Chapter-3

The Equation of Change

for Isothermal Systems

1
 Scope of the Chapter

The main point of this chapter is to derive

 a general mass balance : The equation of continuity
 a general momentum balance : The equation of motion

They can be applied to any problem, including problems with

nonrectilinear motion.

Both equations may be written for three coordinate

systems:

 Cartesian,  Cylindrical Spherical

2
 The equation of continuity
A mass balance over a small volume element (control volume)
xyz, fixed in space, through which a fluid is flowing;
(u y )
y y  y

(u z ) z  z
y  y

(u x ) x (u x ) x  x
Flowing fluid

y
z  z

z (u z ) z
y
z
z x
control x x  x
volume
x
Mass balance: rate of  rate of  rate of 
mass  - mass   increase (kg/s)
 in  out  of mass  3
 Mass balance over a volume element xyz:
  
A x (u x ) x - (u x ) x  x  A y (u y ) - (u y )
y y  y


 A z (u z ) z - (u z ) z  z  V

t

A x  yz, A y  xz, A z  xy, V  xyz

 
yz (u x ) x - (u x ) x  x  xz (u y ) - (u y )
y

y  y


 xy (u z ) z - (u z ) z  z  xyz

t

By dividing equation throughly with xyz we get:

(u x ) x - (u x ) x  x (u y ) - (u y ) (u z ) z - (u z ) z  z 

y  y
  
y

x y z 4 t
By taking limit as x, y &z go zero we get:

   (u x ) (u y ) (u z )  The equation

    
t  x y z  of continuity

More concisely by using vector notation :


 (.v)
t Net rate of mass addition
Rate of increase per unit volume by
of mass per unit convection
volume

Here:  (u x )  (u y )  (u z )

(.v)   
x y z
(.v)  the divergence of v (" div v" )
5
v  the mass flux (vector)
A special case: For fluids with constant density (incompressible
fluids) :

(.v)  0

Notice that:

 No fluid is truly incompressible,

 Constant density assumption results in considerable
simplification with little error

6
 The equation of Motion
Fluid flow decribed by cartesian coordinate
y
y

x
Momentum transport
z in the fluid through
flowing fluid x the 3 directions

y

control volume z
z x

Momentum balance over a volume element xyz:

Rate of  Rate of  External  Rate of 

momentum   momentum   forces acting   increase of 
 in   out  on the system momentum 
7
 Momentum balance in the x-dir.:
y

y
( yx )
y  y
y

( zx ) z  z
x
z
x
y
( xx ) x ( xx ) x  x
( zx ) z
z y
z x
z ( yx )
y

z x

x
Notice that: Momentum enters across & leaves the surfaces
normal to x-dir. by all mechanisms (both convective & molecular
8
transport).
Momentum balance in the x-dir.:

A x ( xx ) x - ( xx x  x
)  A y ( yx ) - ( yx  A z ( zx ) z - ( zx z  z
y y  y
 (u x V)
 (V)g x 
t
A x  yz, A y  xz, A z  xy, V  xyz

yz( xx ) x - ( xx x  x
)  xz( yx ) - ( yx  xy( zx ) z - ( zx z  z
y y  y
 (u x xyz)
 (xyz)g x 
t
By dividing equation throughly with xyz we get:

Remember:   vv  p   (The cobined momentum flux vector) 9

( xx ) x - ( xx ) ( yx ) - ( yx ) ( zx ) z - ( zx )
y  y
x  x
  z  z
 g x
x

x y z
 (u x )

t
Taking limit as x, y &z go zero:

x-component: (u x )   xx  yx  zx 
 -      g x
t  x y z 
Similarly:
 (u y )   xy  yy  zy 
y-component:  -     g y
t  x y z 

z-component: (u z )   xz  yz  zz 
 -     g z 10
t  x y z 
By using vector-tensor notations, 3 equations can be written
as follows:


u i  -.i  g i (i  x, y, z)
t

  vv  p  


v  -.vv  - p - .  g (3.2  9)
t
Rate of Rate of mom. Rate of mom. External force
increase of addition by addition by mol. on fluid per
mom. per conv. Per unit transport per unit vol.
unit vol. vol. unit vol.
 Differential volume element in cylindrical coordinates
(r, , z)
Directions:
Radial : r
Axial : z
Angular : 

x  r cos ,
Coordinate transformation between
rectangular & cylindrical coordinates: y  r sin,
zz
 Differential volume element in spherical coordinates
(r, , )

