The Branches of Philosophy[edit]

Western philosophy can be divided into six branches that have assumed various importance over
time. Traditionally metaphysics sets the questions for philosophy. Epistemology asks how do we
know? Ethics and politics have to do with action and quality of life. Aesthetics or value theory has to
do with beauty, balance, and harmony. Logic has to do with the relations of things. Epistemology
sometimes replaces metaphysics these days, because it has fewer religious overtones. Among
Eastern European and continental philosophers, philosophy tends to be the study of politics. Logic is
critical for analytic philosophers, who are deeply suspicious of ethics, politics, and metaphysics.
Understanding philosophy in the 6th century B.C. involves taking into account different priorities than
those of the 19th century a.d. However, these divisions remain helpful for identifying what's at stake.
Metaphysics, which studies the nature of existence, is closely related to Epistemology, the study of
knowledge and how we know what we do about the world around us. Ethics, the study of how
individuals should act, depends on Epistemology, because we need knowledge to make good
choices. Politics studies human interaction. Aesthetics studies the value of things. Logic is about the
symbolic representation of language and thought processes. Once the domain of Aristotle, the
foundation of the exact sciences must now take into account relativity, uncertainty and
incompleteness. 5/17

Epistemology[edit]
The theory of knowledge, from the Greek words episteme (knowledge) and logos
(word/speech/study), is the branch of philosophy that deals with the nature, origin, scope and
(possibility/study) of knowledge. Dealing with nature, is one of the branches of philosophy. But
before anything is done, the meaning of philosophy should be understood. A philosopher of religion
must be objective. Anyone who is ready to study philosophy should be able to attack and defend.In
other definitions logic is the study of reasoning . It can also be described as the study of strength of
the evident links between the premises and the conclusion.Logic is further divided into deductive
reasoning and inductive reasoning . Deductive reasoning proceeds from a general statement to a
particular statement , it is mostly a valid argument given that is tautological in nature this means that
the conclusion bares no new knowledge that it is missing in the premises . Inductive argument this
reasoning perceives from a particular statement to a general statement this reasoning is mostly
uterlised in the scientific researches

Metaphysics[edit]
Metaphysics however (derived from the Greek words " meta & physika ") - meaning 'after physics'. It
was the way students referred to a specific book in the works of Aristotle, and it was a book on First
Philosophy. (The assumption that the word means "beyond physics" is misleading) Metaphysics is
the branch of philosophy concerned with the study of "first principles" and "being" (ontology). In other
words, Metaphysics is the study of the most general aspects of reality, pertaining to subjects such as
substance, identity, the nature of the mind, and free will. It is a study of nature, the nature of reality,
and the nature of the world in which humans live.

Logic[edit]
Logic (from Classical Greek λόγος (logos), originally meaning the word, or what is spoken, but
coming to mean thought or reason is most often said to be the study of arguments. Logic is the study
of correct reasoning. However the subject is grounded, the task of the logician is the same: to
advance an account of valid and fallacious inference to allow one to distinguish.

Ethics[edit]
Ethics is a general term for what is often described as the "science (study) of morality". In
philosophy, ethical behavior is that which is "good" or "right". The Western tradition of ethics is
sometimes called moral philosophy.Its the study of right and wrong in human endeavors

Aesthetics[edit]
Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy that explores the creation and appreciation of beauty through
critical analysis and reflection.

Other Branches[edit]
Philosophy of Education: Fairly self-explanatory. A minor branch, mainly concerned with what is
the correct way to educate a person. Classic works include Plato's Republic, Locke's Thoughts
Concerning Education, and Rousseau's Emile.
Philosophy of History: Fairly minor branch (not as minor as education), although highly important
to Hegel and those who followed him, most notably Marx. It is the philosophical study of history,
particularly concerned with the question whether history (i.e. the universe and/or humankind) is
progressing towards a specific end? Hegel argued that it was, as did Marx. Classic works include
Vico's New Science, and Hegel and Marx's works.
Philosophy of Language: Ancient branch of philosophy which gained prominence in the last
century under Wittgenstein. Basically concerned with how our languages affect our thought.
Wittgenstein famously asserted that the limits of our languages mark the limits of our thought.
Classic works include Plato's Cratylus, Locke's Essay, and Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-
Philosophicus.
Philosophy of Law: Also called Jurisprudence. Study of law attempting to discern what the best
laws might be, how laws came into being in the first place, attempting to delimit human laws from
natural laws, whether we should always obey the law, and so on. Law isn't often directly dealt with
by philosophers, but much of political philosophy obviously has a bearing on it.
Philosophy of Mathematics: Concerned with issues such as, the nature of the axioms and symbols
(numbers, triangle, operands) of mathematics that we use to understand the world, do perfect
mathematical forms exist in the real world, and so on. Principia Mathematica is almost certainly the
most important work in this field.
Philosophy of Mind: Study of the mind, attempting to ascertain exactly what the mind is, how it
interacts with our body, do other minds exist, how does it work, and so on. Probably the most
popular branch of philosophy right now, it has expanded to include issues of AI. Classic works
include Plato's Republic and Wittgenstein's Philosophical Investigations, although every major
philosopher has had some opinion at least on what the mind is and how it works.
Philosophy of Politics: Closely related to ethics, this is a study of government and nations,
particularly how they came about, what makes good governments, what obligations citizens have
towards their government, and so on. Classic works include Plato's Republic, Hobbes' Leviathan,
Locke's Two Treatises, and J.S. Mill's On Liberty.
Philosophy of Religion: Theology is concerned with the study of God, recommending the best
religious practises, how our religion should shape our life, and so on. Philosophy of religion is
concerned with much the same issues, but where Theology uses religious works, like the Bible, as
its authority, philosophy likes to use reason as the ultimate authority.
Philosophy of Science: It is the Study of science concerned with whether scientific knowledge can
be said to be certain, how we obtain it, can science really explain everything, does causation really
exist, can every event in the universe be described in terms of physics and so on. Also popular in
recent times, classic works include Hume's Treatise on Human Nature, Kripke's Naming and
Necessity, Kuhn's Structure of Scientific Revolutions.
Introduction to Philosophy/What is
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Definition & Meaning[edit]

The word Philosophy is derived from two Greek words; Philo meaning love and Sophia meaning
wisdom. In general, it means love of wisdom. Philosophy is a broad field of knowledge in which the
definition of knowledge itself is one of the subjects investigated. It spans the nature of the universe,
the mind, and the body; the relationships between all three, and between people. Philosophy is a
field of inquiry – the pursuit of wisdom; the predecessor and complement of science, developing the
issues which underlie science and pondering those questions which are beyond the scope of
science.

Using Philosophy[edit]
The essence of philosophy is the study and development of fundamental ideas and methods that are
not adequately addressed in specialized empirical disciplines, such as physics or history. As such,
philosophy provides the foundations upon which all belief structures and fields of knowledge are
built. It is responsible for the definitions of, and the approaches used to develop the theories of, such
diverse fields as religion, language, science, law, psychology, mathematics, and politics. It also
examines and develops its own structure and procedures, and when it does so is
called metaphilosophy: the philosophy of philosophy.
Philosophy has a rich literary heritage, including the writings and teachings of profound thinkers from
many cultures throughout history. Philosophers seek to understand the principles that underlie
all knowledge and being. For this purpose, they develop methods of thinking,
including logic, introspection, and meditation. Applying these methods, they investigate the most
fundamental questions, such as "What is the nature of the universe?" (metaphysics), "What do
we know, and how do we know it?" (epistemology), "What is the difference between good and evil?"
(ethics), "What is beauty?" (aesthetics), and "What is the meaning of life?" (teleology).

