Life Sciences Ssip Learner Booklet Sessions 1-8-2023

SECONDARY SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT
PROGRAMME (SSIP)
GRADE 12
SUBJECT: LIFE SCIENCES
LEARNER’S BOOKLET 2023
SESSIONS 1-8
(Page 1 of 121)
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
A Session 1: Skills needed in Life Sciences 3
B Session 2: DNA: location, structure and 26

function
C Session 3: DNA replication and DNA profiling 36
D Session 4: RNA: location, structure and 48

function.
Protein synthesis
E Session 5: Meiosis 61
F Session 6: Diversity of reproductive 77

strategies & Human reproduction
G Session 7: Gametogenesis & Menstrual cycle 96
H Session 8: Fertilization and implantation 110
2
SESSION 1: SKILLS NEEDED IN LIFE SCIENCES
SECTION A
EXAM GUIDELINE
Orientation to Life Sciences:

 How science work.
Science is based on: • fundamental knowledge built on scientific evidence and
verified findings (articles that are published in journals or at conferences: peer
review); • observing; • investigating; • making measurements and understanding the
importance of scaling; • collecting and presenting data in the form of drawings,
written descriptions, tables and graphs; • understanding the limitations of scientific
evidence; • identifying patterns and relationships in data; • communicating findings;
and • taking societal aspects of scientific evidence into account.
Scientific skills involve: • importance of biological principles such as relationship

between surface area and volume/size, the relationship between structure and
function • biological drawings: principles that apply • translating 3 dimensional
objects or specimens into 2 dimensional drawings and photographs and interpreting
2 dimensional drawings and photographs: transverse and longitudinal sections •
introduction to graphs: different kinds of graphs and when to use them; interpreting
graphs. • calculating
(CAPS, GR.10)
NOTES & EXAM TIPS
1. GRAPHING SKILLS
Graphs and charts condense large amounts of information in a format that is easier
to understand, showing important points clearly and effectively.
LINE GRAPHS
Show the relationship between two types of information where the independent
variable is continuous. Line graphs are useful in showing trends over time and are
often used for biological data.
3
HOW TO DRAW A LINE GRAPH
STEP 1
Identify the dependent and the independent variables from the information you are
given (usually in table format).
• Dependent variable: This is the variable or factor that is being measured, i.e., the
temperature in degrees Celsius in this example.
• Independent variable: This is the variable that the investigator can change. The
dependent variable changes as the independent variable changes, i.e., the time in
hours in this example.
FOR EXAMPLE:
The independent
variable is usually
given in the first
column of the table.
Air temperature recorded over a time period of 24 hours.
Time (hours) Temperature

(°C)
0 16
5 24
9 28
13 26
17 21
20 19
24 17
STEP 2
 Draw a set of axes and label the X and Y-axes.

 The dependent variable goes on the Y-axis and the independent variable on
the X-axis.
 Do NOT forget to label the axes.
 Include the unit in each label, e.g., temperature in oC and time in hours.
4
The independent
variable is usually
plotted on the X-axis.
STEP 3
 Choose a scale for the X and the Y-axes.

 Make sure that the scale includes the highest numbers in the table for each of
the variables.
 Do not use the values for the Y-axis directly from the table unless they have
regular intervals. For EXAMPLE:
The values were taken directly from

the table, there should be intervals,
for example 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 etc. or 5,
10, 15, 20, 25
5
STEP 4
Place a dot at the point where the two values for each result intersect (meet).
In the example, the point where 5 hours and 24 oC intersect on the graph is
indicated by the second dot on the graph. Plot all the points using the information in
the table.
STEP 5
Join the dots using a ruler until all the dots have been joined in sequence.
STEP 6
 Give the graph a heading or caption.

 The heading or caption should include both variables.
 In this case both air temperature and the time period of 24 hours must be
mentioned in the heading.
6
A line graph showing the air temperature measured over a period of 24 hours.
If the graph has two lines on it, then you should draw a key to show what
the different lines represent. For example, if there was another line on this
graph for rainfall, then your key might look like this:
Key: rainfall
temperature
PIE CHARTS
Pie charts are circular charts used to compare parts of the whole. They are divided
into sectors that are equal in size to the quantity represented. They are used for
discontinuous data.
How to draw a pie chart
STEP 1
Add all the data in the table together (Refer to the table below). In this case,
you will add all the numbers in the ‘Number of women’ column to find out how
many women took part in the investigation.
Table of contraceptive use by a sampling group of women
Contraceptive Number of women

Sterilisation 34
Pills 38
7
Condom 22
Rhythmic method 30
None 76
34 + 38 + 22 + 30 + 76 = 200
When you do the calculations for a pie chart, then ‘200’ will be the
denominator (the number that you divide by)
STEP 2
Convert your data to angles. Divide each number by 200, since there are 360o
in a circle, the angles are worked out by multiplying by 360.
34 ⁄ 200 x 360 o = 61.2o (round down to 61o) 30 ⁄ 200 x 360 o = 54o