Directions:
Radial : r
Angular :  & 

Coordinate transformation between x  r cos  sin 

rectangular & sperical coordinates: y  rsin sin 
z  cos 
 Equations of Change in Rectangular Coordinates
  (  u x )  (  u y )  (  u z )
Continuity:    0
t x y z
Motion:
 u x u x u x u x  p  τ xx τ yx τ zx 
   ux  uy  uz          g x
 t x y z  x  x y z 

 u y u y u y u y  p  τ xy τ yy τ zy 
   ux  uy  uz          g y
 t x y z  y  x y z 

 u z u z u z u z  p  τ xz τ yz τ zz 
   ux  uy  uz          g z
 t x y z  z  x y z 
 Newton’s Law of Viscosity

Cartesian Coordinates:

 u x   2   u z u y 
τ xx   μ 2    μ  κ   u  τ yz  τ zy   μ   
 x   3   y z 
 u y   2   u x u z 
τ yy   μ 2 
  μ  κ   u  τ zx  τ xz   μ   
 y   3   z x 

 u z   2   u y u x 
τ zz   μ 2    μ  κ   u  τ xy  τ yx   μ   
 z   3   x y 

 u x u y u z 
in which:   u      
 x y z 
15
 Newton’s Law of Viscosity
Cartesian Coordinates:
 u x   2   u z u y 
τ xx   μ 2    μ  κ   u  τ yz  τ zy   μ   
 x   3   y z 
 u y   2   u x u z 
τ yy   μ 2 
     u  τ zx  τ xz   μ  
x 
μ κ
 y   3   z

 u z   2   u y u x 
τ zz   μ 2    μ  κ   u  τ xy  τ yx   μ   
 z   3   x y 
 u x u y u z 
in which:   u      
 x y z 

16
 Navier-Stokes Eqns in Rectangular Coordinates
Newtonian Fluid with Constant  and 

 u x u x u x u x  p   2u x  2u x  2u x 
   ux  uy  uz       2  2  2   g x
 t x y z  x  x y z 

 u y u y u y u y  p   2u y  2u y  2u y 
   ux  uy  uz       2  2  2   g y
 x 
 t x y z  y   y  z 

 u z u z u z u z  p   2u z  2u z  2u z 
   ux  uy  uz       2  2  2   g z
 t x y z  z  x y z 

 u 
ρ   u u   p  μ 2u  ρg
 t  17
 Equations of Change in Cylindrical Coordinates

 1 (rur ) 1 ( u ) ( u z )
Continuity:    0
t r r r  z
Motion:
 ur ur u ur u2 u  p  1 r rr  1  r    rz 
   ur    u z r           g r
 t r r  r z  r  r r r  2
r z 

 u

u u u ur u u   
1 p  1  r 2 r 1    z 
 ur    uz   2     g
 t r r  r z  r   r r r  z 

 u z u u u z u  p  1  r rz  1  z  zz 
  ur z    uz z          g z
 t r r  z  z  r r r  z 
18
Newton’s Law of Viscosity in Cylindrical Coordinates