Philosophical Perspectives & Traditions[edit]

'What is philosophy', is itself a philosophical question. This is a clue to the nature of philosophy. It is
very general in scope; so general that it, perhaps uniquely among the disciplines, includes itself in its
scope. What is clear is that philosophy is, in some sense, thinking about thinking.
In the analytic tradition of Europe and its subsequent transplanting to the Americas, philosophy has
reinvented itself with a new set of techniques that would be out of place in the world of the ancient
Greeks, where philosophy started. It centres on logic and conceptual analysis. Topics at its centre
include the theory of knowledge, ethics, the nature of language, and the nature of mind.
Earlier traditions of philosophy placed more emphasis on the study of the arts and science of life: a
general theory and a commendation of way of life. In this sense, philosophy is concerned with
the practical bits of how to live rather than a theoretical attempt to understand. This legacy was
derived from some of the earliest philosophers known to us: the Sophists, who were the teachers of
rhetoric, grammar and science of the ancient world. Though somewhat akin to sages these Sophists
played an important role in the development of philosophy.
In the subsequent analytic tradition that developed after the Sophists, philosophy became a subject
you could pursue for purely abstract and metaphysical reasons. In the Sophist tradition, philosophy
is a body of knowledge to be mastered with which you could gain power or reward. It is possible to
exaggerate these differences for when philosophy is not dogma each tradition pays some homage to
the other.
In the Western world, at one time the term 'philosophy' covered all disciplines. Over time, as the
corpus of human knowledge grew, various disciplines emerged, each with their own methodologies
and domains of study, and these disciplines became to a large extent autonomous. For example, if
you go into a public library that uses the Dewey decimal classification system, you will find that
psychology books have a classmark starting with 150 - right in the middle of the philosophy section.
This is because at the time the system was created, in the latter half of the 19th century, psychology
was only just beginning to emerge as a distinct discipline. Another example is the term 'natural
philosophy', which was once used to mean science, or more particularly physics. By this view, what
is called 'philosophy' at any time in history are those provinces of human knowledge which have not
yet come of age, which not yet developed their own autonomous character and status.
These independent disciplines do have their own philosophies; so there is a philosophy of science, a
philosophy of mathematics, a philosophy of psychology, and so on. When studying in these areas,
one looks at methodological issues or examines some of the core concepts of the discipline, as well
as various ethical issues.
There are domains which definitely belong in a philosophy department. Epistemology is concerned
with 'how do I know what I know?', Ontology with 'what is real?', Ethics with 'how should one conduct
oneself?'. Logic is concerned with proper reasoning. Many other disciplines exist within philosophy.
Etymology[edit]
The term philosophy is derived from the Greek words phylos meaning "to love" and sophie meaning
"wisdom".

Introduction to Philosophy[edit]
In the Phaedo, Socrates says that philosophy is a preparation for the death that awaits us all. When
the mind is engaged in philosophy it is free of concerns and dwells in the domain of ideas. Our
minds enter a spiritual region transcending the death of our corporeal experience. Another, better
known, view of Socrates is that of philosophy as ‘the love of wisdom’. This love discovers truth, and
we become wise by practical application in our daily lives of what has been discovered.
These definitions highlight the nature of philosophical inquiry. Philosophers ask questions. These
questions try to understand the metaphysical and physical universe including humans and their
world