38 ⁄ 200 x 360 o = 68.4o (round down to 68o) 76 ⁄ 200 x 360 o =136.8o (round
up to 137o)
22 ⁄ 200 x 360 o = 39.6o (round up to 40o)
NB: Check that your calculations are correct. All the degrees should add up
to 360o. In our example:
61 + 68 + 54 + 40 + 137 = 360 o.
If the degrees don’t add up to 360o, you have done something wrong.
Go back and check…
STEP 3
Use a mathematical compass to draw

a circle. Draw in one radius on the
circle. Start at the exact middle of the
circle and draw a line to the edge of
the circle
STEP 4
Use the mathematical protractor to measure out the sectors of the pie chart
according to the angles you calculated in step 2.
8
STEP 5
Label each of the sections of the pie chart with correct information.
In this example, each section should be labelled with the correct method used
by woman (OR provide a key for the different sections).
STEP 6
Give the pie chart a heading or caption. Remember that both variables should
be included in the heading or caption.
In this example the two variables are the type of contraceptive and the
number of women.
9
BAR GRAPHS
Bar graphs show different categories of data and are used when the independent
variable is not a set of continuous numbers or continuous groups (discontinuous
data). They are best used to compare values across categories.
STEP 1
Identify the dependent and the independent variables from the information you are
given (usually in table format).
 Dependent: This is the variable or factor that is being measured.
 Independent: This is the variable that the investigator can change. The
dependent variable changes as the independent variable changes or
being manipulated.
STEP 2
Use the table to identify the dependent and independent variables.
Point number Number of organisms

1 10
2 12
3 8
4 8
5 4
STEP 3
Draw the axes and choose a scale. Note that there will be no units when labelling
the X- and the Y-axes in this particular graph.
10
STEP 4
Draw a bar to show that 10 organisms were found at point number 1 on the river.
STEP 5
Give the graph a heading or caption. The heading or caption should include both
variables. In this case both organisms found in each point along the river must be
mentioned in the heading.
Then draw bars to represent the number of organisms found at each of the points
along the river. Since this is a bar graph, the bars should not touch as the points
along the river have no direct relationship with each other.
 The bars must be of the same width and must be of the same distance apart
from each other.
 Bars can be presented vertically or horizontally.
Example:
11
HISTOGRAMS
Histograms have connected bars displaying continuous data. They are used when
the values of the independent variables are continuous but fit into categories or
groups that follow on after each other.
How to draw a histogram

A histogram is drawn in exactly the same way as a bar graph. The only
difference is that a histogram is used when the independent variable is
groups of information along a continuous scale. Note that in a histogram,
the bars are drawn without any spaces between them.
e.g.:
Range % Number of pupils
0-19 0
20-39 5
40-59 11
60-79 16
80-100 3
Number of pupils in each percentage range
18
16
number of pupils
14
12
10 0-19 20-39
8
40-59 60-79
6
80-100
4
0
Data Range (%)
2. CALCULATIONS
2.1 How to calculate averages:

Find the sum of all the items and divide this total by the number of items.
For example:
12
The following data represents the weight of male jackals caught in a specific area:
Jackals Weight
number (kg)
1 42
2 41
3 38
4 35
5 46
6 39
Average weight of jackals: sum of the weight

total number
= 42+41+38+35+46+39
6
= 40.17kg
2.2 Calculating Percentage:

Take the value of which you want the percentage of and divide it by the total sum of
items.
For example;
The following data represents the weight and health of male jackals caught in a
specific area:
Jackals Weight Health
number (kg)
1 42 Healthy
2 41 Healthy
3 38 Sick
4 35 Sick
5 46 Healthy
6 39 Healthy
Calculate the percentage sick jackals in the investigation above:
2 out of 6 jackals are sick.
Percentage: value x 100

total
= 2 x100
6
= 33.33 %
13
2.3 Calculating percentage difference
When you have to calculate the percentage increase or decrease in data, you divide
the difference between the values by the starting value.
For example:
The following table is a summary of the Rhino poaching incidents for two provinces
in South Africa from 2000 – 2010.
Province
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
TOTA
L
North-West 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 7 10 44 63
Eastern Cape 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 2 6
With what percentage did the poaching of rhino incidents increase in North-West
since 2008 to 2010? Show all working.
Percentage increase: end – beginning (difference) x 100

value at beginning
= 44-7 x 100
7
= 529% Remember: you want to know
how many times it is more than
your starting value; that is why
you divide by your starting
value
2.4 Using Formulas
Substitute values in formulas.
For example:
Mark re-capture experiments
P=FXS
M
P = Estimated total number of individuals in the population.
F = Number caught and marked in the first catch.
S = Number caught in the second catch.
M = Number marked in the second catch.
14
For example:
A researcher wanted to know how many fish were in a dam. She caught 20 fish
and marked them by clipping out a small section of their tail fins. She then
released them back into the dam. A few days later she caught 25 fish and found
that 8 had been marked.
F = 20
S = 25 Substitute
M=8 values in
P =FXS formula
M
= 20 x 25
8
= 62.5
2.5 Calculations for magnification

