depositing 570 k 40 000 μg
138
Answers
Substance Change SLH Mass Energy (J)
(Jkg-1)
water melting 336 000 4 kg 1.344 M
water freezing 336 000 200 g 67.2 k
water boiling 2.25 M 4 kg 9M
water condensing 2.25 M 600 mg 1 350
CO2 subliming 570 k 8g 4 560
CO2 depositing 570 k 40 000 μg 22.8
Specific heat capacity of water

(liquid) 4200
Ice and steam 2100

139
Question - putting it all together...
Calculate
a) The heat energy required to change 100g of ice at – 5oC to
steam at 100oC.
b) The time taken to do this if heat is supplied by a 500W
immersion heater.
Sketch a temperature-time graph of the whole process.

Stage 1: ice at – 5oC to ice at 0oC
In a) you will notice we are

going from a solid right the way
through to a liquid - this requires
different steps.
140
Answer (a)
Stage 1: Warm the water to 0 oC
ΔQ = m c Δθ
= 0.100 kg x 2100J kg -1 oC -1 x (0 – (- 5)) oC
= 0.100 x 2100 x 5
= 1 050 J
Stage 2: ice at 0oC to water at 0oC

ΔQ = m l Stage 5:
= 0.100 x 336 000 Add them together:
= 33 600 J
1 050J
Stage 3: water at 0oC to water at 100oC + 33 600J
42 000J
ΔQ = m c Δθ 225 000J
= 0.100 x 4200 x 100 301 650J
= 42 000 J
Stage 4: water at 100oC to steam at 100oC
ΔQ = m l
= 0.100 x 2 250 000
= 225 000 J
141
The heater supplies 500J per second to water.
Answer (b) Assume no heat loss to the surroundings:
Stage 1: Warm the water to 0 oC

1 050J / 500W = 2.1 seconds
Stage 2: ice at 0oC to water at 0oC

33 600J / 500W = 67.2s Stage 5:
301 650J / 500W

Stage 3: water at 0oC to water at 100oC = 603.3s
42 000J / 500W = 84s
Stage 4: water at 100oC to steam at 100oC

225 000J / 500W = 450s
142
(c) Sketch graph
temperature / oC
100
stage 4
stage 2
stage 3
0
-5 100 200 300 400 500 600
stage 1 time / s
143

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Data booklet

Formulae not in the data booklet

1. What do you think ‘hot’ means?

It doesn’t matter at this stage if you are wrong -

Early humans discovered ﬁre - and with this they

There commonly are misconceptions in the

Some even believed that there was a substance

As the masses drop, they spin the

Eventually ‘Caloric theory’ was abandoned - thank goodness, but we still

What is the SI unit of thermal energy? Joule, J

What two •The temperature will change (which is

What is the SI unit of thermal energy? Joule, J

What two •The temperature will change (which is

Heat energy normally moves from regions of higher to lower

What is the condition for thermal equilibrium?

Two objects are said to be in thermal equilibrium with each other if

In an isolated system of two objects with different temperatures

What do you know about them?

discuss with the person next to you, be ready for feedback.

Absolute zero is the lowest possible temperature

What effect will this have on

hot solid cool solid 26

What fixed points might be used?

What fixed points might be used?

Celsius Scale (symbol: θ – unit: oC)

steam point, 100oC: the temperature

Situation Celsius (oC) Absolute (K)

Situation Celsius (oC) Absolute (K)

a ‘liquid in glass’ thermometer

what are the limitations of such thermometers?

a ‘liquid in glass’ thermometer is constructed from a substance with thermometric

what are the limitations of such thermometers?

These are useful in things such as

Temperature low = high temperature =

Thermistor symbol (circuit diagrams)

Things to think about

● Would there be a linear relationship?

Are more accurate than glass

The height of the mercury column, h,

gives easily reproducible results over a

Why does water take more

Why does water take more

The specific heat capacity, c of a substance is:

Which have the higher heat

Speciﬁc heat capacity is the amount of energy required to raise the

Q = heat energy (J)

ΔQ = m c Δθ What is the effect of using

If the temperature is measured in Kelvin:

ΔQ = m c Δθ What is the effect of using

Substance SHC (Jkg-1K-1) Substance SHC (Jkg-1K-1)

Substance Mass SHC Temperature Energy (J)

glass 700 40 oC 84 000

hydrogen 5 mg 14 300 400 K

brass 400 g 50oC to 223K 14 800

gold 4 kg 129 50 oC 25 800

air 4 kg 1 000 50 K 200 000

glass 3 kg 700 40 oC 84 000

hydrogen 5 mg 14 300 400 K 28.6

brass 400 g 370 50oC to 223K 14 800