 ur   2   u z u r 
τ rr   μ 2   μ  κ   u  τ rz  τ zr   μ  

 r   3   r z 

 u z   2   u 1 u z 
τ zz   μ 2    μ  κ   u  τ z  τz   μ   
 z   3   z r  

 1 u ur   2 
τ   μ 2  2    μ  κ   u 
 r  r  3 
   u  1 ur 
τ r  τr   μ r    
 r  
r r  
1 (rur ) 1 u u z
in which: (.u )   
r r r  z 19
 Navier-Stokes Eqns in Cylindrical Coordinates
 Newtonian Fluid with Constant  and 
 ur ur u ur u2 ur 
   ur    uz 
 t r r  r z 
p    1  rur   1  2ur 2 u  2ur 
     2  2  2   g r
r  r  r r  r  r  z 
2

 u u u u u u u 
  ur      r   u z  
 t r r  r z 
1 p    1  ru   1  2u 2 ur  2u 
     2  2  2   g
r   r  r r  r 
2
r  z 
 u z u z u u z u z 
  ur   uz 
 t r r  z 
p  1   u z  1  uz  uz 
2 2
   r  2  2   g z
z  r r  r  r  z 
2 20
 Equations of Change in Spherical Coordinates
 1  ( r 2ur ) 1 ( u sin  ) 1 ( u )
Continuity:  2   0
t r r r sin   r sin  
 ur  u u u u u u 2
 u 2
 p
 
Motion:   t  ur r  r   r sin    r    r
r  r r  

 

  2

 1  r 2 τ rr

 1  ( τ r sin  )

1 τ r      
   g r
r r r sin   r sin   r 
 u  u u u u  u u u u 2
cot   1 p

  ur 
  
  
 r 
 
 
r  r sin    r 
 t r r r 

  2

 1  r 2 τ r

 1  ( τ sin  )

1 τ  r cot 
 

    g
r r r sin   r sin   r r 
 u u u u u u u ur u u cot   1 p

  ur     
 
 t r r  r sin   r r  r sin  

  2
 
 1  r 2 τ r 1  ( τ )
 
1 τ τ r 2 cot 
 

τ   g
r r  r sin  
21
r r r 
Newton’s Law of Viscosity in Spherical Coordinates
 u   2     u  1 ur 
τ rr   μ 2 r    μ  κ   u  τ r  τ r   μ r    
 r   3   r  r  r  
 1 u ur   2 
τ   μ 2     μ  κ   u 
 r  r  3 
 1 ur   u 
τr  τ r   μ   r  
 r sin   r  r 

  1 u ur  u cot    2 
τ   μ 2     μ  κ   u 
  r sin   r   3 

 sin    u  1 u 
τ  τ   μ    
 r   sin   r sin    22
 Navier-Stokes Eqns in Spherical Coordinates
 Newtonian Fluid with Constant  and 
 ur ur u u r ur   
   p
2 2
u u u

  ur   
  

 t r r  r sin   r  r
 1   2 ur  1   u r  
r 
 r 2 r  r  r 2 sin    sin   
    
    g r
 1  ur 2ur 2 u 2u cot 
2
2 u 
 2 2  2  2   2 
 r sin   r  r sin   
2 2
r r
 u u u  u u u u u u cot  
2
1 p

  ur 
  
  
 r 
  
r  r sin    r 
 t r r r 
 1   2 u  1   u  
 r 2 r  r r   r 2 sin    sin    
   
    g
 1  u 2 ur
2
u 2 cos  u 
 2 2  2  2 2  2 2 
 r sin   r  r sin  r sin   
2
23
 Navier-Stokes Eqns in Spherical Coordinates
Newtonian Fluid with Constant  and 

 u u u u u u u ur u u cot   1 p

   ur       
 t r r  r sin   r r  r sin  
 1   2 u  1   u  
 2  r   2  sin   
r r  r  r sin     
    g
  u
2
u 2 ur 
2 cos  u 