Pre-Socratics[edit]
The history of philosophy in the west begins with the Greeks, and particularly with a group of
philosophers commonly called the pre-Socratics. This is not to deny the occurrence of other pre-
philosophical rumblings in Egyptian and Babylonian cultures. Certainly great thinkers and writers
existed in each of these cultures, and we have evidence that some of the earliest Greek
philosophers may have had contact with at least some of the products of Egyptian and Babylonian
thought. However, the early Greek thinkers added at least one element which differentiates their
thoughts from all those who came before them. For the first time in history, we discover in their
writings something more than dogmatic assertions about the ordering of the world - we find
reasoned arguments for various beliefs about the world.
Thales[edit]
Thales (in Greek: Θαλης) of Miletus (circa 624 BC - 546 BC), also known as Thales the Milesian,
was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher. Many regard him as the first philosopher in the Greek
tradition. He has also been traditionally considered the father of science, although it is also
contended that the beginnings of science may be traced to Ancient Egypt.
Life[edit]
Thales lived in the city of Miletus, in Ionia, now western Turkey. According to Herodotus, he was of
Phoenician descent.
The well-traveled Ionians had many dealings with Egypt and Babylon; Thales may have studied in
Egypt as a young man. In any event, Thales almost certainly had exposure to Egyptian mythology,
astronomy, and mathematics, as well as to other traditions alien to the Homeric traditions of Greece.
Perhaps because of this, his inquiries into the nature of things extends beyond traditional mythology.
Several anecdotes suggest that Thales was not solely a thinker; he was involved in business and
politics. One story recounts that he bought all the olive presses in Miletus after predicting the
weather and a good harvest for a particular year. Another version of this same story states that he
bought the presses to demonstrate to his fellow Milesians that he could use his intelligence to enrich
himself. Herodotus recorded that Thales advised the city-states of Ionia to form a federation.
Thales is said to have died in his seat, while watching an athletic contest.
Theories and influence[edit]
Before Thales, the Greeks explained the origin and nature of the world through myths of
anthropomorphic gods and heroes. Phenomena like lightning or earthquakes were attributed to the
actions of the gods.
By contrast, Thales attempted to find naturalistic explanations of the world, without reference to the
supernatural. He explained earthquakes by imagining that the Earth floats on water and that
earthquakes occur when the Earth is rocked by waves. Herodotus cites him as having predicted the
solar eclipse of 585 BC that put an end to the fighting between the Lydians and the Medes.
Thales's most famous belief was his cosmological doctrine, which held that the world originated from
water. It is sometimes assumed that Thales considered everything to be made from water.
According to others, however, it's likely that while Thales saw water as an origin, he never pondered
whether water continued to be the substance of the world.
Many philosophers followed Thales's lead in searching for explanations in nature rather than in the
supernatural; others returned to supernatural explanations, but couched them in the language of
philosophy rather than myth or religion.
Thales is credited for having first popularized Geometry to ancient Greek culture, mainly that of
spatial relationships.
The best explanation of Thales's view is the following passage from Aristotle's Metaphysics (983
BC). The passage is given in translation with key phrases transliterated from the Greek for the
reader's benefit. The reader will see in the transliteration words from the theory of matter and form
that were adopted by science with quite different meanings. The translation is somewhat literal, for
purposes of accuracy.
"That from which is everything that exists (ta onta) and from which it first becomes (ex hou
gignetai protou) and into which it is rendered at last (eis ho phtheiretai teleutaion), its
substance remaining under it (tes men ousias hypomenouses), but transforming in qualities
(pathesi metaballouses), that they say is the element (stoicheion) and principle (archen) of
things that are (ton onton)."
And again:
"For it is necessary (dei) that there be some nature (physin), either one or more than one,
from which become (gignetai) the other things (t'alla) of the object being preserved
(sozomenes ekeines)... Thales says that it is water (hydor)."
Aristotle's depiction of the change problem and the definition of substance could not be
more clear. If an object changes, is it the same or different? In either case how can there be
a change (metabollein) from one to the other? The answer is the substance (ousia or
physis), which "is saved", but acquires or loses different qualities (pathe, the things you
"experience").
A deeper dip into the waters of the theory of matter and form is properly reserved to other
articles. The question for this article is, how far does Aristotle reflect Thales? He was
probably not far off, and Thales was probably an incipient matter-and-formist.
The essentially non-philosophic DL states that Thales taught as follows:
"Water constituted (hypestesato, "stood under") the principle of all things."
Heraclitus Homericus (Quaes. Hom. 22, not the same as Heraclitus of Ephesus) states
that Thales drew his conclusion from seeing moist substance (hygra physis) turn into air,
slime and earth. It seems clear that Thales viewed the Earth as solidifying from the
water on which it floated and which surrounded it as Ocean.
 Thales applied his method to objects that changed to become other objects, such as
water into earth (he thought). But what about the changing itself? Thales did address
the topic, approaching it through magnets and amber--which, when electrified by
rubbing, attracts in the same way.
How was the power to move other things without the mover’s changing to be explained?
Thales saw a commonality with the powers of living things to act. The magnet and the
amber must be alive, and if that were so, there could be no difference between the living
and the dead. When asked why he didn’t die if there was no difference, he replied
“because there is no difference.”
Aristotle defined the soul as the principle of life, that which permeates the matter and
makes it live, giving it the animation, or power to act. The idea did not originate with him,
as the Greeks in general believed in the distinction between mind and matter, which was
ultimately to lead to a distinction not only between body and soul but also between
matter and energy.
If things were alive, they must have souls. This belief was no innovation, as the ordinary
ancient populations of the Mediterranean did believe that natural actions were caused
by divinities. Accordingly, the sources say that Thales believed all things possessed
divinities. In their zeal to make him the first in everything they said he was the first to
hold the belief, which even they must have known was not true.
However, Thales was looking for something more general, a universal substance of
mind. That also was true to the polytheism of the times. Zeus was the very
personification of supreme mind, dominating all the subordinate manifestations. From
Thales on, however, philosophers had a tendency to depersonify or objectify mind, as
though it were the substance of animation per se and not actually a god like the other
gods. The end result was a total removal of mind from substance, opening the door to a
non-divine principle of action. This tradition persisted until Einstein, whose cosmology is
quite a different one and does not distinguish between matter and energy.
Classical thought, however, had proceded only a little way along that path. Instead of
referring to the person, Zeus, they talked about the great mind:
"Thales", says Cicero, "assures that water is the principle of all things; and that God is that
Mind which shaped and created all things from water." (Cicero:"De Nat.Deorum,"i.,10.)
The universal mind appears as a Roman belief in Vergil as well:
"In the beginning, SPIRIT within strengthens Heaven and Earth,
The watery fields, and the lucid globe of Lina, and then --
Titan stars; and mind infused through the limbs
Agitates the whole mass, and mixes itself with GREAT MATTER"
(Virgil: "Aeneid," vi., 724 ff.)
Socrates[edit]
Socrates (c.470 – 399 BC) (Greek Σωκράτης Sōkrátēs) was a
Greek (Athenian) philosopher.
Like Thales and the other pre-Socratics, Socrates too had the
ambition to ask questions of life. However, where the pre-
Socratics were more concerned with the cosmological
questions, Socrates was concerned with questions of the
following nature: What is piety? What kind of life is worthwhile
for a human to live? Can virtue be taught? What is justice? Is
there more than one's virtue? What is human excellence?
Socrates did not actually write any of these ideas down. The
only written information about his philosophy can be found in
the dialogues of Plato and Xenophon. These dialogues deal
mostly with questions of the good life, human excellence, and
the cultivation of knowledge. One of Plato's most important and
best known works is "The Republic" in which we find the
allegory of The Cave that explains the difference between
perceived reality and "real" reality which, according to Plato,
can only be found in the realm of ideas. More: Greek
Philosophy: Socrates
  What is Philosophy?
 Why is it called a science?
 What can we get from philosophizing?
 What are the prevailing attitudes toward it?
 What are the primary objectives in studying Philosophy of Man?

 Philosophy is a science because it is based on knowledge, not on mere

opinion, theory or hypothesis.

 Philosophy is a science of beings (things) – it covers all things which can be

apprehended by the human mind, that is:

1. Philosophy enables us to understand ourselves better.

2. Philosophy helps us understand others, our fellowmen.
3. Philosophy helps us understand others’ way of thinking.
4. Philosophy helps us understand the world and our place and role in it.
5. Philosophy helps us understand the significance, meaning, value, and finality of
human life.
6. Philosophy helps us know and understand God in His nature, essence, activities,
and attributes.

Five Views on Philosophyaccording to Harold

H. Titus and Marilyn S. Smith
1. Philosophy is difficult to understand.
2. It is impractical or “out of touch with reality.”
3. There is no progress in philosophy, for even philosophers disagree with one
another.
I. Speculative Philosophy – philosophy which considers beings for the sole purpose of
acquiring knowledge of them.
(a) Rational Philosophy or Logic – the science and art of correct thinking.
(b) Real Speculative Philosophy – science which considers real being, that is, all
beings which have their own nature.
(1) Philosophy of Nature – mobile being endowed with physical motion.
(2) Metaphysics – it deals with human reality and system of human thought that
seeks to explain the fundamental concept of man.
1. Epistemology – the study of the origin, structures, methods, nature, limit and
veracity that includes truth, reliability, and validity of human knowledge.
2. Cosmology – origin and development of the cosmos
3. Aesthetics – the study of what is beautiful
4. Philosophical Psychology – the science of mind, mental state and processes.
5. Theodicy – philosophical study of God
6. Social Philosophy – the study of man in relation to family, state and church.

 In general, Philosophy of Man is a course that deals with man; man is the
superstar in the Philosophy of Man.
 Philosophy of Man is one’s desire to know who and what man is.
 Philosophy of Man delves into the origin of human life, the nature of human life
and the reality of human existence.

Philosophy of Man
Is the theoretical and reflective study of human being, which intends to gain
interpretive and prescriptive knowledge regarding the meaning and value of human
nature, personhood, existence and condition.
1. Philosophy of Man gives us a broader horizon in understanding ourselves, others,
and God.
2. Philosophy of Man helps us to identify the points of divergence and convergence
between us and the animals and between us and the plants.
3. Philosophy of Man helps us understand better our nature, the meaning of our
existence, our point of origin, and out terminal point who is God.
4. Philosophy of Man exposes us to a thorough and deeper understanding of
ourselves as unique dipartite creatures; that we are the substantial unity of body and
soul.
5. Philosophy of Man enables us to encounter the diverse views of different
philosophers concerning our nature, our uniqueness, and our role in the whole
spectrum of God’s creation.
5. Philosophy as an activity, both critical and analytical

Etymological definition
Philosophy is one of the noblest activities in which we can engage because it
promotes wisdom in our lives.
It investigates and presents evidenced, systematically-arranged, and complete body
of knowledge or truth.
The interest of philosophy is not only limited to all living beings but also it
incorporates inanimate objects and covers a wide range of examination on issues on
justice, conscience, reason, the incorruptible soul, and the Summum Deum.
*American Philosopher & Theologian

Primary Objectives
"The literal definition gives us the idea that a person who takes part in studying
Philosophical subjects is a man who loves wisdom."

