Guidelines for Literature Review

1. Structure of a Literature Review

2. References and useful links
3. Useful phrases and a sample review

1. STRUCTURE OF A LITERATURE REVIEW

(4-5 pages, Times New Roman, spacing 1.5)

Title page

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF UKRAINE

NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF UKRAINE

“IGOR SIKORSKY KYIV POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE”

…… (Speciality)
……… (Department)

POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBON INFLUENCE ON

RHIZOSPHERE MICROBIAL ECOLOGY
Literature review

Performed by:
……..,
PhD student,
group …
Checked by:
…….

Kyiv-202...
1. Background (1-3 paragraphs)

Start with an attention-getting broad statement that establishes a general topic for the research.
Narrow the topic in successive sentences that outline the state of the art and introduce a gap in
knowledge. End the introductory part with a general statement of the problem and optional
supporting/specifying statements.

For more information, read [6]

2. Body (up to 3 pages; 8- 10 sources analyzed)

Summarize and synthesize: Give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them
into a coherent whole

Analyze and interpret: Don’t just paraphrase other researchers – add your own interpretations where
possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole

Critically Evaluate: Mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources

Write in well-structured paragraphs: Use transition words and topic sentence to draw connections,
comparisons, and contrasts.

A good paragraph should contain at least the following four elements: transition, topic sentence,
specific evidence and analysis, and a brief concluding sentence. A transition sentence acts as a
transition from one idea to the next. A topic sentence tells the reader what you will be discussing in
the paragraph. Specific evidence and analysis support your claims that provide a deeper level of
detail than your topic sentence. A concluding sentence tells the reader how and why this
information supports the paper’s thesis.

More information: [5, 7-10, 12,13]

Use of tenses:

Use a mixture of present and past tense in the introduction. The present tense is applied when
discussing something that is always true; the simple past tense is used for earlier research efforts,
either your own or by another group. If the time of demonstration is unknown or not important, use
the present perfect.

The simple past is usually applied when using the researcher’s name as the subject of the sentence
and discussing the methods or results of that study itself. Example of describing researcher’s
actions: “Pearson (1997) discovered a new enzyme using similar methods.”

When giving your opinion on another researcher’s work or bringing up the results, discussion, and
conclusions they make in their work, use the present tense, ex.: : “Ryuku (2005) concludes that
there are no additional enzymes present in the liver, a finding this current study directly refutes.”

For more information, visit [14]

3. Conclusion (0,5-1 page)

Summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance.
What are the contradictions in previous research? Point out the ways of solving the problem.
Identify your research niche.

4. Your study overview (1-3 paragraphs)

Your short overview should provide your research hypotheses and/or research questions, aims and
objectives, as well as briefly describe your method

The research hypothesis is needed for a sound and well-developed research study. The research
hypothesis contributes to the solution of the research problem. Types of research hypotheses include
inductive and deductive, directional and non-directional, and null and alternative hypotheses.
Rejecting the null hypothesis and accepting the alternative hypothesis is the basis for building a
good research study.

The research question formulates a research problem that you want to investigate. The scope of
the question is informed by your research aim and your research objectives.

A research aim expresses the intention or an aspiration of the research study; it summarises in a
single sentence what you hope to achieve at the end of a research project. Your aim should be
specific and phrased in such a way that it is possible to identify when it has been achieved.

Research objectives outline the specific steps that you will take to achieve your research aim.
Objectives define the what, why, who, when and how questions. You should check your objectives
regularly during your research project to ensure you are staying focused, and decide if you need to
review or revise them. Once you have defined your objectives, consider whether each is possible
and if the number of objectives is realistic (as a guide, there should be between three and five
objectives derived from the aim). Your research aim and objectives should be SMART: Specific ,
Measureable, Achievable, Realistic, Time constrained.

Your aim and objectives should drive your research project and answer your research questions.

For more information, read [2, 3, 4]

5. Reference list

Cite 8-10 sources. Choose one of the international citation styles (e.g. APA, Chicago, Harvard,
MLA, Vancouver, IEEE, etc.)

