CHAPTER 9 : NUTRITION AND THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Digestive system is made up of alimentary canal (from mouth to anus)

 Long and muscular
 Involve organs : Oesophagus, stomach, intestines
Digestion : process of breaking down large and complex food molecules to smaller and simpler
molecules/ nutrients for better absorption in our body.

*Made up of 2 parts/ is implemented 执行 in 2 ways :

Physical digestion Chemical digestion

Mechanical breakdown, e.g., chewing and Decomposition, e.g., by enzyme/ enzymatic
peristalsis reaction

1. Mouth (chew – physical ; amylase – chemical)

- Digestion starts from our mouth.
- When food comes in, it stimulates the salivary gland to secrete saliva.
- Saliva contains salivary amylase/ amylase.
- Saliva has an optimum pH for the amylase to act/ to be activated. (pH 6.5 – 7.5)
- Salivary amylase break downs/ hydrolyses starch into maltose.
(Sucrose + water → Maltose)
- Saliva helps food to form bolus which is easier to be swallowed.
2. Oesophagus
 - When we swallow, the epiglottis closes the trachea opening to prevent food from
entering the trachea and direct the food into oesophagus.
- At here, the bolus is moved by peristalsis. Peristalsis is the rhythmic contraction and
relaxation of muscles.
3. Stomach
- The surface of stomach wall is lined with epithelial cells.
- These epithelial cells undergo adaptation to form gastric glands have 3 main types of
cells :

Chief cells Parietal cells Mucous cells

Produce pepsinogen Produce hydrochloric acid Produce mucus

Pepsinogen is broken down/
converted/ activated by HCl to
become pepsin. Pepsin
hydrolyses proteins into
polypeptides.
Protein + water → polypeptides
(HCl)
HCl provides an optimum pH Mucus protects stomach wall
for pepsin to act. (pH 2.5) from the reaction of HCl and
pepsin/ gastric juice.
It kills bacteria in the food.
Mixed with pepsin to form
gastric juice.

- Food/ bolus is mixed with gastric juice and churned/ digested by peristalsis/ peristatic
action of stomach muscular wall for a few hours.
- Gastric juice kills bacteria or microorganisms in the food content and inhibit bacterial
growth in stomach.
- The content in the stomach ends up to become chyme which is semi-fluid.
4. Small intestine
- Consist of 3 parts : duodenum, jejunum and ileum
- Acidic chyme enters the first part of the small intestine/ duodenum slowly when the
sphincter muscle relaxes/ allows.
 Chyme Bile Pancreatic juice

Produced by liver Produced by pancreas

Transported via bile duct Transported by pancreatic duct
Functions : Functions :
- Neutralise the chyme - Pancreatic amylase
- Provides alkaline environment/ breaks down starch
optimum pH for the pancreatic into maltose.
juice to act. - Trypsin (polypeptide
- Emulsify lipids into tiny droplets to peptides)
before it is broken down by - Lipase (lipid to fatty
pancreatic juice. acids and glycerol)
** To increase surface area for
lipase activity/ increase efficiency
of breaking down lipids.

Ileum (last part of small intestine)

- Consist of intestinal glands on its wall. The intestinal glands secrete mucus and
intestinal juice.
Mucus Intestinal juice
Function : Function :
Protection from microorganisms - Maltase (maltose to glucose)
and prevent intestinal - Sucrase (sucrose to glucose and fructose)
inflammation caused by - Lactase (lactose to glucose and galactose)
bacteria.
 - Lipase (lipid to fatty acid and glycerol)
- Erepsin (Peptides to amino acids)

- The alkali pH in the ileum/ small intestine allows these enzymes to act at its optimum.
- Ileum is not only where digestion occurs but also absorption of nutrients.