 2 1 2   
 r sin   2 r 2 sin 2  r 2 sin   r 2 sin 2   

24
 The Equation of Mechanical Energy
Equation of mechanical energy (ME) may obtained from
equation of motion by some (lengthy) modification &
involves only mechanical terms
  1 2 
( )  -.  v - (.pv) - p(-.v) - .(.v)  - ( : v)
2

t  2 
 ( v.g)
Reversible Work done (J/s)
Increase of Increase of Work done
conversion of by viscous
kinetic kinetic pressure of Work done
kinetic energy forces on
energy per energy per surroundings by external
into internal the fluid
unit vol. unit vol. on fluid forces on the
energy
fluid
Reversible
conversion
from kinetic
into internal 25
energy
 The Equation of Mechanical Energy

p(.v) : Energy change because of fluid expansion or compression

(Example: compressors, turbines, shock turbines)

( : v) : Conversion of mechanical energy into thermal

energy = viscous dissipation heating (Example:
lubrication, rapid extrusion, high-speed flight,
rubbing….etc )

The most important use of ME: Development of mechanical

energy balance (Bernoulli equation)
Potential energy (per unit mass) :  g  - 
(v.g)  ( v. )  (. v)  (. v)

Continuity:  (.v)
t 26
(v.g)  ( v. )  (. v)  (. v)  (. v)  (  / t )

If potential energy is independent of time:

 (  / t )  (  / t )

(v.g)  ( v. )  (. v)  (. v)  (. v)  (  / t )

(v.g)  ( v. )  (. v)  (. v)

27
Solving Flow Problems by Using of the Equations
of Change
Procedure:
1. Write the postulates (for p and velocity dist.),
2. Write the appropriate Equation(s) of motion,
3. Determine the vanishing velocity component(s),
4. Simplified the equations of continuity & motion,
5. Insert the expressions for the viscous forces () into the
equation of motion,
6. Solve the equations to obtain the complete pressure,
density & velocity distribution.
Then to describe the flow of Newtonian fluid at constant T &
p, we need in general :

 The equation of continuity : Eq. 3.1-3 or 4

 The equation of motion : Eq.3.2-9
 The components of  : Eq.1.2-6
 The equation of state : p = p()
• The equations for the Viscosities:  =  (),  = ()
 The necessary IC & BCs
 Solution

 Velocity distribution
 Pressure distribution
 Density distribution
 Temperature distribution
 Mass distribution
Example: Operation of a Couette Viscometer
The measurement of pressure difference vs. mass flow
through a cylindrical tube is the basis for determination of
viscosity in commercial capillary viscometers. The viscosity
may be determined by measuring the torque required to turn
a solid object in contact with a fluid (Couette instrument, in
Fig3.6-1)

To analyze this measurement, we apply the equations of

continuity and motions for constant  and  to the tangential
flow in the annular region around the bob. Ultimately we
want an expression for the viscosity in terms of (the z-
component of) the torque Tz on the inner cylinder, the
angular velocity of a rotating cup 0, the bob height L, and
the radii kR and R of the bob and cup, respectively
A Couette viscometer operates depending on the tangential
laminar flow of an incompressible fluid in the space between
two cylinders, the outer one is moving with an angular velocity
0.

One measure the

angular velocity 0
of the cup &
deflection  of the
bob at SS operation
Tangential laminar flow of an incompressible fluid in the
space between two cylinders, the outer one is moving with
an angular velocity of 0
Solution:
Assumptions:
 Steady-state
 Fluid properties are constant
 Fluids are Newtonian and incompressible
 Fully developed, laminar flow
 End effects are negligible
 One-dimensional flow (angular direction)
   (r), r  0, z  0 p  p( r , z )
Analysis: 0 0 0 0
 1 (rur ) 1 ( u ) ( u z )
Continuity:     0 (1)
t r r r  z
SS r  0    () z  0
 00 ( 2)
Equations of motion (cyl. Coordinates):
r-dir.:
r  0 0 r  0 0 r  0 0
 ur ur u ur u2 ur 

  ur    uz 
 t r r  r z  0 ignored
0 0 0
SS p    1  rur   1  2ur 2 u  2ur 
     2  2  20  g r
r  r  r r  r r  0 r  r z 
2
(3)

u 2 p
  (p = p(r)) ( 4)
r r
-dir.:
   () r  0 z  0
SS 0 0
0 0 0
 u u u u u u u 
  ur      r   u z   r  0
 t r r  r z  0 0 0 ignored
r  0
1 p 0    1  ru   1  2u 2 ur  2u 
     2  2  2   g
r   r  r r  r 
2
r  z 
p  p() (5)