Remember, that in-text citations and reference list formatting depend on the citation style

Read more at [17], for IEEE see [18]

2. REFERENCES AND USEFUL LINKS
1. Creswell, J. (2009). Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (3rd ed.). Los
Angeles: Sage.
2. Creswell, J. (2009). Research Questions and Hypothesis. In J. Creswell (Ed.), Research
design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (3rd ed.). Los Angeles:
Sage.
3. Nallaperumal, K. (2013). Engineering Research Methodology. A Computer Science and
Engineering and Information and Communication Technologies Perspective.
4. Wallwork, A. (2011). English for Writing Research Papers. Springer US.

5. Toledo, A.H., Flikkema , R.& Toledo-Pereyra, L.H. (2011). Developing the Research
Hypothesis. Journal of Investigative Surgery, 24 (5), 191-194, DOI:
10.3109/08941939.2011.60944
6. Lingard, L. (2018). Writing an effective literature review. Part II: Citation technique.
Perspect Med Educ., 7(2), 133–135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40037-018-0407-z
7. Socolofsky, A.S. (2004). How to write a research journal article in engineering and science.
https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/How-to-write-a-research-journal-article-in-and-1-
Socolofsky/755cf16a5dc1b209c4b8c060ad5b4bb400823f64
8. https://library.aut.ac.nz/doing-assignments/literature-reviews
9. https://www.slideshare.net/engCETL/writing-a-literature-review-handout
10. https://www.slideshare.net/phdassistance/sample-work-for-engineering-literature-review-
and-gap-identification
11. https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/conducting_research/
writing_a_literature_review.html
12. Valentová, E., King, J., Dvořákováen, I. (2016). Academic English. http://en.fel.zcu.cz/

13. YouTube video on writing paper introduction (wordvice.com)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FTC-5P1VFFU
14. YouTube video on writing the Literature Review (wordvice.com)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=70n2-gAp7J0&t=12s
15. https://wordvice.com/video-which-verb-tenses-should-i-use-in-a-research-paper/
16. https://www.futurelearn.com/courses/research-construction-management/0/steps/75090

17. Useful phrases: http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/

18. Citation styles: https://www.scribbr.com/citing-sources/citation-styles/
19. IEEE style: http://libguides.murdoch.edu.au/IEEE/sample
 3. USEFUL PHRASES AND A SAMPLE REVIEW
(the complete phrase bank you will find at http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/ )

Problem background, state of the art

….. plays an important/vital role in …..
….. is an important issue for …..
….. is extensively/widely used in …..
….. is a very effective method for …..
In the last few years there has been a growing interest in …..
Quite recently, considerable attention has been paid to …..
….. have/has been gaining importance in recent years …..
….. have/has been utilized in many applications such as …..

Literature review/Summary of previous research

Referring to the sources in general
Current research on ….. is focused on …..
Previous studies indicate that …..
The literature on ….. shows a variety of approaches
Much research on ….. has been done.
The focus of recent research has been on …..
….. has/have been widely researched/investigated.
In recent years, research on/into ….. has become very popular.
In the last decade ….. has attracted much attention from research teams …..
For several years great effort has been devoted to the study of …..
Several publications have appeared in recent years documenting …..
Previous research has documented/shown/demonstrated that …..
To solve this problem/issue, many researchers have proposed various methods of (+-ing)
In the literature, several theories have been proposed to explain …..

Referring to individual authors

….. and …. are discussed in [3] and [6].
X [4] and Y [3] indicate that …..
X et al. [1] argue that …..
One of the first examples of ….. is presented in [2].
Another/The latest solution is described in [3].
The results obtained/offered by X in [5] suggest that …..
Recently, several authors [4], [5], [7] have proposed (a new theory) …..
X [2] and X [5] have demonstrated that …..
A/The most interesting approach to this issue has been proposed by [2].
X [6] has also found that ….. . However, our researchers have arrived at the conclusion/have
concluded that …..
….. was experimentally measured by [7].
X et al. [7] studied ….. and showed that …..
X [11] developed a novel sensor using …..
In this work and in related references it was observed that …..
In [8] it was shown that …..
As reported by X [2], …..
In a recent paper by X [9], …..

