SURFACE PROCESSES
Hydration – Absorption of water
The wide range of conditions found in different
parts of the globe at present reflects the variety
of natural processes that shape the Earth’s
surface. These processes are Weathering,
Erosion, and Deposition.
❖ WEATHERING
Weathering is the breaking down and changing
of rocks as a result of exposure to the
environment. After rocks are weathered, they
are often eroded. And that process is erosion,
which is the transportation of sediments that
have been broken down by weathering
processes. The final part of the process is
deposition, which is the dropping off of
sediments that have been weathered and
eroded.
Land areas are continually being reduced and
their shape modified by weathering and erosion,
and the general term for this is denudation.
Rocks exposed to the atmosphere undergo
weathering from atmospheric agents such as
rain and frost.
Main Types of Weathering:
Chemical Weathering (decomposition)
- is the break-down of minerals into new
compounds by the action of chemical
agents; acids in the air, in rain and in
river water, although they act slowly,
produce noticeable effects especially in
soluble rocks.
1. Solution - is the dissociation of
minerals into ions, greatly aided by the
presence of CO2 in the soil profile,
which forms carbonic acid (H2CO3) with
percolating rainwater
2. Reduction - The release of oxygen
from a mineral to its surrounding
environment: ions leave the mineral
structure as the oxidation number of the
reduced elements is decreased.
3.
molecules into the mineral structure.
Note: this normally results in expansion,
some clays expand as much as 60%,
and by admitting water hasten the
processes of solution, oxidation,
reduction and hydrolysis.
4. Hydrolysis - Hydrogen ions in
percolating water replace mineral
cations: no oxidation-reduction occurs.
5. Leaching – The migration of ions
produced by the above processes. Note:
the mobility of ions depends upon their
ionic potential: Ca, Mg, Na, K are easily
leached by moving water, Fe is more
resistant, Si is difficult to leach and Al is
almost immobile.
6. Cation Exchange - Absorption onto
the surface of negatively charged clay of
positively charged cations in solution,
especially Ca, H, K, Mg
7. Oxidation - is the combination of
oxygen with a mineral to form oxides
and hydroxides or any other reaction in
which the oxidation number of the
oxidized elements is increased
- Is the formation of rusts that occurs
whenever Iron is exposed to oxygen.
8. Carbonation – is responsible for the
formation of limestone caves. It occurs
when water flows through the ground, it
reacts with the different materials in the
soil to create a very mild acid or
carbonic acid. Carbonic acid is strong
enough that if it encounters certain
minerals or rocks it will eat away or
dissolve that minerals or rocks.
Chemical weathering is seen most readily in its
solvent action on some rocks, notably
limestones and those rocks containing the
minerals Halite (NaCl), Anhydrite (CaSO4) and
Gypsum (CaSO4 2H2O).
In limestones the process depends on the
presence of feeble acids, derived from gases
such as CO2 and SO2 which enter into solution
in percolating rainwater. The calcium carbonate
of the limestone is slowly dissolved by rainwater
containing carbon dioxide, and is held in solution
as calcium bicarbonate.
Underground caverns are opened out by
solution aided by the fall of loosened blocks of
limestone from the cavern roof. Large systems
of caves and solution channels are found in the
French Pyrenees, the limestone plateau of
Kentucky, U.S.A., the Transvaal in S. Africa and
elsewhere, most notably in S.E. Asia: China,
Vietnam and New Guinea. The Karst area of
Istria in Yugoslavia and the Dalmatian coast of
the Adriatic has given the name karst
topography to landforms which are
characteristic of chemically weathered
limestone; karst topography is developed most
spectacularly and most extensively in southern
China, where one-seventh of the country, i.e.
500000 km2 is karstic.
Water circulating underground helps to extend
channels and caverns by solution, particularly in
limestone formations; streams which once
flowed on the surface disappear down swallow
holes and open joints, and continue their
journey by flowing along bedding planes and
joints below ground. As water charged with
calcium bicarbonate trickles over the walls and
drips from the roofs of caves, part of it
evaporates and calcium carbonate is slowly re-
deposited as loss of carbon dioxide occurs. In
this way masses of stalactite, hanging from the
roof or coating the walls of a cave, are formed,
sometimes making slender columns where they
have become united with stalagmites which
have been slowly built up from the floor of the
cave, onto which water has dripped over a long
period of time. Sheet stalactite coats the walls of
many caverns and may be coloured by traces of
iron and lead compounds.
Chemical weathering is not restricted to easily
soluble rocks but attacks all rock types. The
most easily weathered are limestones; of
greater resistance are sandstones and shales:
igneous rocks (excluding certain volcanic rocks
that weather rapidly) and quartzites are the
most resistant. The effect of chemical
weathering on these more resistant rocks can be
clearly seen where deep weathering has
occurred and a thick cover of rotted material lies
above the irregular surface which bounds the
solid rocks beneath the weathered zone bounds
the solid rocks beneath the weathered zone.
FORMATION OF GRANITE TORS
The formation of granite tors is related to the
frequency of jointing in the rocks; the tors are
upstanding masses of solid granite, preserved
where the spacing of joints is wider, in contrast
to the adjacent rock; the latter has been more
easily and therefore more extensively denuded
owing to the presence in it of closelyspaced
joints, which have resulted in more rapid
weathering above the water-table (the broken
line in the figure).
In dry climates chemical weathering is
superficial and much retarded by the lack of
water, producing thin zones of weathered rock.
In very dry climates mechanical processes are
the dominant weathering agents.
Mechanical Weathering (disintegration)
- breaks down rocks into small particles
by the action of temperature, by impact
from raindrops, and by abrasion from
mineral particles carried in the wind.
1. Mechanical Unloading
- refers to the process of relieving or
reducing the pressure on rocks or
geological structures. It can play a