Use the formula:
Actual length of specimen = measured length of specimen x length on scale

measured length on scale
For example:
When Nomsa investigated the cell structure she made some pencil drawings. The
diagram below shows a chloroplast as seen on a micrograph that the teacher
showed.
Measure scale bar with ruler

= 12mm
15
Measure whole organelle with ruler = 600mm
Use the formula:
Actual length of chloroplast =measured length of chloroplast x number on scale
measured length of scale
Show all working and give the answer in microns (μm)
1mm = 1000 µm
60mm x 1000 = 60 000 µm
12mm x 1000 = 12000 µm
Actual length of chloroplast = 60 000 x 1

12000
= 5 µm
3. DRAWING SKILLS
Diagrams must:
 have a title or caption

 be drawn in pencil to ensure clear smooth lines
 be labelled in ink(pen)
 be large enough to see all the structures that are in the diagram
 be positioned in the centre of the page
 be two dimensional (show length and width only)
 not be shaded
Note: label lines must:
 be drawn with a ruler.

 not cross each other
 not have arrows at the end
 touch the part that is labelled
 be on one side of the diagram if they are few
 be aligned neatly, preferably one label below the other
4. HYPOTHESIS TESTING INVESTIGATIONS
4.1 Variables
There are 3 types of variables:
16
 Independent/manipulated variable – variable that is controlled or changed by
the investigator to determine what effect it has. In graphs it is the variable that
is drawn on the horizontal axis/X-axis
 Dependent /responding variable – variable that is the effect of the
independent variable – this is the response that is measured or monitored
during the investigation. In a graph, it is the variable that is drawn on the
vertical axis/Y-axis.
 Fixed/Constant variable – all the factors that must be controlled/fixed when
conducting an investigation.
4.2 Hypothesis Definition:

A hypothesis is an attempt to explain some event or observation using whatever
information is currently available.
How to state a hypothesis:

1. There must be two variables.
2. State the relationship between the two variables.
3. It must be testable.
4. Independent variable first (cause) and the dependent variable (effect)
second.
Notes:
 A hypothesis is an idea that a person gets from observations made. It is a

suggested solution to a question. The hypothesis needs to be tested before
one can draw any conclusions.
 In planning the investigation, you need to test various possibilities.
(FACTORS); one at a time so that we can be sure which factor gives us the
result.
 Each factor is known as a VARIABLE and each investigation should test only
ONE variable.
 Generally, a scientific investigation has an EXPERIMENT and a CONTROL.
17
4.3 Scientific Method
18
DESIGNING SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS
The scientific method generally has the following steps:
1. State the problem (purpose)

2. Develop a hypothesis
 Consider the independent variable
 Consider the dependent variable
 How the 2 variables above are related
 Which factors need to be controlled
3. Plan an investigation
 Materials to be used
 Method
 How data will be collected, recorded, analysed and represented
4. Set up and carry out the investigation (procedure)
5. Make observations and record information (data) e.g., in a table
 Translate/Reorganize the data e.g., draw a graph (bar, pie or line graph/s)
from a table
6. Analyse and discuss the data (data analysis)
 Look for trends/patterns and relationships between the two variables
7. State conclusions
 Whether the hypothesis is rejected or not
8. List any shortcomings/limitations of the investigation
19
EXAMPLE:
The following example of a scientific investigation illustrates the above concepts:
 A researcher observed that the potted plants he covered with a brown box
did not grow.
 His hypothesis: Sunlight is essential for plant growth.
 In planning the investigation, he set up TWO sets of 50 plants as follows:
 EXPERIMENT: 50 plants placed in a greenhouse
 CONTROL: 50 plants placed in an identical greenhouse, blackened so that no
light could enter.
 The plants in both the experiment and control received the same soil,
amount of water, temperature etc. – in other words, they were given the
same requirements.
 NB. The experiment and control differed in only one factor (VARIABLE)
i.e., in the experiment plants were given light and the control plants were NOT
exposed to light
 He measured the growth of the plants over a period of time in the experiment
and in the control
 He found that those plants placed in sunlight (EXPERIMENT) grew.
 He found that those plants placed in darkness (CONTROL) did not grow.
 He concluded that his hypothesis was correct for the type of plant that he
investigated.
4.4 Reliability and Validity
20
What is reliability?
The idea behind reliability is that any significant results of an investigation must be
more than a once-off finding and be repeatable.
Other researchers must be able to perform exactly the same experiment, under the
same condition and generate the same results. This will reinforce the findings of the
experiment and ensure that the wider scientific community accepts the hypothesis.
In questions which ask learners to state how the reliability of the investigation could
have been improved, the correct answers could generally be the following: repeat
the experiment/investigation OR increase the sample size.
What is Validity?
Validity questions how the experiment/investigation was carried out. Have all the
factors/variables been controlled/fixed except the variable/factor being tested? Have
the samples been chosen randomly? Is the design for the investigation appropriate?
Validity therefore speaks to whether the scientific research method was done with
the appropriate care and diligence.
In questions which ask learners to suggest some factors that might have decreased
the validity of an investigation, the answers should centre around criticism of the
scientific process, for example some factors/variables that were not fixed/controlled
when carrying out the investigation.
SECTION B
TYPICAL EXAM QUESTIONS
QUESTION 1
A person took part in an experiment on the eye’s response to light. A lamp was
placed at seven different positions from the person’s face. The diameter of the
person’s pupil was measured at each position.
The table below shows the diameter of the person’s pupil when the light was placed
at various distances from the person’s face:
Distances of the lamp Diameter of the pupil