Synthesis (bringing the sources together)

Similarly, Nicoladis (2006) found that X …
In the same vein, Smith (1994) in his book XYZ notes …
This view is supported by Jones (2000) who writes that …
Smith argues that her data support O’Brien’s (1988) view that …
Al-Masry’s (1986) work on X is complemented by Smith’s (2009) study of …
Almost every paper that has been written on X includes a section relating to …

Unlike Smith, Jones (2013) argues that …

In contrast to Smith, Jones (2013) argues that …
A broader perspective has been adopted by Smith (2013) who argues that …
Conversely, Wang (2010) reported no significant difference in mortality between X and Y.

Smith argues that …

Al-Masry (2003) sees X as … Similarly, Jones (2013) asserts that …
Likewise, Wang (2012) holds the view that …
Some writers (e.g. Smith, 2002) have attempted to draw fine distinctions between …
Some authors have mainly been interested in questions concerning X and Y (Smith, 2001; Jones …
Much of the available literature on X deals with the question of … Others (see Jones, 2003;
Brown, 2004) question the usefulness of …
Others have highlighted the relevance of …
But Smith (2008) is much more concerned with …
Zhao (2002) notes that …
Smith (2013) found that X accounted for 30% of Y. However, Jennings’ (2010) study of Y
found no link between …
Other researchers, however, who have looked at X, have found … Jones (2010), for example, …
Smith (2010) presents an X account,
While Smith (2008) focusses on X, whilst Jones (2011) …
Jones (2009) is more concerned with …

Some ways of introducing quotations

Commenting on X, Smith (2003) argues: ‘… …’
As Carnoy (2004: 215) states: ‘there are many good reasons to be sceptical’.
As Smith argues: ‘In the past, the purpose of education was to …’ (Smith, 2000:150).
In the final part of the Theses on Feuerbach, Marx writes: ‘Philosophers have hitherto only …’
Sachs concludes: ‘The idea of development stands today like a ruin in …’ (Sachs, 1992a: 156).

As Smith (2013: 320) notes: ‘… … … … … ‘

argues ‘ … … … … … ‘
writes: ‘ … … … … … ‘
observes: ‘ … … … … … ‘
points out: ‘ … … … … … ‘
reminds us: ‘ … … … … … ‘

Description and interpretation

Reporting element
discusses/deals with/analyses/considers/explains/describes/establishes/introduces …..
develops/presents/provides/studies/represents/features/contains/concentrates on …..
covers/suggests/proposes/shows …..
demonstrates the feasibility of …..
opens up a new field/issue
gives/aims to give a comprehensive account of …..
offers a solution to …..
serves as an introduction to …..
Highlighting importance
This shows that (suggests/tells us/reveals/highlights/points to/implies
This is important/significant because …
This is worth nothing as/because it …
This calls attention to …
This can be illustrated by ..
What this means (shows/tells us/ reveals…) is …
… tells us that …
… importantly (crucially, significantly) this suggests that …
… which points to/suggests the need for …
…which is vital/crucial as it is …
… which shows/illustrates that …
… which is significant as it …
…meaning that …
…illustrating/pointing out the need for …

Critiquing
A question that needs to be asked, however, is whether …
A weakness with this argument, however, is that …
One of the limitations with this explanation is that it …
This approach fails to take … into account
Solutions
The study would have been more useful if it had …
The findings may have been more applicable if …

Summarising the review or parts of the review

Together, these studies indicate that …
Overall, these studies highlight the need for …
Considering all of this evidence, it seems that …
Collectively, these studies outline a critical role for…
In all the studies reviewed here, X is recognised as …
The evidence presented in this section suggests that …
The studies presented thus far provide evidence that …
Taken together, these studies support the notion that …
Overall, there seems to be some evidence to indicate that …
Together these studies provide important insights into the …
All of the studies reviewed here support the hypothesis that …
Two important themes emerge from the studies discussed so far:
However, such studies remain narrow in focus dealing only with …
The evidence reviewed here seems to suggest a pertinent role for …
These studies clearly indicate that there is a relationship between …
In view of all that has been mentioned so far, one may suppose that …
There remain several aspects of X about which relatively little is known.