*James Porter Moreland

Other Branches of Philosophy
2. Philosophy as a method of reflective thinking and reasoned inquiry.

The Meaning of Philosophy

 It is through reason that a thing is known and understood.

The Meaning of Philosophy

A cause is something from which other things come.

Philosophy: Its Nature and Place in Society

II. Practical Philosophy – is a philosophy, which considers how man naturally ought
to act to attain his ultimate end.
(a) Ethics – the science of morality of human acts.
the study of what is right and wrong in man’s behavior in the pursuit of beauty and
goodness in life.
(b) Economics or Domestic Moral – considers the operations of domestic society,
that is, of the family.
(c) Politics – considers the operations of civil society.
Finally, philosophy can be acquired by the aid of human reason alone means that
philosophy bases its knowledge solely on the reasoning power of the human mind,
not on any authority.

Division of Philosophy
 The literal definition of philosophy, then, is the love of wisdom or knowledge.

Real definition
4. Philosophy as logical analysis of language and the clarification of the meaning of
words and concepts.

The Meaning of Philosophy

So why philosophize?

The Meaning of Philosophy

Attitudes Towards Philosophy
1. Philosophy as personal attitude towards life and the universe.
“THINKING which aims at maximum connected truth about all available experience.”
3. Philosophy as an attempt to gain a view of the whole.

Miriam Defensor – Santiago

Philosophy obliges the person to pursue the process of search and discovery.
No other being except man can know himself.

Mr. Erwin Rivera Mercado

Instructor
The Purposes of Philosophy
 RELIGION tells you there is a heaven.

 SCIENCE describes HOW the heavens work.

 PHILOSOPHY teaches you

WHAT,
WHERE, and…
HOW to get there.
a)anything that exists,
b) is going to exist,
c) can be thought of,
d) is known.
We have to…It is our mission. God-by giving us a mind-consigns us to philosophize so
that we can understand ourselves, others, the world, and Him better than we believe
we do.
"Philosophy is the attempt to think rationally and critically about life’s most
important questions in order to obtain knowledge and wisdom about them."
The science of beings (things) in their ultimate reasons, causes and principles
acquired by the aid of human reason alone.

The Meaning of Philosophy of Man

The Purposes of Philosophy
Philosophy of Human Person
“Think Out of the Box”
  Philosophy as science of beings in their ultimate reasons, causes and
principles.

Philosophy of Man
 The term “philosophy” is derived from the Greek philos/philia meaning “love,”
and sophia meaning “wisdom” or “knowledge.”