Absorption
Process of absorbing food in the form of nutrients/ nutrients from the digested food into the
blood stream.
It has projection structure on its wall called villus.
Villus has the adaptations to help in absorbing nutrients efficiently:
1. Goblet cells secrete mucus to aid digestion by protecting ileum from bacterial infection
which causes inflammation.
2. The intestinal gland secretes intestinal juices that contain digestive enzymes.
3. The epithelial layer of the villus is only one-cell thick. This fastens/ speeds up/
accelerates nutrients absorption.
4. On the surface of goblet cells, there is tiny projections called microvillus. It provides
larger surface area to increase the rate of absorption into blood capillaries and lacteals.
5. The network of blood capillaries helps to transport the nutrients/ digested products
absorbed to the whole body.
6. It has a structure called lacteal which carries lipids/ fatty acids and glycerol in the form of
droplets.

Nutrients Method of absorption to blood

capillaries or lacteal
Glucose Active transport
Galactose
Amino acids
Vitamin C, B and water Osmosis
Fructose Facilitated diffusion
Fatty acids and glycerol droplets Simple diffusion
(which is formed by recombining FA
and GLY through condensation)
Lipid droplet/ Vitamin A, D, E & K
Assimilation
同化（Assimilation）是生物体代谢当中的一个重要过程，作用是把消化后的营养重新组合，
形成有机物和贮存能量的过程。因為是把食物中的物質元素存入身體裡面，故謂「同化」。

Process of nutrients being absorbed and used to form complex structure of components or
complex compound./ Process of absorption of nutrients by body cells in the form of energy.
Functions of liver in assimilation of nutrients :
1. Control nutrients quantity that enters into our blood circulatory system.
2. Site where metabolism of digested food occurs.
3. Detoxification.
4. Storing nutrients.

Glucose and Amino acids

Blood capillaries from the small intestine Lacteal combine to form bigger lymph
combine to form hepatic portal vein. vessel/ lymphatic vessel in the lymphatic
Through this, the blood is transported to system. Through this, the lymph is
liver. transported to the left subclavian vein.

Assimilation of amino acids in liver Assimilation of amino acids in body cells

Liver synthesises plasma proteins and enzymes Synthesise new organelles and repair damaged
from amino acids. tissues.

Liver converts amino acid to glucose when Synthesise hormone and enzymes.
glucose supply is insufficient.

Liver also breaks down excess amino acids

which cannot be stored through deamination
process to form urea and expelled.

Assimilation of glucose in liver Assimilation of glucose in body cells

Glucose in the liver is used/ provided for
cellular respiration when our body requires.
Excess glucose in liver is converted to glycogen
and stored./ Excess glucose is stored in the form
of glycogen in the liver.
Glucose is oxidised through cellular respiration/
aerobic respiration to release/ produce energy,
water and carbon dioxide.
Excess glucose is kept/ stored in the muscle
cells as glycogen.

When blood glucose level is low/ decreases and

the body needs energy, the glycogen is
converted to glucose.
**body needs quick boost of energy/ body is not
supplied with glucose e.g., food.

When the glucose level is at maximum level,

glucose will be converted to fats.

Assimilation of lipids in body cells

Lipids make up the main component in our plasma membrane, which are phospholipids and
cholesterol.

Excess fat is stored in adipose tissue underneath our skin as a source of heat energy.

Fat is oxidised to release energy when there is insufficient level of glucose.

Defaecation
Process/ act of expelling faeces from digestive tract via anus.
After the absorption of nutrients is completed at ileum, the undigested food, dead cells,
epithelial cells, fibre and water enter the large intestine/ colon and move slowly by peristalsis/
peristaltic action.
Large intestine carries these main functions :
- Absorption of water, mineral salts and metabolic by-products such as vitamin B and
C and folic acid.
- Formation of faeces after water absorption. Faeces is a semi-solid undigested food
which contains dead cells from intestines, epithelial cells, fibre and water, waste
products such as bile pigment and bacteria and toxic substances. Healthy faeces have
75% water content.