- Saying that little research has been done in a particular field

However, to the author´s/authors´ best knowledge, very few publications can be found/are
available in the literature that discuss/address the issue of ….
To the author´s/authors´ knowledge, ….. has/have been scarcely investigated from the point
of view of …../from the theoretical point of view.

- Pointing out limitations of previous research

A key limitation of this research is that (it does not address the problem of …..)
The major drawback of this approach is …..
However, most of the previous studies do not take into account …..
This approach may not be practical/orthodox/conventional in all situations.
Reference [3] analyses and compares various aspects of ….. . Nevertheless, there are still
some interesting and relevant problems to be addressed.
However, studies on ….. are still lacking.
The problem with this approach is in that it …..
Although several studies have indicated that ….., little attention has been paid/given to …..

Stating the aim and objectives of your research

The aim of this paper/research is to…
This paper: argues that …; gives an account of …; discusses the case of …; analyses the impact of
…; attempts to show that …; contests the claim that …; provides an overview of …; reviews the
evidence for …; reports on a study which …; traces the development of …; explores the ways in
which …; assesses the significance of …; highlights the importance of …; considers the
implications of …; critically examines the view that …; proposes a new methodology for …;
examines the relationship between …; compares the different ways in which …; investigates the
factors that determine …; describes the design and implementation of …
The specific objective of this study was to …
An objective of this study was to investigate …
This research will examine the way in which the …
This study set out to investigate the usefulness of …
This research seeks to explain the development of …
The objectives of this research are to determine whether …
This prospective study was designed to investigate the use of …
This research examines the emerging role of X in the context of …
This study systematically reviews the data for…, aiming to provide …
Drawing upon two strands of research into X, this study attempts to …
This thesis intends to determine the extent to which … and whether …
This study therefore set out to assess the effect of X …, and the effect of …
The main aim of this study is to investigate the differences between X and Y.
Part of the aim of this project is to develop software that is compatible with …
There are two primary aims of this study: 1. To investigate … 2. To ascertain …
This study seeks to obtain data which will help to address these research gaps.
One purpose of this study was to assess the extent to which these factors were …
The purpose of this investigation is to explore the relationship between X and Y.
 Sample Literature Review
Note: In this Sample we see some sections (A, B, C). It is not obligatory for your review. Instead,
add the Research question, Aims and Objectives of the Research.

Taken from:
Davis M. (2004). Scientific Papers and Presentations. San Diego : Academic Press.

POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBON INFLUENCE ON RHIZOSPHERE

MICROBIAL ECOLOGY
Contamination of soil by toxic organic chemicals is widespread and frequent.
This is sometimes the result of large-scale incidents such as the Exxon Valdez oil
spill in Alaska (Pritchard and Costa, 1991). But, more often, smaller areas of soil are
polluted. Cole (1992) estimated that in the United States there are 0.5 to 1.5 million
underground storage tanks leaking into the surrounding soft. In situ bioremediation of
these contaminated sites may be more feasible than chemical and physical clean-up
methods. Degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), a major
constituent of many of these pollutants, can be possible if PAH-degrading
microorganisms are present at the site. These microorganisms may be more prolific in
the rhizosphere of plants than in soil with no vegetation.
A. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are organic compounds that are typically
toxic and recalcitrant (Sims and Overcash, 1983). They consist of at least three
benzene tings joined in a linear, angular, or cluster array (Cerniglia, 1992). Edwards
(1983) described PAHs as being practically insoluble in water. The carcinogenicity of
many PAHs has been well documented (Haddow, 1974). This knowledge has
prompted much research to determine the mode by which these compounds cause
cancer and their ultimate health risks to humans (Miller and Miller, 1981).
B. Dissipation
Reilley et al. (1996) reported the fate of PAHs in soil includes irreversible
sorption, leaching, accumulation by plants, and biodegradation. They also contended
that surface adsorption is the main process controlling PAH destination in soil.
Leaching of PAHs from soil is minimal due their adsorption to soil particles and low
water solubility (Reilley et al., 1996). Biodegradation is the main pathway by which
dissipation can be enhanced.
C. Bioremediation
Bioremediation manipulates biodegradation processes by using living
organisms to reduce or eliminate hazards resulting from accumulation of toxic
chemicals and other hazardous wastes. According to Bollag and Bollag (1995), two
techniques that may be used in bioremediation are (1) stimulation of the activity of
the indigenous microorganisms by the addition of nutrients, regulation of redox
conditions, optimization of pH, or augmentation of other conditions to produce an
environment more conducive to microbial growth and (2) inoculation of the
contaminated sites with microorganisms of specific biotransforming abilities.