  1  ru    ( 6)
 0 (Velocity profile
r  r r  equation)
z-dir.:
z  0 z  0 z  0 z  0
0 0 0
 u z u z u u z u z 
  ur   uz 
 t r r  z  0 0
0
SS p  1   u z  1  2
u  2
uz 
   r  2 z
 2   g z
z  r r  r  r  z 
2

z  0 z  0 z  0 (7 )
p (p = p(z))
 g z (8)
z
The simplified equations:

u 2 p
  (p = p(r)) ( 4)
r r

 1  ru    ( 6)
0
(Velocity profile

r  r r  equation)

p (p = p(z))
 g z (8)
z
Integration of Eq.6:
1 ru  
 C1'
r r
 ru  
 C1' r
r
C1' 2
ru   r  C2
2
C1' C2
u  r (C1  C1' )
2 r
BC1 : @r  R, 0
BC2 : @r  R,   R0
C2 0
From BC1 : 0  C1 ( R)  C1 
R (1   2 )
C2 ( R ) 2  0
From BC2 : R0  C1 (R)  C2  
R (1   2 )
  R r  1 (Velocity profile
u   R 0    /(    )
 r R  equation)
0
   u   1 u r 
 r   r   r    
 r  
r r   
  u    
2
 
2
R
 r   r   r     0    
r  r  r  R  r  1  

Torque  Tz  (momentum flux)(surface area)(leve r arm)

Tz  (  r r  R ) x (2RL) x ( R )  4 0 R 2 L(  2 / 1  )
r  R

Torque required to turn the outer cylinder may also be

calculatet as:
Tz  (  r r  R ) (2RL)(R )  4 0 R 2 L(  2 / 1  )
r R

Tz  4R 20 L(  2 / 1   2 )  k0

Tz  k 0 (k  4R 2 L( 2 / 1   2 ))

Tz

  k / 4R 2 L( 2 / 1   2 )
Slop = k

0
Pressure distribution in the viscometer:
p  p( r , z )
p p
dp  dr  dz
r z
p   R 0   R r   ( R ) 2 r 2  1
2 2

    
1  
   A 2  2  2
r
r r       r R   r ( R ) 
p  ( R ) 2
 A 3  
2
r  2

A   R0 /(   
1 2

2
r  r r ( R ) 
p
 g z
z
 ( R ) 2 2 r2 
p(r, z)  A 3   2
dr  (g z )dz
 r r ( R ) 
  ( R ) 2 r2 
p(r, z)  A  2 ln r  2
 g z z  C1
 2r
2
2( R ) 

BC : @ r  R, z  z 0 ; p  patm

C1  patm  2A ln(R )  g z z 0
Example: The shape of the surface of a rotating liquid

 A fluid of constant density and viscosity

is in a cylindrical container of radius R.
The container is caused to rotate about its
own axis at an angular velocity . The
cylinder is vertical, so that gr = 0, g = 0,
z0
and gz = − g, in which g is the magnitude
of the gravitational acceleration.