role in mechanical weathering by
causing rocks to expand or fracture
due to the release of internal
pressure.
- When rocks are buried under layers
of sediment or overlying rocks, they
experience immense pressure from
the weight above. This pressure,
known as lithostatic pressure,
can compact and consolidate the
rocks, making them more resistant
to weathering. However, when the
 overlying pressure is removed,
either due to erosion or other
geological processes, the rocks
experience a decrease in pressure,
leading to mechanical unloading.
- The release of pressure can trigger a
variety of mechanical weathering
processes, including:
• Exfoliation: As the confining
pressure is reduced, rocks may
expand and crack parallel to the
surface, resulting in the peeling or
flaking of outer layers.
• Jointing: Mechanical unloading can
cause rocks to fracture along pre-
existing joints or create new
fractures, increasing the
susceptibility to further weathering.
• Disintegration: In some cases,
rocks subjected to mechanical
unloading can disintegrate into
smaller blocks or fragments due to
the release of pressure and the
subsequent expansion of minerals.
2. Mechanical Unloading
- The impact on rocks and soil and
abrasion by sand and weak rocks.
This may further categorize as:
• Abrasion involves the physical
wearing down of rocks by the
frictional forces of wind, water, or
ice. These forces can exert
pressure on rocks, causing them to
break apart or erode over time. For
example, when water flows over
rocks, it can carry sediments that
scrape against the rock's surface,
leading to its gradual erosion.
* Biological activity refers to the actions
of plants, animals, and microorganisms
that can contribute to the mechanical
weathering of rocks. Burrowing animals
can physically disrupt rock structures,
plant roots can grow into cracks and
exert pressure, and microorganisms can
contribute to the breakdown of rocks
through their growth and chemical
activities.
3. Wetting and Drying
- Wetting and drying contribute to the
mechanical breakdown of rocks
through the expansion and
contraction of minerals, the
development of cracks, and the
subsequent fragmentation of the
rock. It is one of the several
mechanisms that collectively shape
the Earth's surface through
mechanical weathering.
When rocks or minerals absorb water,
they can undergo various changes.
• Expansion: Water molecules can
enter the porous structure of rocks,
causing them to swell and expand.
This expansion can exert pressure
on the surrounding mineral grains or
rock matrix. However, it is during
the drying phase that significant
mechanical weathering occurs:
• Shrinkage: As the water evaporates,
the rocks or minerals shrink,
potentially resulting in the formation
of cracks and fractures. The
differential shrinkage between
different minerals within a rock can
also lead to internal stress and
further weakening.
• Fragmentation: The repeated
wetting and drying cycles can cause
the development and propagation of
cracks, eventually resulting in the
physical fragmentation of rocks into
smaller pieces.
4. Crystallization
- Also known as salt crystal growth or
salt weathering, is a process of
mechanical weathering that occurs
when dissolved salts in water
crystallize within the pores and
cracks of rocks. It is particularly
significant in arid or semi-arid
 regions, coastal areas, or areas with Additionally, in volcanic environments, the
saline groundwater. expansion of gases within magma or volcanic
ash can generate significant pressure. This
Here's how the process of crystallization
pressure can fracture rocks, leading to their
contributes to mechanical weathering:
mechanical breakdown.
• Water Infiltration: Water containing While "pneumatic loading" may not be a
dissolved salts infiltrates into porous
commonly used term in the field of geology,
rocks or enters cracks and crevices.
these examples highlight how air or gas
• Evaporation: As the water evaporates pressure, in certain contexts, can contribute to
due to high temperatures or low mechanical weathering processes such as
humidity, the concentration of abrasion or fracturing.
dissolved salts increases within the
remaining water.
• Salt Crystal Formation: As the
Biological weathering (organic)
concentration of dissolved salts reaches
- refers to processes mediated by
saturation, the salts begin to
microorganisms, which can contribute to
precipitate and form crystals within the
the breakdown of rocks or can enhance
pores and fractures of the rock.
surface stabilization
• Crystal Growth: As the crystals
continue to grow, they exert pressure
on the surrounding rock material. This
pressure can be significant, especially if Weathering effects which are small in
the crystals grow within confined themselves but noticeable in the aggregate can
spaces or in areas where they have be attributed to plants and animals. Plants retain
room for expansion. moisture and any rock surface on which they
• Mechanical Disintegration: The growth grow is kept damp, thus promoting the solvent
of salt crystals exerts pressure on the action of the water.
rock, causing it to weaken and
The chemical decay of rock is also aided by the
eventually disintegrate. The expansion
formation of vegetable humus, organic products
of the crystals can widen existing
derived from plants, and this is helped by the
cracks or generate new fractures,
action of bacteria and fungi. Organic acids are
leading to the fragmentation and
thereby added to percolating rain-water and
breakdown of the rock.
increase its solvent power. The mechanical
break-up of rocks is hastened when the roots of
plants penetrate into cracks and wedge apart
5. Pneumatic Loading the walls of the crack.
- The impact of air or gas pressure on
rocks.
- For example, in regions with strong
❖ EROSION AND DEPOSITION
winds, the force of moving air
carrying sediment particles can
cause abrasion and wear down
rocks over time. Wind-driven sand Erosion occurs when pieces of rocks and soil,
particles can act as abrasive agents, called sediments, are carried from one place to
striking against exposed rock another
surfaces and contributing to their Rivers, wind, moving ice and water waves are
erosion and fragmentation. capable of loosening, dislodging and carrying
particles of soil, sediment and larger pieces of
rock. They are therefore described as the agents rock surface is easily recognized, and if
of erosion. observed near but above an existing stream it
marks a former course at a higher level