1. Indigenous Population. Soil contains a large and diverse population of

microorganisms (Tiedje, 1994). In situ bioremediation utilizes organisms at the site of
pollution to remove contaminants. Often, indigenous organisms from the
contaminated area, which may even have adapted to proliferate on the chemical, are
utilized to remove the pollutants (Bollag and Bollag, 1995).
The relative contributions of bacterial and fungal populations to hydrocarbon
mineralization may differ based upon contaminant and soil parameters. Anderson and
Domsch (1975) studied the degradation of glucose in several soils. They attributed
the majority of mineralization to fungi (60%-90%) with relatively minor bacterial
contribution (10%-40%).
From a review of the literature, Cerniglia (1992) found various bacteria, fungi,
and algae reported to degrade PAHs. More specifically, Dgziel et al. (1996) isolated
23 bacteria capable of utilizing naphthalene and phenanthrene as their sole growth
substrate. These bacteria were all fluorescent pseudomonads. Cerniglia's (1992)
review concluded that the microbial degradation of smaller PAHs such as
phenanthrene has been thoroughly investigated; however, there has not been
sufficient research on the microorganisms capable of degrading PAHs containing
four or more aromatic tings. There remains a need for isolation and identification of
microorganisms capable of degrading the more persistent and toxic PAHs (Cerniglia,
1992).
2. Introduced Microorganisms. Organisms capable of breaking down certain
pollutants are not present at all sites; therefore, inoculation of the soil with
microorganisms, or bioaugmentation, is sometimes required (Alexander, 1994). In
addition, Lindow et al. (1989) communicated a need for the continued development
of genetically engineered microorganisms including those capable of degrading a
variety of pollutants. Nevertheless, successful establishment of introduced
microorganisms remains enigmatic (Turco and Sadowsky, 1995).
The characteristics that allow introduced microorganisms to become
acclimated to a new environment have not been completely elucidated (Turco and
Sadowsky, 1995). However, the indigenous soil populations appear to have specific
qualities, such as the ability to utilize a particular growth substrate, that give them a
competitive advantage in occupying available niches (Atlas and Bartha, 1993). One
way to encourage the growth of introduced microorganisms may be to supply a new
niche for microbial growth in the form of a suitable plant.
D. Phytoremediation
Phytoremediation is defined by Cunningham and Lee (1995) as "the use of
green plants to remove, contain, or render harmless environmental contaminants."
This applies to all plant-influenced biological, microbial, chemical, and physical
processes that contribute to the remediation of contaminated sites (Cunningham and
Berti, 1993). Cunningham and Lee (1995) contend that plant attributes such as
rooting depth, structure and density can be altered to increase biodegradation. They
assert that, if contaminants are (1) in the upper portion of the soil, (2) resistant to
leaching, and (3) not an immediate hazard, many may be removed by
phytoremediation. Experiments may confirm that phytoremediation is a less
expensive, more permanent, and less invasive technique than many current methods
of remediation (Cunningham and Lee, 1995).
E. The Rhizosphere
 Curl and Truelove (1986) have described the rhizosphere as the zone of soil
under the direct influence of plant roots and in which there is an increased level of
microbial numbers and activity. They report that the ratio of bacteria and fungi in the
rhizosphere to the non-rhizosphere soil (R/S ratio) commonly ranges from 2 to 20 due
to the root exudation of easily metabolizable substrates. These exudates include
sugars, amino compounds, organic acids, fatty acids, growth factors, and nucleotides
(Curl and Truelove, 1986).
Anderson and Coats (1995) suggest that increased rates of contaminant
degradation in the rhizosphere compared to nonvegetated soil may result from
increased numbers and diversity of microorganisms.