Find the shape of the free surface of the

liquid when steady state has been
established.
Solution: 

Assumptions:
 Steady-state
 Fluid properties are constant z0

 Fluids are Newtonian and incompressible

 Fully developed, laminar flow
 End effects are negligible
 One-dimensional flow (angular direction)
u   u  (r), u r  0, u z  0 p  p( r , z )

Analysis:
Similar to the previous example, the equation of continuity &
equation of motion may be simplified to obtain:
 SS ur  0 u   u  () uz  0

 1 (rur ) 1 ( u ) ( u z )
   0
t r r r  z

SS ur  0 ur  0 ur  0
 ur ur u ur u2 ur 
   ur    uz 
u   u  () u r  0
 t r r  r z 
p    1  rur   1  2ur 2 u  2ur 
     2  2  2   g r
r  r  r r  r  r  z 
2

45
 SS u r  0 u   u  () u r  0 u z  0
 u u u u ur u u 
  ur    uz  u r  0 u   u  (z)
 t r r   r z 
r  0
1 p    1  ru   1  2u 2 ur  2u 
     2  2  2   g
r   r  r r  r 
2
r  z 
p  p()

SS ur  0 uz  0 uz  0
 u z u z u u z u z 
  ur   uz 
 t r r  z 
p  1   u z  1  uz  uz 
2 2
   r  2  2   g z
z  r r  r  r  z 
2

46
The simplified equations:

u 2 p
  (1)
r r

 1  ru    ( 2)
 0 (Velocity profile equation)
r  r r 

p (p = p(r, z))
 g z (3)
z

C2
u   C1r 
( 4)
Integration of Eq. (2):
r
 C2
u   C1r 
r
BC1: @r  0, u   finite (5)

BC2: @r  R, u   R ( 6)

C2
From BC1: 0  0   C2  0
0
From BC2: R  C1R  C1  
There is no shear stress, therefore, no deformation.
u   r Every fluid particle moves with the same angular
(7 )
velocity.

This equation states that each element of the rotating fluid moves
as an element of rigid body.
Surface shape may be modelled through pressure distribution
in the fluid body.
Pressure distribution: 

Method-1:
p u
   2 r z0

r r (8)

p (9)
 g z  g
z
p p
dp  dr  dz  ( 2 r)dr  (g)dz (10)
r z

p p 1
  r  z
     r  gz  C1
2 2
dp dr dz p(r, z) (11)
2
(12)
BC : @ r  0, z  z 0 ; p  patm
 patm  0  gz0  C1  C1  patm  gz0

1
p(r, z)   2 r 2  gz  p atm  gz 0
2
1 (13)
p(r, z)  p atm   2 r 2  g(z  z 0 )
2
This equation gives the pressure at all points within the liquid.
At air-liquid interface, p = patm
Pressure distribution at the interface (parabola)

 2  2 Shape of the free surface

z  z0   r
(14)

 2g 
Method-2:
u   r
p u 2 
1 2 2
p(r,z)   r  f1 (z)  C
 (15)
r r 2
p
 g  p(r,z)  f 2 (r)  gz  C (16)
z
These two equations must be identical, thus,
1
f 2 (r)   2 r 2 , f1 (z)  gz
2
Therefore,
1 2 2
p(r,z)   r  gz  C (17)
2
At the liquid-gas interface:- Viscous stresses and surface
tension are negligible. Thus,
pliquid  pgas  BC: @z  h(r), p  p0

1 2 2 1 2 2
p(r,z)   r  gz  C  p0   r  gh(r)  C (18)
2 2

2 2 C  p0
h(r)  r  (19)
2g g 

The interface is parabolic

with lowest point at the
center. z0

Recall that:
@r  0, h(r)  z 0
To determine C: The total volume of the liquid is,
(20)
dV  2h (r )rdr
R R  2 2 C  p0 
V  V0  2  h(r)rdr  2   r   rdr (21)
0 0
 2g g 
 2 R 2 gV0
 C  p0   (22)
4 R 2
Inserting C into Eq.19 gives ,


 R  r  1 
2 2 2

h(r)       h 0 (h 0  V0 / R 2 ) (23)
2g  R  2 
Initial liquid level before rotation