1. The walls of large intestine secrete mucus to

smoothen the movement of faeces along the large
intestine.
2. The faeces take about 12 to 24 hours before
entering/ reaching the rectum.
3. The faeces accumulate in the rectum until the
pressure in the rectum increases and triggers the
urge/ need to expel the faeces from our body.
4. The muscle in the rectum will contract to expel
the faeces from the anus.

Balanced Diet
Diet which consists of seven food classes, they are, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins,
mineral salts, fibre and water, in the correct proportion/ amount/ quantity according to our
body needs for an optimal health.
Balanced diet should be providing our body with the right amount of energy.
 Energy value of food (kJ g−1 )
= total amount of energy produced/ released per gram of food being oxidised completely/
when 1 gram of food is oxidised completely
= measured in the form of heat energy
−1
Water mass ( g ) ×4.2 J g ˚ C × increase∈water temperature(˚ C)
=
Mass of food sample ( g ) ×1000
  Calorie = quantity of heat energy to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 degree
Celsius at a pressure of 1 standard atmosphere.

Obesity
 Caused by storage of excessive fats due to imbalanced food intake and consumption of
energy.
 Need to reduce carbohydrates intake and saturated fats from red meat and dairy products and
increase intake of fruits and vegetables.
 Consequences of excessive intake of carbohydrates and saturated fats/ high LDL cholesterol :
- Diabetes mellitus
- Cardiovascular disease such as ：
o atherosclerosis 脂肪导致的血管阻塞 – arteries clogged with fatty substances
o hypertension – high blood pressure
 These may result in heart attack (myocardial infarction = blood flow one or more areas in
heart muscle is blocked) and stoke.

Health Issues Related to the Digestive System and Eating Habits

Adaptation of Digestive Organs
Gastric Bypass
Involves reduction of stomach size by surgery in order to help with reducing body weight.
Involves creating a small pouch from the stomach and connect it to the small intestine
(jejunum). Then, the swallowed food will go into the small pouch and directly to the small
intestine. The food bypasses most part of the stomach and first section of small intestine.
Short-term side effects : acid reflux 胃酸倒流, nausea 恶心, vomiting, expanded oesophagus,
risk of infection and certain food prohibitions.
Long-term side effects : dizziness, low blood sugar level, malnutrition, stomach ulcer,
defaecation problems.

Health issues related to defaecation

1. Intake of diet containing high fibre (fruits and vegetables)
- Can smoothen bowel (colon) movement. This helps to prevent constipation, colon
cancer, rectum cancer and haemorrhoid 痔疮 (swollen blood vessel in rectum).
- Stimulate 刺激 peristalsis
- Absorb and expel toxic substances in colon.
- Regulate and slow down the rate of glucose and fat absorption from food, leading to
inactive blood glucose response and less demand of insulin 胰岛素.
 - Prebiotics from fibres increase the beneficial bacteria in the large intestine to reduce
metabolic syndrome in obese person. For example, heart disease, stroke and diabetes.
- Add bulk to faeces 添加大量粪便 which ease the passage of the faeces through colon
and prevent constipated feeling.
2. Intake of water
- Ensure faeces is soft and able to move easily along the large intestine and then to be
defaecated.

Health issues related to eating habits

1. Gastritis
- Inflammation and corrosion of stomach epithelial layer by gastric juice when there is
no food in the stomach.
- Untreated gastritis results in gastric ulcers.
- Causes :
o Irregular eating quantities at irregular hours
o Starving 饿
o Excessive intake of alcohol and painkillers 止痛药
2. Anorexia nervosa 厌食症
- Common among teenage girls who are obsessed with their body weight.
- Definition: Eating disorder characterised by low weight, food restriction and distorted
perception of body weight.
- Anorexics avoid food to achieve ideal body weight. They have intense fear of gaining
weight.
- Suffer from psychological problems and nutrient deficiency.
- Digestive system is affected, severe weight loss, dehydration, constipation, abnormal
heart rate and osteoporosis 骨质疏松症.