from the person (m) (mm)
21
1 1,2
2 1,8
3 2,4
4 3,0
5 3.6
6 4,2
7 4,8
Draw a line graph to represent the information given in the table above.
QUESTION 2
The table below shows the percentage of carbon dioxide (CO2) emitted by
different sectors in a certain city in South Africa.
CO2 EMISSION
SECTOR
(%)
Transport 25
Residential 27
Industrial 15
Commercial 28
Other 5
[Adapted from Energy scenarios for CT to-2050, 2011]
Draw a pie chart to represent the data in the table above. Show ALL
calculations.
QUESTION 3
Research was done in Khayelitsha in site B and C on causes of death among
children under the age of one year. The table below shows the percentages of the top four
causes of death of children under the age of one year in 2008 and 2010 in site B and C in the
two areas.
Category 2008 2010

Diarrhoea 19 21
HIV/AIDS 11 16
Pneumonia 9 6
TB 8 13
22
1. Draw a bar graph to show the top four causes of death of children under the
age of one year in 2008.
2. Identify the:
a. Dependant variable
b. Independent variable
QUESTION 4
The grade 10 learners investigated the amount of decomposing bacteria found

in soil with different pH levels. They represented the results in the following
table.
Soil pH No. of decomposing bacteria

1-2 0
3-4 2
5-6 10
7-8 22
9-10 31
11-12 45
13-14 30
1. Draw a histogram to show the number of decomposing bacteria found in soils

of different pH levels.
QUESTION 5
1. Calculate the percentage decrease in the number of species from 1985 to

2005.
Group of Number of Number of Number of

organisms species in the species in the species in the
year 1985 year 1995 year 2005
Flowering plants 45 38 32
23
2. A scientist studied sea-snails in two rock pools along the shoreline. During the
first day he captured, counted and marked sea snails in the two pools and
then released them (sample 1). A few days later he caught and counted the
sea snails again (sample 2). The following table illustrates the results.
Number of sea snails Pool A Pool B

Sample 1 32 42
Sample 2 26 21
Marked in sample 2 4 6
a. Use the data in the table above and calculate the size of the population of sea
snails in rock pool A.
b. Calculate the percentage of marked snails in the second sample in pool B.
c. Calculate the average amount of sea snails caught in the two pools during
sample 1.
3. Look at the following micrograph and do the calculations that follow.
Calculate the actual size of the cell in µm.
If it is measured with a ruler it is 12 cm.
The scale bar is 1.2 cm in length.
SECTION C
HOMEWORK QUESTIONS
QUESTION 6
24
1. The peppered-moth, Biston betularia, has two phenotypes for body colour,
dark (blackish) and pale (whitish). An investigation was carried out to
determine the number of dark and pale peppered moths present in polluted
and unpolluted environments using a sampling technique.
The results of the investigation are shown in the table below.
TYPE OF ENVIRONMENT DARK MOTHS PALE MOTHS
Polluted 150 40
Unpolluted 30 170
1.1 Formulate a hypothesis for the above investigation. (2)
1.2 Suggest THREE factors that might have decreased the validity of
this investigation. (3)
(6)
2. Two students decided to investigate the effect of different concentrations of

sulphur dioxide on the germination of oats seeds. They set up trays of
germinating seeds under a clear plastic cover along with five different
concentrations of sodium disulphate(IV) solution.
Sodium disulphate(IV) breaks down to release sulphur dioxide into the

atmosphere.
The table below shows the results after one week.
Concentration of Number of seeds Percentage

sodium disulphate (IV) germinated out of 20 germination
(%) (%)
(Five replications)
0,00 19 19 17 20 18 93
0,05 16 17 15 15 17 80
0,10 12 13 14 11 12 62
0,50 0 1 0 0 1 2
25
2,50 0 0 0 0 0 0
2.1 Formulate a possible hypothesis for this investigation. (2)
2.2 State the independent variable in this investigation. (1)
2.3 Name TWO factors which might affect seed germination, and
which must be kept constant. (2)
2.4 Why was the investigation repeated five times at each