Lecture 1 Introduction to Philosophy

1. 1. LECTURE NO. 1 Presented by: Arnel O. Rivera LPU-Cavite Based on the

presentation of: Mr. Alexander Rodis
2. 2. MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY The word philosophy is derived from the
Greek words philia (love) and sophia (wisdom) and means “the love of
wisdom.” Pythagoras was said to have been the first man to call himself a
philosopher; in fact, the world is indebted to him for the word philosopher.
It is said that when Leon, the tyrant of Philius, asked him of who he was,
he said, “a Philosopher” and he likened the Philosopher to spectators at
ancient games. Before that time the wise men had called themselves a
sage, which was interpreted to mean those who know. Pythagoras was
more modest. He coined the word philosopher, which he defined as one
who is attempting to find out. According to him, men and women of the
world could be classified into 3 groups: 1. those that love pleasure 2.
those that love activity and 3. those that love wisdom.
3. 3. MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY Philosophy is the study of general and
fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence,
knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is the rational
attempt to formulate, understand, and answer fundamental questions.
4. 4. NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY 1. Philosophy is a set of views or beliefs
about life and the universe, which are often held uncritically. We refer to
this meaning as the informal sense of philosophy or “having” a philosophy.
 Usually when a person says “my philosophy is,” he or she is referring to an
informal personal attitude to whatever topic is being discussed.
5. 5. NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY 2. Philosophy is a process of reflecting on
and criticizing our most deeply held conceptions and beliefs. These two
senses of philosophy— “having” and “doing”— cannot be treated entirely
independent of each other, for if we did not have a philosophy in the
formal, personal sense, then we could not do a philosophy in the critical,
reflective sense. Having a philosophy, however, is not sufficient for doing
philosophy. A genuine philosophical attitude is searching and critical; it is
open-minded and tolerant—willing to look at all sides of an issue without
prejudice. To philosophize is not merely to read and know philosophy;
there are skills of argumentation to be mastered, techniques of analysis to
be employed, and a body of material to be appropriated such that we
become able to think philosophically. Philosophers are reflective and
critical.
6. 6. NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY 3. Philosophy is a rational attempt to look at
the world as a whole. Philosophy seeks to combine the conclusions of the
various sciences and human experience into some kind of consistent
world view. Philosophers wish to see life, not with the specialized slant of
the scientist or the businessperson or the artist, but with the overall view
of someone cognizant of life as a totality.
7. 7. NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY 4. Philosophy is the logical analysis of
language and the clarification of the meaning of words and concepts. .
Certainly this is one function of philosophy. In fact, nearly all philosophers
have used methods of analysis and have sought to clarify the meaning of
terms and the use of language. Some philosophers see this as the main
task of philosophy, and a few claim this is the only legitimate function of
philosophy.
8. 8. NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY 5. Philosophy is a group of perennial
problems that interest people and for which philosophers always have
sought answers. Philosophy presses its inquiry into the deepest problems
of human existence. Some of the philosophical questions raised in the
past have been answered in a manner satisfactory to the majority of
philosophers. Many questions, however, have been answered only
tentatively, and many problems remain unsolved.  “What is truth?” 
“What is the distinction between right and wrong?”  What is life and why
am I here?  Why is there anything at all?
9. 9. IMPORTANCE OF PHILOSOPHY 1. The study of Philosophy enables us to
think carefully and clearly about important issues. 2. In studying
Philosophy, we learn to take a step back from our everyday thinking and to
explore the deeper, bigger question which underpins our thought. 3. The
focus in the study of Philosophy is to learn not what to believe, but how to
think. 4. Studying philosophy sharpens your analytical abilities, enabling
you to identify and evaluate the strengths and weaknesses in any position.
5. It hones your ability to construct and articulate cogent arguments of
your own. 6. It prompts you to work across disciplinary boundaries and to
 think flexibly and creatively about problems which do not present
immediate solutions. 7. Because philosophy is an activity as much a body
of knowledge, it also develops your ability to think and work
independently.
10.10. BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY Historically, philosophical concerns have
been treated under these broad categories: 1. Logic 2. Metaphysics 3.
Epistemology 4. Value theory
11.11. A. LOGIC Logic is the systematic study of the rules for the correct use
of these supporting reasons, rules we can use to distinguish good
arguments from bad ones. Most of the great philosophers from Aristotle to
the present have been convinced that logic permeates all other branches
of philosophy. The ability to test arguments for logical consistency,
understand the logical consequences of certain assumptions, and
distinguish the kind of evidence a philosopher is using are essential for
“doing” philosophy
12.12. B. METAPHYSICS Another traditional branch of Philosophy
traditionally known as metaphysics. For Aristotle, the term metaphysics
meant “first philosophy,” discussion of the most universal principles; later
the term came to mean “comprehensive thinking about the nature of
things.” It means, usually, the study or theory of reality. The question of
metaphysics is: what is reality? What is real? Is reality some kind of
“thing”. Is it one or is it many? If it is one, then how is it related to many
things around us? Can ultimate reality be grasped by five senses, or is it
supernatural or transcendent? Metaphysics undoubtedly is the branch of
philosophy that the modern student finds most difficult to grasp.
Metaphysics attempts to offer a comprehensive view of all that exists. It is
concerned with such problems as the relation of mind to matter, the
nature of change, the meaning of “freedom,” the existence of God, and the
belief in personal immortality.
13.13. C. EPISTEMOLOGY The technical term for the theory of knowledge is
epistemology, which comes from the Greek word episteme, meaning
“knowledge.” In general, epistemology is the branch of philosophy that
studies the sources, nature, and validity of knowledge.  There are three
central questions in this field:  (1) What are the sources of knowledge?
Where does genuine knowledge come from or how do we know? This is the
question of origins.  (2) What is the nature of knowledge? Is there a real
world outside the mind, and if so can we know it? This is the question of
appearance versus reality.  (3) Is our knowledge valid? How do we
distinguish truth from error? This is the question of the tests of truth, of
verification.
14.14.  Traditionally, most of those who have offered answers to these
questions can be placed in one of two schools of thought—rationalism or
empiricism.  The rationalists hold that human reason alone can discover
the basic principles of the universe.  The empiricists claim that all
knowledge is ultimately derived from sense experience and, thus, that our
knowledge is limited to what can be experienced.  It should be clear that
 there is a necessary relation between metaphysics and epistemology. Our
conception of reality depends on our understanding of what can be known.
Conversely, our theory of knowledge depends on our understanding of
ourselves in relation to the whole of reality.
15.15. D. VALUE THEORY Value theory is the branch of philosophy that
studies values. It can be subdivided into ethics, aesthetics, and social and
political philosophy. In broad terms ethics concerns itself with the
question of morality. What is right and what is wrong in human relations?
Within morality and ethics there are three major areas: descriptive ethics,
normative ethics, and metaethics. Descriptive ethics seeks to identify
moral experience in a descriptive way. We seek to identify, within the
range of human conduct, the motives, desires, and intentions as well as
overt acts themselves.
16.16. ETHICS  Descriptive ethics consider the conduct of individuals, or
personal morality; the conduct of groups, or social morality; and the
culture patterns of national and racial groups.  A second level of inquiry
is normative ethics (what ought to be). Here philosophers try to work out
acceptable judgments regarding what ought to be in choice and value. “We
ought to keep our promises” and “you ought to be honorable” are
examples of normative judgments— of the moral ought, the subject matter
of ethics.  Third, there is the area of critical or metaethics. Here interest
is centered on the analysis and meaning of the terms and language used in
ethical discourse and the kind of reasoning used to justify ethical
statements. Metaethics does not propound any moral principle or goal
(except by implication), but rather consists entirely of philosophical
analysis. What is the meaning of “good?” and Can ethical judgments be
justified? are typical problems for metaethics.
17.17. AESTHETICS Concerns the theory of art and beauty. Questions of art
and beauty are considered to be part of the realm of values because many
philosophical problems in aesthetics involve critical judgments. There are
wide differences of opinion as to what objects call forth the aesthetic
response, and what beauty really is. Our concepts of beauty may differ not
because of the nature of beauty itself, but because of varying degrees of
preparation in discerning beauty. Therefore, if we cannot perceive beauty
in objects that others find beautiful, it may be wise to withhold judgment
until we are capable ourselves of making a competent analysis of the
aesthetic experience.
18.18. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY Social and political philosophy
investigates value judgments concerning society, the state, and the
individual’s relation to these institutions. The following questions reflect
the concerns of social and political philosophy:  Why should individuals
live in society?  What social ideals of liberty, rights, justice, equality and
responsibility are desirable?  Why should anyone obey any government? 
Why should some individuals or groups have political power over others? 
What criteria are to be used in determining who should have political
power?  What criteria are to be used in determining the scope of political
 power, and what rights or freedoms should be immune from political or
legal control?  To what positive goals should political power be directed,
and what are the criteria for determining this?

INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY

1. 1. PHILOSOPHY Prepared by Raizza Corpuz

2. 2. INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY • • • • • • • MEANING NATURE SCOPE
GOALS IMPORTANCE BRANCHES EPOCH
3. 3. WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? WHERE IT BEGINS?
4. 4. REMEMBER • In studying PHILOSOPHY one should KNOW the :
1.Contextualize/ation 2.Basis In this way one can distinguish both
VALIDITY and TRUTH, GENUINE and ESSENTIAL ideals.
5. 5. FROM WONDER TO WANDER
6. 6. “Wasn’t it extraordinary to be in the world right now, wandering around
in a wonderful adventure!” ― Jostein Gaarder, Sophie's World
7. 7. Wonder • To be filled with curiosity or doubt • An event inexplicable by
the laws of nature; a miracle. • A feeling of puzzlement or doubt. Source:
Thesaurus Dictionary
8. 8. Wander: Verb • Walk or move in a leisurely, casual, or aimless way. • An
act or instance of wandering. verb. roam - ramble - rove straynoun.
wandering - stroll - saunter ramble Source: Thesaurus Dictionary
9. 9. • Philosophers’ definition-arises out of wonder, out of curiosity, out of
desire to learn, and to understand things. • According to the Philosopher,
Philosophy is a process of analysis, criticism, interpretation and
speculation • Analysis-if we know how to synthesis and antithesis. •
Synthesis- put idea together or event of the same characteristic. •
Antithesis- remove from or put it out, removing ideas • Criticism- is a
process of commenting or giving a judgment, even if its positive or
negative. • Interpretation-demonstration of ideas. • Speculation-being
satisfied.
10.10. A. Meaning of Philosophy Etymology Etymology- or etymological
definition of Philosophy -derived for Greek words etimos and logos Etimos-
root, origin, cause, basis, history Logos-study Etymology-study of the
history of the word Philosophy comes from the Geek Words Philia and
Sofia. Sofia-wisdom Philia-love, desire for, interest in Philia and Sofia join
by Pythagoras-600 B.C. Episteme-means knowledge Wisdom-defining
deeply, wise, according to etymology -is an awareness of something which
is basic. -knowledge of the basic principle. Knowledge-is only a million
formation -simple data that comes from the outside that pass to our
senses.
11.11. What is Philosophy as a TERM/WORD? The term “philosophy” comes
from the Greek language. It consists of two words : • philos, (love, or philia
)– friendship, affection • sophos (learned scholar, sage, or • sophia -
wisdom, knowledge, talent)
12.12. “philo” - love “sophia” - wisdom THUS: 1. Philosophy is the love of
wisdom 2. Philosophy attempts to answer life's Big Questions 3.
Philosophy is about Questions 4. Philosophers ask Questions about what
people Believe 5. Philosophy is about Examining Ourselves & Our Beliefs
13.13. THERE ARE MANY QUESTIONS but there are SOME BIG QUESTION
What? Why? HOW
14.14. What are the REASONS for a particular belief?
15.15. Have you ever looked in the mirror and asked: The Unexamined Life is
not worth living.” (Socrates) Who am I? Why am I here? What should I do
with my life?
16.16. Have you ever looked in the mirror and asked: OR???
17.17. Examining Our Beliefs Behavior Beliefs and Values World-View I Exist.
Other People Exist. I believe that my friend is real I talk to my friend
18.18. What is ‘Philosophy’?
19.19. BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
20.20. Ethics Religion Epistemology Politics Aesthetics Philosophy Science
Logic Metaphysics Branches of Philosophy
21.21. Branches of Philosophy
22.22. Ethics Questions: How should we live? What is good and evil? What is
the best way to live? What is Justice? Is right and wrong the same
everywhere or different everywhere?
23.23. Ethics
24.24. Epistemology Knowledge Science Explores the nature and limitations
of knowledge Definition of knowledge Investigates how knowledge is
obtained Explores the relationship between belief, truth and knowledge
25.25. Epistemology Questions: What is knowledge? How is knowledge
acquired? How do we know what we know?
26.26. What is Epistemology?
27.27. Epistemological Questions
28.28. Metaphysics Knowledge Science Explores the fundamental nature of
reality and being Ontology Existence Objects Properties Space and Time
Cause and Effect
29.29. Metaphysics Questions: What is real? What is reality? What is reality
like?
30.30. Metaphysics
31.31. Politics Political Philosophy Explores the relationship between
citizens and governments Liberty Legal Justice Property Ownership
Citizen's Rights System of Law
32.32. Politics Questions: How should government be organized? What
makes a government legitimate? Who decides who the leaders should be?
What laws are good and necessary? How should law be enforced?
33.33. Aesthetics Sensori-Emotional Values Explores the nature of beauty,
art, and taste with the creation and appreciation of beauty
34.34. Aesthetics Questions What is beauty? What is art? What is the value
of beauty and art? Who should judge what is beautiful or artistic? How
should art and beauty be judged?
35.35. Aesthetics Discussion: On the left is Marcel Duchamp's ready-made
“sculpture” called “Fountain”. It's a factorymade urinal on a stand. Is this
“Art”? Why / Why not? Is it beautiful? Offensive? Why?
36.36. Logic Rules for Thinking The systematic principles (or rules) for
thinking rationally. Inferences are made by construction of Arguments
Rules of Logic determine which arguments are VALID and which are
FALACIES
37.37. Logic
38.38. Religion Philosophy of Religion Branch of philosophy concerned with
questions regarding religion Nature & Existence of God Theology
Examination of Religious Experience Analysis of Religious language and
texts Relationship between Religion and Science
39.39. Religion Questions Does God exist? What is God? What is the nature of
the relationship between God and humans? Is God active in the world?
How? Is there life after death? What is the relationship between Religion
and Ethics? ...Religion and Science?
40.40. Religion Pantheism What is God? God is the Universe and the Universe
is God. There is no distinction between God and the universe (nature).
Some forms of Buddhism are examples of pantheism.
41.41. Religion Panentheism What is God? God is in the Universe and the
Universe is in God God is more than the Universe. God and the Universe
are connected but not identical.
 42.42. Philosophy of Science Science Concerned with the assumptions,
foundations, methods and implications of science. Empirical Verification
Inductive Logic Objectivity of the Observer
43.43. Philosophy of Science Questions What is the natural world? How
should we study nature? What methods are useful in the study of nature?
Can science establish Natural Laws which are absolute (true everywhere
and for everyone)? What are the limits of scientific knowledge?
44.44. THANK YOU!!! –END--

Nature of philosophy

1. 1. NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY Mrs. Lorraine S.Almario