3. Bulimia nervosa 暴饮暴食，催吐

- Obsessed with controlling body weight,
- Definition: eating disorder characterised by binge eating 暴饮暴食 followed by
purging/ self-induced vomit 催吐.
- People with bulimia eat a lot and vomit out the food they have eaten or take laxatives
泻药 which causes diarrhoea. They have intense fear of gaining weight.
 - Patient may suffer dehydration, nutritional problem/ nutrient deficiency and
eventually cardiovascular problems 心血管疾病 or kidney failure in the long run.
4. Muscle dysmorphia 肌肉畸形
- Psychological disorder characterised by preoccupation of idea 思想观念/
distorted perception 扭曲的认知 that their size is small with insufficient
growth of lacking in muscle.
- They put themselves into extreme training such as weightlifting and exercises
to improve appearance.
- Some of them consume steroids or muscle building supplements.

Category Examples Function Note

Trans fat Baked goods, frozen Make food last - Increase LDL 好
food, fried food, longer cholesterol and decrease
dairy products
HDL 坏 cholesterol.
 - This causes clogged arteries
and increase risk of heart
diseases.
Salt/ sodium Canned food, Enhance flavour - Increase risk of high blood
nitrate processed meat, and act as pressure
preserved food, instant preservatives - Associated with hypertension
noodles and kidney diseases.
Starch/ Cakes, cookies, bread, Enhance flavour - Increase risk of diabetes, heart
complex sugar pasta, rice and texture diseases and cause obesity
- Depression
Artificial Soft drinks, baked Enhance flavour - Stimulate taste buds and
sweetener goods, candies, jams and act as increase cravings 增加食欲
preservatives
- Cause metabolic syndrome 代
谢综合征 , kidney diseases,
weight gain (obesity) and
memory loss
MSG Fast food, snacks, Enhance flavour - Fatigue, headache, chest pain,
(Monosodium frozen food, processed and acts as lethargy (lack of energy),
meat preservatives metabolic disorder
glutamate) 味
精
Artificial Candies, flavoured Enhance - Associated with hyperactivity
colouring drinks, frozen treats appearance - Carcinogenic (increases risk
(ice-cream), breakfast of cancer) 致癌
cereal
Volume Bread (potassium Potassium bromate -Disturb nutrient- absorbing in
enhancer bromate), bread, syrup – enhance volume, the body and cause digestive
糖浆 and creamy allow dough to rise problems
products (cellulose) and strengthen
dough
Cellulose –
thickening and
emulsifying
 1. Cashew nut has higher energy value than groundnut.
2. Precautions :
a) Make sure the nut is completely burnt before the final temperature of water is taken.
b) Make sure the nut is placed as close as possible to the bottom of boiling tube.
c) Make sure the water is stirred throughout the burning to ensure even temperature in
water.
3. Does the mass of nuts affect the energy values?
No, because the energy value is the amount of energy produced when 1 gram of food is
oxidised completely.
4. Cashew nut has higher energy value. It releases greater amount of energy than groundnut
because it has higher macronutrient content (especially fats).

Ascorbic acid is used as standard because it is available in different food sources especially citrus
fruits.
DCPIP is used to estimate the concentration of vitamin C in a food.
DCPIP is in dark blue colour. It is reduced by ascorbic acid (vitamin C)/ react with ascorbic acid and
turns into colourless solution.

The higher vitamin C content, the lesser juice is needed to decolourise DCPIP.

Volume of ascorbic acid solution

Percentage of vitamin C = × 0.1%
Volume of juice used

1
= × 0.1%
Volume of juice used

Volume of ascorbic acid solution

Concentration of vitamin C (mg ml−1) = × 1.0%
Volume of juice used

1
= × 1.0%
Volume of juice used
Lime juice contains the highest concentration/ percentage of vitamin C. the least volume of lime juice
is used to decolourise DCPIP.