concentration? (2)
2.5 Draw a conclusion for this investigation from the results provided. (2)
(9)
Session 2: DNA: location, structure and function
SECTION A
EXAM GUIDELINE
 Revision of the structure of the cell with an emphasis on the ribosome,

cytoplasm and the parts of the nucleus (Gr.10 content)
 Location of DNA:
 Makes up the genes on chromosomes (nuclear DNA)
 Present in mitochondria (mitochondrial DNA)
 Present in chloroplasts (plants)
 Brief history of the discovery of the DNA molecule (Watson & Crick, Franklin &
Wilkins)
 Structure of DNA
The natural shape of the DNA molecule is a double helix
Each strand of the helix is made up of a sequence of DNA nucleotides
26
 Three components of a DNA nucleotide:
 Nitrogenous bases linked by weak hydrogen bonds:
o Four nitrogenous bases of DNA: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C),
guanine (G)
o Pairing of bases in DNA occur as follows: A: T and G: C
 Sugar portion (deoxyribose in DNA)
 Phosphate portion
 Stick diagram of DNA molecule to illustrate its structure
 Functions of DNA:
 Sections of DNA-forming genes carry hereditary information
 DNA contains coded information for protein synthesis
NOTES & EXAM TIPS
The structure of the cell
- Cytoplasm is the base substance in which the organelles of the cell are
suspended. It is a watery substance and allows for metabolic reactions to take
place.
- Ribosomes are small, round organelles which are mainly found attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum or are free-floating in the cytoplasm. Ribosomes can
also be found inside other organelles such as the chloroplast and mitochondria
but in smaller numbers. They are the site of protein synthesis and consist of
27
RNA and protein.
- The nucleus controls all the cell’s activities.
Parts of the nucleus
A nucleus has four main parts:
 the double nuclear membrane – it encloses the nucleus and contains small pores
to allow for the passage of substances in and out of the nucleus
 the nucleoplasm – this is a jelly-like fluid within the nucleus
 the nucleolus – a dark body suspended in the nucleoplasm which contains free
nucleotide bases and produces ribosomes
 the chromatin network – found in the nucleoplasm: contains the DNA which
forms the chromosomes containing the genetic code of a person / organism
DNA is an important part of our make-up. The hereditary instruction carried within
the DNA ensures that offspring resemble their parents and ensures that genetic
variation can take place, resulting in survival of the fittest. The scientific field is
doing on-going research on DNA and it has brought about a lot of new knowledge.
Some examples of this are: the human genome project, DNA profiling, cloning,
identifying the genes that are responsible for certain diseases and isolating
genes to correct mistakes in our genetic make-up.
Location of DNA
- The DNA is in the nucleus
- and mitochondria and
28
- chloroplasts
Brief history of the discovery of the DNA molecule
- 1952 – Rosalind Franklin and her assistant Maurice Wilkins researched the
structure of DNA using X-ray diffraction images.
- Watson and Crick did independent research on DNA. Upon seeing Franklin’s
images, they proposed a 3-D double helix model for DNA in 1953.
- 1962 – Watson and Crick received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of the
structure of DNA, and Wilkins received an award for his X-ray photography.
Franklin had died of cancer.
The Structure of DNA and RNA
There are two kinds of nucleic acids found in a cell, namely DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid).
DNA is a double stranded molecule. The natural shape of DNA is a double helix.
DNA is found in the nucleus (nuclear DNA) and mitochondria (mitochondrial
DNA) of cells. Nuclear DNA occurs as chromosomes in the nucleus.
RNA is a single stranded molecule formed in the nucleus and functions at the
ribosomes of the cell.
Both DNA and RNA are made of building blocks or monomers called
nucleotides.
A nucleotide
29
P
N
S
Nitrogenous bases of DNA and RNA

DNA has four different nitrogenous RNA has four different nitrogenous
bases – adenine, thymine, guanine bases – adenine, uracil, guanine and
and cytosine cytosine
Adenine always pairs with thymine RNA contains uracil instead of thymine
Guanine always pairs with cytosine
30
Stick diagram of DNA
31
How to recognize a DNA molecule
 Double-stranded molecule
 Contains thymine (T) instead of uracil (U)
 A always joins to T
 G always joins to C
 DNA is a ladder-like molecule when it unwinds
 The phosphate and sugar form the backbone or sides of the ladder
molecule, whereas the bases form the “rungs”.
Functions of DNA
 Sections of DNA form genes carrying hereditary information
 DNA contains coded information for protein synthesis
SECTION B
QUESTION 1 (Questions taken from various sources)
Various options are provided as possible answers to the following questions.