2. 2.  One cannot simply divorce himself/herself from philosophy.  The
moment someone starts asking anything about his/her environment,
himself/herself, and his/her society, this person in already philosophizing.
3. 3.  It is in the nature of philosophy that a person inquires for the meaning
of himself/herself and the world around him/her.  It inquires about the
entire breadth of reality, and gives a purely rational explanation of its
totality.
4. 4. General Statements that attempt to explain philosophy 1. Philosophy
integrates itself with other disciplines to achieve a comprehensive and
coherent world view. 2. Philosophy analyzes the very foundations of other
disciplines. 3. Philosophy analyzes and criticizes treasured beliefs and
traditions.
5. 5. What is Philosophy? (Christine Carmela Ramos - REX)  Greek words:
philo – to love, sophia – wisdom  science that by natural light of reason
studies the first causes or highest principles of all things
6. 6. Things to be considered:  Science  investigation is systematic 
follows certain steps / employs certain procedures  organized body of
knowledge just like any other sciences
7. 7.  Natural light of Reason  investigates things not by using any other
laboratory instrument or investigative tools, neither on the basis of
supernatural revelation  uses his natural capacity to think or simply
human reason alone (unaided reason)
8. 8.  Study of All things  Philosopher studies human beings, society,
religion, language, God, and plants  not one dimensional or partial
9. 9.  a philosopher does not limit himself to a particular object of inquiry 
questions almost anything, if not everything  multidimensional or holistic
10.10.  Early Greek philosophers studied aspects of the natural and human
world that later became separate sciences – astronomy, physics,
psychology, and sociology.
11.11. What is Philosophy? (Nuelan A. Magbanua – BRILLIANT CREATIONS) 
Discovery of philosophy may be attributed to Pythagoras of Samos who
was the first to use the term “philosopher.”  There is a big difference
between being a lover of wisdom and a mere receiver of knowledge.  For
philosophers, they aim to be wise in almost all aspects of human
discipline, inquiring and investigating all forms of human phenomena.
12.12.  Certain basic problems – the nature of the universe, the standard of
justice, the validity of knowledge, the correct application of reason, and
the criteria of beauty – have been the domain of philosophy from its
beginnings
13.13.  They seek to answer the questions of the world, not because they
are forced to do so, but because they are passionate in their quest for
wisdom.  Philosophers are known to be entities or beings of wisdom, for
their teachings helped shed light to the many questions of humankind.
14.14.  Their wisdom stood the test of time and were even immortalized
that up to this day, they become the bases of the people’s judgments and
decisions.  Philosophy is a field of study that desires to understand and
comprehend the mysteries of reality, to unveil the nature of truth, and
examine the significance of life.
15.15.  It also became the story of people who never cease to wonder,
inquire, and investigate about everything and anything under the sun.
16.16. What is Philosophy (Sioco & Vinzons - VIBAL)  Philosophy is a mother
discipline out if which the other sciences emerge.  During ancient times,
in Greek Ionia, any investigation regarding the nature of things would be
labeled as ‘phusis’ or nature.  Back then, there was no distinction
between science, philosophy, or religion.
17.17.  Before philosophy, the ancient Greeks were so engrossed with their
myths about their gods and goddesses such an extent that in order to
please the gods and grant their wishes, they would offer some token.
18.18.  Around 650 BC, a man from a fishing village in Miletus –Thales
started to diverge from the mythological tradition and sought to answer
questions like:  What is the underlying substance that reality is made of? 
How do things come to be, change and pass away?  Is there something
that remains amidst all these changes?
19.19.  Thales was the first man in recorded history to veer away from
mythological tradition and began to view things in different angle.
20.20. HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY 7th Century B.C.
21.21.  Milesians  Thales - water  Anaximander - infinite/apeiron 
Heraclitus – fire  "Strife is the father of all."  Anaxagoras  "There is a
portion of everything in everything" -- earliest theory of infinite divisibility.
22.22. Late 7th Century B.C. to Early 5th Century B.C.
23.23.  Pre-Socratics  Empedocles - water, air, fire, and earth  Parmenides
- the world is a uniform solid, spherical in shape; "Being is, Non-Being is
not"; empty space cannot exist if all things are made of basic stuff
24.24.  Zeno of Elea - paradoxes of space and motion  Euclid - logic and
mathematical theory  Pythagoras - numbers  Plato'sTheory of Forms was
 greatly influenced by Parmenides' notion of the One and by the
mathematical conclusions of Pythagoras.
25.25. 6th Century B.C.
26.26.  Eastern prophets & moral teachers  Lao-Tse - The Buddha, a title
meaning "the enlightened one," said life itself is marked by suffering, and
that the path to transcendence (nirvana) lay in avoiding the extremes of
self-indulgence and self-mortification.
27.27.  Confucius - Confucius' ethics centered on the ideas of benevolence,
filial piety, and reciprocity (treating others as one would wish to be
treated)
28.28.  Buddha - discerned an underlying reality of all things, the
understanding of which depends on emptying one's soul and focusing on
"TheWay," orTao
29.29. Early 5th Century B.C. to Late 4th Century B.C.
30.30.  Socrates  Socrates developed a method of questioning designed to
expose weaknesses in the interrogated (sometimes referred to as the
maieutic method, in which the questioner acts as a midwife, helping to
give birth to others' thoughts).
31.31.  He believed circumspect use of language and endless self-
questioning are crucial in the quest for wisdom.  Teacher of Plato, world-
sage in outlook, he saw philosophy as a way of life, the highest calling of a
select few. For him the highest good is knowledge.  He wrote nothing but
dramatically influenced the course of intellectual history.
32.32.  Plato  Plato, teacher of Aristotle, set forth his philosophy in
dialogues, chief protagonist of which was Socrates, his mentor; he
founded the Academy (c. 387 BC), perhaps the first institution of learning
in the western world.
33.33.  Most famous for hisTheory of Forms (phenomenal world of matter
just an imperfect reflection of an immutable, transcendental world of
ideas).  Plato believed that knowledge is a process of remembering; the
objects of knowledge are ideal and immutable.
34.34.  Aristotle  Aristotle theorized on a vast range of subjects: biology,
ethics, logic, metaphysics, politics, &c.  He founded the Lyceum and
tutored Alexander the Great.  He's considered history's first logician and
biologist.
35.35.  His thinking influenced numerous theologians and philosophers,
including St. Augustine andThomas Aquinas.  He was a naturalist who
revised Plato's theory of form and matter; for Aristotle, the form is what
makes matter what it is (as the soul defines a living body).
36.36.  He put forth two general principles of proof: the excluded middle
(everything must either have or not have a given characteristic), and the
law of contradiction (nothing can both have and not have a given
characteristic).
37.37. Middle 4th Century B.C. to Early 3rd Century B.C.
38.38.  Epicurus/Epicureanism –  known mostly for hedonistic ethical
system in which pleasure is the highest good  (Epicurus: "Eat, drink, and
be merry for tomorrow you will die.")
39.39.  Quality of pleasure more important than mere quantity.  Epicureans
defended an atomistic view of the world (i.e., things are made up of
minute, indivisible particles that move about in a void).  Epicurus believed
there are infinitely many worlds (what we call "galaxies" today).
40.40. EarlyThird Century B.C. to Third Century A.D.
41.41.  Stoics  Zeno  Seneca  Epictetus  Marcus Aurelius
42.42.  Name Stoicism derived from stoa, or porch, where the movement's
founder Zeno (not Zeno of Elea) taught.  Everything happens for a reason,
so that the goal of life should be acquiescence to divine laws, not
resistance.
43.43.  God is immanent in all matter, creates a harmonious order.  Later
Roman Stoics affirmed same themes: need for harmony in one's life, for
spiritual growth which ideally would exist in seclusion from the everyday
hassles of society.
44.44. Late Fifth Century B.C. to Second Century A.D.
45.45.  Skeptics  Pyrrho of Elis,  Timon  Antisthenes, and later,  Sextus
Empiricus
46.46.  Avoided doctrines and dogmas and sought to criticize existing
ideas.  Nothing is truly knowable; doubt is the most tenable disposition of
mind (Pyrrho).
47.47.  Important harbinger of later empiricism, of the modern scientific
method, of religious agnosticism.  Profoundly influenced later
philosophers (Descartes, Hume, Santayana among them).
48.48. Fourth Century B.C. to Sixth Century A.D. (not a continuous school)
49.49.  Cynics  Diogenes  Antisthenes
50.50.  Name "Cynic" comes from nickname given Diogenes: the Dog. 