1. Rhizosphere Effect on PAHs. The rhizosphere of numerous plants has been

reported to increase the biodegradation of several PAHs. Aprill and Sims (1990)
examined the effects of eight prairie grasses on the biodegradation of four PAHs,
benzo(a)pyrene, benz(a)anthracene, chrysene, and dibenz(a,h)anthracene. They
reported significantly greater disappearance of the PAHs in the vegetated soils
compared to the unvegetated soils, and the rate of disappearance was directly related
to the water solubility of each compound.
Nichols et al. (1996) conducted an experiment on the degradation of a model
organic contaminant (MOC) composed of six organic chemicals including two PAHs
(phenanthrene and pyrene) in the rhizospheres of alfalfa (Medicago sativa, var.
Vernal) and alpine bluegrass (Poa alpina). They concluded it was probable that
biological and/or abiotic processes occurring before plants developed enough to
produce a rhizosphere effect were responsible for the disappearance of the MOC
compounds.

2. Rhizosphere microbial ecology in PAH-contaminated soil. Before microorganisms

can be successfully introduced into the soil or managed for increased bioremediation,
an increased understanding of the determinants of rhizosphere microbial ecology
needs to be developed. Anderson and Coats (1995) stated the need for an expanded
understanding of the interactions between plants, microorganisms, and chemicals in
the root zone in order to identify conditions where phytoremediation using
rhizosphere microorganisms is most feasible.
To date, no studies have been conducted on rhizosphere microbial ecology in
PAH-contaminated soil. Furthermore, little is known about the factors controlling
rhizosphere microbial ecology in uncontaminated soil. Bowen (1980) asserted the
plant to be the predominant force in the rhizosphere system. In contrast, Bachmann
and Kinzel (1992) reported that, in a study involving six plants and four soils, the soil
was the dominant factor in some plant-soil combinations.
Additionally, recent research suggests that gram-positive bacteria may be a
larger component of the rhizosphere microbial population than previously reported.
Heitkamp and Cerniglia (1988) isolated a gram-positive bacterium capable of
degrading several PAHs. The bacterium could not utilize PAHs as the sole C source,
but it did completely mineralize PAHs when supplied with common organic carbon
sources such as peptone and starch. Additional research is needed to elucidate the
determinants of rhizosphere microbial ecology especially in PAH-contaminated soils.

References
Anderson, J. P. E., and Domsch, K. H. (1975). Measurement of bacterial and fungal contributions to
respiration of selected agricultural and forest softs. Can. J. Microbiol. 21, 314-322.
Anderson, T. A., and Coats, J. R. (1995). An overview of microbial degradation in the rhizosphere
and its implications for bioremediation. In Bioremediation: Science and Applications
(H. D. Skipper and R. E Turco, eds.), SSSA Spec. Publ. 43, pp. 135-143. ASA, CSSA, and
SSSA, Madison, WI.
Angers, D. A., and Mehuys, G. R. (1990). Barley and alfalfa cropping effects on carbohydrate
contents of a clay soil and its size fractions. Soil Biol. Biochem. 22, 285-288.
Aprill, W., and Sims, R. C. (1990). Evaluation of the use of prairie grasses for stimulating
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon treatment in soft. Chemosphere 20, 253-265.
Atlas, R. M., and Bartha, R. (1993). Microbial Ecology: Fundamentals and Applications, 3rd ed.
Benjamin/Cummings, Menlo Park, CA.
Bachmann, G., and Kinzel, H. (1992). Physiological and ecological aspects of the interactions
between plant roots and rhizosphere soft. Soil Biol. Biochem. 24, 543-552.
Bollag, J.-M., and Bollag, W. B. (1995). Soil contamination and the feasibility of biological
remediation. In Bioremediation: Science and Applications (H. D. Skipper and R. F. Turco,
eds.), SSSA Spec. Publ. 43, pp. 1-12. ASA, CSSA, and SSSA, Madison, WI.
Bossert, I., and Bartha, R. (1984). The fate of petroleum in soil ecosystems. In Petroleum
Microbiology (R. M. Atlas, ed.), pp. 435-473.Macmillan, New York.