Choose the correct answer and write only the letter (A to D) next to the
question number (1.1 to 1.5) in your ANSWER BOOK, for example 1.6 D.
1.1 A dye stains a particular type of nucleic acid red. When this dye was
used to identify which organelles in a cell contain this nucleic acid,
only the nucleus and ribosomes stained red.
This result shows that the dye stains structures that contain …
A DNA.
B RNA.
C DNA and protein.
D both DNA and RNA.
1.2 In an investigation it was found that 10% of the nitrogenous bases

in a molecule of DNA was thymine. What was the ratio of thymine
32
to guanine in the same molecule?
A 1:1
B 1:2
C 1:3
D 1:4
1.3 DNA was analysed and found to contain 14% T (thymine). What
percentage of the molecule is cytosine?
A 14%
B 28%
C 36%
D 72%
1.4 The key below shows the main components of a DNA molecule and
the strength of the bonds that hold them together.
Which one of the following diagrams shows the correct combination of

components of a DNA molecule?
33
1.5 A short piece of DNA, containing 19 nucleotides in each strand, was
analysed. The number of some of the different nitrogenous bases in
each strand is shown below.
How many nucleotides containing thymine (T) were present in strand

1?
A 8
B 4
C 6
D 2
Give the correct biological term for each of the following descriptions. Write
only the term next to the question number (2.1 to 2.4) in your ANSWER
BOOK.
34
2.1 A segment of DNA coding for a particular characteristic
2.2 A sugar molecule found in a nucleotide of DNA
2.3 The weak bond between nitrogenous bases in a DNA molecule
2.4 The type of bonds between nitrogenous bases in a DNA molecule (4)
Indicate whether each of the statements in COLUMN I applies to A ONLY, B

ONLY, BOTH A AND B or NONE of the items in COLUMN II. Write A only, B
only, both A and B, or none next to the question number (3.1 to 3.3) in the
ANSWER BOOK.
COLUMN I COLUMN II
3.1 Discovery of DNA A Mendel

B Darwin
3.2 Structure of a DNA molecule A Helix

B Double Helix
3.3 Location of DNA A Nucleus

B Mitochondria
(3 x 2) (6)
QUESTION 4 (GDE, Jun. 2019, Paper 2)
The diagram below represents a portion of a DNA molecule.
35
4.1 Identify B and C. (2)
4.2 Name:
(a) Monomer A (1)

(b) TWO scientists who received a Nobel prize for discovering the
DNA molecule (2)
(c) ONE organelle in a cell where DNA is located
(1)
(6)
SECTION C
HOMEWORK QUESTIONS
QUESTION 5 (DBE, Nov. 2020, Paper 2)
Describe the location and structure of DNA. (9)
Session 3: DNA replication and DNA profiling
SECTION A
EXAM GUIDELINE
 Process of DNA replication:

 When in the cell cycle it takes place
 Where in the cell it takes place
 How DNA replication takes place (names of enzymes not required)
 The significance of DNA replication
 Interpretation of DNA profiles
 Uses of DNA profiles

36
NOTES & EXAM TIPS
DNA replication
 Takes place during interphase before mitosis or meiosis begins.
 It is the process during which DNA makes another exact copy or replica of
itself.
Process of DNA replication
 The DNA helix unwinds.

 Weak hydrogen bonds between nitrogenous bases break and two DNA
strands unzip(separate).
 Each original DNA strand serves as a template on which its
complementary strand is built.
 Free DNA nucleotides build a DNA strand onto each of the original two
DNA strands by attaching to their complementary nitrogenous bases (A
to T and C to G).
 This results in two identical DNA molecules. Each molecule consists of
one original strand and one new strand.
Step 1: DNA molecule unwinds and unzips
37
Step 2: New bases attach themselves
Free nucleotides in
nucleoplasm
New bases
attached
themselves in 38
the correct
place of each
strand
Step 3: TWO identical molecules are formed.
New DNA molecule 1 New DNA molecule 2
 Each molecule now becomes a double helix.
39
direction of
replication
new strand new strand
old strand
old strand
DNA profiling
 DNA profiling is the process where a specific DNA pattern, called a
profile, is obtained from a person or sample of bodily tissue.
 it can be described as an arrangement of black bars representing DNA
fragments of a person.
 Remember: DNA profiling is a forensic technique used for example
in criminal investigations, comparing criminal suspects' profiles to DNA
evidence so as to assess the likelihood of their involvement in the crime.
Therefore, a DNA profile is a picture made from a DNA sample (hair, saliva,
blood etc.) So, when answering a question based on DNA profiling it is
important to say that the DNA profile of the suspect matches the DNA
profile of the DNA found at the crime scene.
 It is used to:
o Tracing missing persons
o Identification of genetic disorders
o Identification of suspects in a crime
o Matching tissues for organ transplants
o Identifying dead persons
40
 A DNA profile of a sample of a suspect’s bodily fluid or tissue is to be
compared with a DNA profile of the sample found at the scene of a crime.
 The pattern of lines represents a person’s specific genetic make-up.
SECTION B

question number (1.1 to 1.5 in your ANSWER BOOK, for example 1.6 D.
1.1 The sample of a DNA profile shown below was used to determine if
man X was the father of all four children. The sample shown are for
the mother M, four children (1 to 4) and man X.
M 1 2 3 4 X
41
Which of the children have a different father?
A 1 and 2
B 2 and 3
C 3 and 4
D 1 and 4
1.2 Which ONE of the following indicates where the DNA molecule is likely to
separate during DNA replication?
A Cytosine and guanine