Cynical philosophy unrelated to modern acceptation of the term (view that
people act self- centeredly in pursuit of narrow aims).
51.51.  According to the older Greek philosophy, happiness is found in
virtuous action; goods in the external world (wealth, fame, pleasure,
individualistic ambitions) are unnatural and harmful.
52.52. First Century A.D. to Seventeenth Century A.D. (for various Christian
philosophies)
53.53.  Christian & Arabian Philosophy  The advent of the Church led to
numerous questions about Jesus' nature, about the nature of God and the
universe, the nature of theTrinity, the question about faith and reason (are
they naturally opposed or naturally complementary?).
54.54.  Philosophical speculation spills over into theological speculation.
Philosophers (e.g., Origen and Clement, Boethius, Plotinus, Augustine,
Avicenna, Averroes, Maimonides, and laterAquinas) are chiefly concerned
with religious questions.
55.55.  Greatest influence on Christianity was Platonism, with its emphasis
on the superiority of the soul (spirit) against all materialistic and bodily
 functions, the belief in a higher, transcendent world (heaven for religious
devotees), belief in Truth andVirtue and acceptance of immutable, perfect
Forms (Jesus being the Form of ideal humanity).
56.56.  Early post-Hellenistic philosophy reached its summit in the Medieval
Period, with the philosophy of Anselm and Aquinas and the poetry of
Dante.
57.57. Late Fifth Century A.D. to Middle Fifteenth Century
58.58.  Medieval Period  Boethius  Abelard  William of Ockham  Averroes
 Maimonides  Anselm  Avicenna  Aquinas  Dante  Duns Scotus
59.59.  advent of scholasticism:  strict adherence to rationalism 
inclination to pore over numerous theological questions  ideas prevalent
in this era: question of universals  debates about existence and essence
60.60.  Birth of Modern Science  Bacon  Copernicus  Kepler  Galileo
61.61. Late 15th to Late 17th Centuries
62.62.  Kepler sought to provide mathematic proofs of Copernicus' views. 
Galileo, an Italian physicist, combined math and science to fashion a new
scientific worldview.  He was the first to use a telescope, the first to
confirm that Copernicus' view was correct.
63.63.  Old views of the world come under scrutiny and are revised (e.g.,
Ptolemaic view that earth is the center of the universe).  Copernicus, a
Polish astronomer, challenged the Ptolemaic view; he said the sun was the
center of our solar system, and that the earth and other planets revolve
around it.
64.64.  The Church at this time looked upon scientific experimentation with
hostility and agitation;Galileo was forced to utter a recantation of his
views, which he did half- heartedly.
65.65.  Francis Bacon, considered the father of science in England, made no
actual discoveries (lawyer, essayist, moral philosopher and man of letters)
but gave voice to the inductive method of science and, more importantly,
to empiricism (pursuit of knowledge by observation and experiment, not by
use of reason alone).
66.66.  This period marked the end of scholasticism, the growth of
intellectual curiosity and freedom, and the belief, however tacit, that
knowledge about the universe can be derived not from revelation, as many
of the scholastics thought, but from direct investigation and observation.
67.67. Early 17th Century to Early 18th Century
68.68.  Modern Philosophy  Hobbes  Descartes  Newton
69.69.  English philosopherThomas Hobbes was influenced by both Bacon
and Galileo.  He set out to construct a "master science" of "nature, man,
and society"; if knowledge of nature is obtainable, Hobbes reasoned,
knowledge of human nature must also be in reach.
70.70.  He steered away from empiricism, however, and sought to formulate
principles of human conduct.  The natural state of all bodies, he
concluded, is motion; material universe is matter in motion. Life is motion
in limbs, nerves, cells, and heart; human feelings, such as desire and
aversion, are motions either towards something or away from it.
71.71.  Descartes, known by many as the Father of modern philosophy,
revisited the themes of skepticism (only thing that he couldn't doubt was
himself thinking, hence cogito ergo sum);  He made landmark
contributions to mathematics , Cartesian geometry.
72.72. Mid 17th Century to Early 19th Century
73.73.  Second Half Of Modern Period  Spinoza  Leibnitz
74.74.  Cartesian thought proved immediately influential: both Spinoza and
Leibniz shared the Frenchman's passion for ratiocination and developed
metaphysical systems of their own.  Like Descartes, Spinoza and Leibnitz
believed in a rational, benevolentGod.
75.75.  Spinoza wrote the Ethics, whose style took the form of geometrical
analysis; he was a determinist, denied final causes, sought to transcend
the distinction between good and evil altogether, and perhaps most
controversially, equatedGod with creation.  Leibnitz's chief contribution
was the monads or metaphysical units that make up substance.
76.76. Mid 17th Century to Early 19th Century
77.77.  Second Half Of Modern Period  Locke  Berkeley  Hume  Rousseau
 Kant
78.78.  Locke veered away from metaphysical notions and sought instead
an approach encompassing the empiricism of Bacon and the skepticism of
Descartes.  Purpose of philosophy is to formulate and analyze concrete
problems, he said, a view which is strikingly popular in universities today.
79.79.  Locke denied that people are born with innate knowledge; human
beings are born with a tabula rasa, or empty slate, everything
subsequently known coming from sensory experience.
80.80.  George Berkeley, a bishop, attacked Locke's view of knowledge and
instead proposed an idealist system (esse est percipi: to be is to be
perceived).  Matter, Berkeley said, is really only a mental representation
in our mind.
81.81.  Hume assailed Berkeley's views of knowledge and reality and
argued that reason cannot give certain knowledge.  There is no proof of
causality, Hume contended; the skeptical vantage point is the safest to
assume in all questions of truth and knowledge.
82.82.  Rousseau's contribution was less in the field of epistemology, more
in the areas of ethics and political philosophy.  He believed that people
are born good but that society wields a corrupting influence on them.
83.83.  According to Kant, the world of things-in- themselves is unknowable;
the world of appearance, the phenomenal world governed by laws, is
knowable.  Transcendental knowledge is impossible. Kant rejected the
argument of the empiricists that all knowledge is derived from sensory
experience.
84.84. 19th Century
85.85.  Post-KantianThinkers  Schopenhauer  Fichte  Hegel  Marx
86.86.  Schopenhauer thought the driving force of reality isWill. 
Knowledge depends not on reason but Will; to understand reality, we need
to look inward, not outward.
87.87.  Hegel defined the Absolute (unity of God and Mind), popularized the
dialectical approach to truth in which assertion is followed by negation,
which in turn is followed by synthesis.  Hegel held that the external world
is mind: there is no real bridge between the knowing mind and what the
mind knows.
88.88.  Marx excoriated religion, embraced a determinist perspective, and
most of all, saw class conflict and capitalist-driven economic disparity as
the hallmarks of industrial society.
89.89. 19th Century
90.90.  Humanistic Philosophy & Growth of Modern Science  Comte  J.S.
Mill  Darwin
91.91.  French philosopher Auguste Comte is credited with developing
positive philosophy, or positivism, the view that metaphysics is a
meaningless endeavor and that the right emphasis for philosophy should
be along the lines of the scientific method.
92.92.  Influenced by his father, James Mill, and by Jeremy Bentham, J.S.
Mill defended liberty of expression fought for women's rights and
advanced qualitative utilitarianism as a moral philosophy.  Darwin,
another Englishman, is of course best known for The Origin of Species, a
work advancing the theory of evolution and the doctrine of natural
selection.
93.93. 19th And 20th Centuries
94.94.  Nihilism & Existentialism  Kierkegaard  Nietzsche  Heidegger 
Sartre
95.95.  Existentialism: the view that existence precedes essence, that
there's no meaning or value or truth to life a priori.  Kierkegaard, reputed
"founder" of existentialism  Heidegger: idea of death provokes a fear of
nothingness; people hide in inauthentic routines; they seek to renounce
their freedom to act
96.96.  Sartre: human beings are unique because they can both act and be
aware of it at the same time.
97.97. 19th And 20th Centuries
98.98.  American Philosophy  Peirce  James  Dewey
99.99.  C.S. Peirce gives birth to pragmatism (doctrine which sees truth as
the effectiveness of an idea used as an hypothesis; test of truth is whether
idea works when tested by experiment);
100. 100.  William James elaborates upon the doctrine (metaphysics
the enemy of a pragmatist; goal of pragmatism to be clear and precise in
one's thinking; doctrine is empirical in nature).
101. 101.  Dewey another pragmatist, but didn't share James' fondness
for religion or Peirce's interest in metaphysical criticism.  Dewey was
most famous for his progressive contributions to education and his
outspoken criticism of American culture.
102. 102. end