Deposition is the process of sediments, soils,

and minerals being dropped, or deposited, in a
new place.
Grains of sand are blown across the desert by
strong winds, and they eventually land in a new
location. Over time, the sand builds up into a
dune.
Sediments are carried by a river downstream.
But when the river enters the lake or ocean, the
water slows down.
As the water slows down, the sediments settle
out of the water.
Fast-moving water is easily able to carry
sediments and pushed them downstream but
once it slows down, all those sediments start to
settle out to the bottom of the lake of the ocean
and over time the layers build up as sediments
are deposited.
Valleys
Valleys A drainage system is initiated when, for
example, a new land surface is formed by uplift
of the sea floor. Streams begin to flow over it
and excavate valleys, their courses mainly
directed by the general slope of the surface but
also controlled by any irregularities which it may
possess.
In many instances present day lowland valleys
have been shaped by the streams that occupy
them; these were most active during the
interglacial periods when their discharge was
considerably greater than it is at present. Valleys
in mountains and glaciated areas have been
modified by other agencies, such as the action
of avalanches, landslides and moving ice. In
course of time a valley becomes deepened and
widened, and the river is extended by
tributaries.

The area drained by a river and its tributaries is

The Work of Rivers called a catchment, or river basin. Stages of
youth, maturity, and old age may be
- the work of erosion performed by rivers
distinguished in the history of a river, and
results in the widening and deepening of their
topographical forms characteristic of these
valleys. The rate of erosion is greatly enhanced
stages can be recognized in modern landscapes.
in times of flood. Rivers are also agents of
Thus there is the steep-sided valley of the
transport, and carry much material in
youthful stream; the broader valley and more
suspension, to re-deposit part of it along their
deeply dissected landscape of the mature river
course further downstream, or in lakes, or in
system; and the subdued topography of the
times of flood as levees and over the flood plain;
catchment of a river in old age.
ultimately most of the eroded material reaches
the sea.

Some matter is carried in solution and

contributes to the salinity of the oceans. The
energy which is imparted to sediment moved by
a stream, the finer particles in suspension and
the coarser (including boulders) rolled along the
bed during floods, performs work by abrading
the channel of the river. Hollows known as pot-
holes are often worn in the rock of a riverbed by
the grinding action of pebbles which are swirled
round by eddying water. Such a water-worn