B Phosphate ions and deoxyribose
C Ribose and adenine
D Ribose and thymine
1.3 A person was seriously injured during a fight. Samples of blood were
taken from the injured man (victim) and the crime scene. These
samples were compared with blood samples collected from four
people (1 to 4) suspected of injuring the man. The results are shown
below.
Which ONE of the suspects was definitely at the crime scene?
A 1
B 2
C 3
42
D 4
QUESTIONS 1.4 AND 1.5 ARE BASED ON THE DIAGRAM BELOW,

SHOWING THE RESULTS OF A PARTICULAR PROCEDURE.
1.4 The procedure shown above is called …
A cloning.
B DNA replication.
C DNA profiling.
D fingerprinting.
1.5 Below is a list of possible uses of the procedure shown in the

diagram above:
(i) Paternity testing
(ii) Matching of tissues for organ transplants
(iii) Identification from fingerprints
(iv) Screening for genetic disorders
Which combination shows the CORRECT uses of the procedure?
A (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv) Only

B (i), (ii) and (iv) Only
C (i), (ii) and (iii) Only
D (i) and (iv) (10)

43
BOOK.
2.1 The formation of an exact copy of the DNA in a cell (1)
2.2 The original strand upon which a new strand is developed (1)
2.3 The new strand that is made based on the sequence of nucleotides on (1)
the template
2.4 Black bars representing DNA fragments of a person (1)
2.5 Phase in cell cycle when DNA replication occurs (1)

(5)

ANSWER BOOK.
COLUMN I COLUMN II
3.1 The phase in which DNA replication A: Interphase

takes place B: Anaphase
3.2 The place in the cell where DNA A: Mitochondrion
replication takes place B: Nucleus
3.3 DNA profiling A: Paternity testing
B: Identification of dead
bodies
(3x2) (6)
QUESTION 4 (DBE, May-June 2017, Paper 2)
The diagram below shows a technique used in paternity testing.
44
Mother Child Male 1 Male 2 Male 3
4.1 Identify the technique shown above. (1)

4.2 Which male is the biological father of the child? (1)
4.3 Explain your answer to QUESTION 4.2. (3)
4.4 State TWO other uses of this technique. (2)
(7)
QUESTION 5 (GDE, Sept. 2019, Paper 2)
The diagram below represents a process involving DNA.
45
5.1 Identify the process illustrated in the diagram above. (1)
5.2 Identify the monomer X. (1)
5.3 Using the key provided, give the names for 1 and 2 respectively. (2)
5.4 What is the natural shape of the molecule represented? (1)
5.5 Name the type of bond that is formed between 1 and 2. (1)
(6)
QUESTION 6 (Limpopo, Sept. 2018, Paper 2)
Read the text below and answer the questions
Watson and Crick were only two of many scientists working on figuring out the structure of
DNA. They determined that the structure of DNA was a double-helix polymer, or a spiral of
two DNA strands, each containing a long chain of monomer nucleotides, wound around each
other.
According to their findings, DNA replicated itself. They, furthermore, discovered that DNA is
the basis for heredity; it contains the patterns for constructing proteins in the body, including
the various enzymes.
A new understanding of heredity and heredity disease was possible once it was determined
that DNA consists of two chains twisted around each other, or double helixes, of alternating
phosphate and sugar groups, and that the two chains are held together by bonds between
pairs of Name
6.1 nitrogenous bases –that
the bond adenine
joins(A);
twocytosine (C); thymine(T)
corresponding and guanine(G).
nitrogenous bases in a
DNA molecule. (1)
6.2 Arrange the nitrogenous bases in correct pairs as they were

discovered by Watson and Crick. (2)
6.3 The scientists in the text discovered that DNA replicates itself.
(a) Describe how DNA replication occurs (4)
(b) Mention the phase of the cell cycle during which it occurs (1)
(c) Write down ONE importance of DNA replication (1)
(9)
QUESTION 7 (GDE, Nov. 2020, Paper 2)
Detectives were investigating a crime scene and found blood on a broken

window. They suspected that the blood was that of the criminal. To identify the
criminal, they analysed a DNA sample from the blood and compared it to that
46
of four suspects.
The diagram below was produced:
7.1 Name the technique that was used to identify the criminal. (1)
7.2 Who is the possible criminal? (1)
7.4 State ONE other use of the technique identified in QUESTION 7.1. (1)
(5)
SECTION C
HOMEWORK QUESTIONS
QUESTION 8 (GDE, Nov. 2019, Paper 2)
Explain how DNA profiling is used in paternity testing. (6)
The diagram below represents the DNA profiles of three children and their
parents. Only two of the children are their biological children and one is
adopted.
47
9.1 Identify the TWO biological children. (2)
9.3 State THREE other uses of DNA profiling (3)
(7)
Session 4: RNA: location, structure and function.
Protein synthesis
SECTION A
EXAM GUIDELINE
RNA: location, structure and function
48
 Location of RNA:
 mRNA is formed in the nucleus and functions on the ribosome
 tRNA is located in the cytoplasm
 Structure of RNA
 A single-stranded molecule consisting of nucleotides
 Three components of an RNA nucleotide:

 Nitrogenous bases
- Four nitrogenous bases of RNA:
- adenine (A), uracil (U), cytosine (C), guanine (G)
 Sugar portion (ribose in RNA)
 Phosphate portion
 Stick diagram of mRNA and tRNA molecules to illustrate their structure

 Function of RNA:
RNA plays a role in protein synthesis
Protein synthesis
 The involvement of DNA and RNA in protein synthesis:

 Transcription
o The double helix DNA unwinds.
o The double-stranded DNA unzips/weak hydrogen bonds break
o to form two separate strands.
o One strand is used as a template
o to form mRNA
o using free RNA nucleotides from the nucleoplasm.
o The mRNA is complementary to the DNA.
o mRNA now has the coded message for protein synthesis.
 mRNA moves from the nucleus to the cytoplasm and attaches to the
ribosome.
 Translation
o Each tRNA carries a specific amino acid.
o When the anticodon on the tRNA
o matches the codon on the mRNA
o then tRNA brings the required amino acid to the ribosome.
(Names of specific codons, anticodons and their amino acids are not to be
memorised.)
o Amino acids become attached to each other by peptide bonds

o to form the required protein.
 Simple diagram to illustrate transcription and translation in protein synthesis
49
NOTES & EXAM TIPS
Location of RNA:
 Messenger RNA (mRNA) is formed in the nucleus but then enters the
cytoplasm where it attaches to the ribosomes.
 Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is found in the ribosomes in the cytoplasm of the
cell.
 Transfer RNA (tRNA) is found freely in the cytoplasm of the cell.
Structure of RNA
 RNA is a single-stranded molecule made up of nucleotides

 Each nucleotide is made up of a ribose sugar, a phosphate group and
four different nitrogenous bases
 adenine, uracil, guanine and cytosine (A, U, G and C)
 The phosphate group alternates with the ribose sugar
 and the nitrogenous base is attached to the ribose sugar
50
How to recognize an RNA molecule
 Single-stranded molecule
 Contains uracil (U) instead of thymine (T)
 There are three types of RNA:

 Messenger RNA (mRNA)
• Acts as a template for protein synthesis
• mRNA is made up of many bases arranged in triplets called codons
 Transfer RNA (tRNA)
• Bases in tRNA are arranged in triplets called anticodons
• tRNA has a place of attachment for an amino acid
 Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
• Make up an integral part of the ribosome, the protein synthesis
machinery in the cell. (Not examinable).
The role of RNA

The three types of RNA are very important to the process of protein synthesis, with
each type playing a unique role.
51
The process of protein synthesis
Protein synthesis takes place in two steps namely transcription and translation.
Transcription (Happens in nucleus)
 The double helix DNA unwinds.

 The double-stranded DNA unzips/weak hydrogen bonds break
 to form two separate strands.
 One strand is used as a template
 to form mRNA
 using free RNA nucleotides from the nucleoplasm.
 The mRNA is complementary to the DNA.
 mRNA now has the coded message for protein synthesis.
Transcription
Translation (Happens at the ribosome in the cytoplasm)
 Each tRNA carries a specific amino acid.

 When the anticodon on the tRNA
 matches the codon on the mRNA
 then tRNA brings the required amino acid to the ribosome.
52
 Amino acids become attached by peptide bonds to form the required protein
Translation
REMEMBER:
Three consecutive nitrogenous bases on the DNA strand are called the base
triplet.
The three corresponding nitrogenous bases on the mRNA strand are called a
codon.
The three corresponding nitrogenous bases on the tRNA strand are called an anti-
codon.
53
TERMINOLOGY
Biological term Description
Base pairing Adenine (A) always bonds to thymine (T) and guanine (G)
with cytosine (C) in DNA molecule, to ensure the precision
of DNA replication
Chromatin Tangled network of chromosomes located within the

nucleus
Chromatid The individual threads that form a chromosome
Centromere Structure joining two threads of a chromosome
Chromosome A structure made up of two chromatids joined by a

centromere that carries the hereditary characteristics within
the DNA
Chromatin Visible as thread-like structures in the nucleus of an
network inactive cell
Nucleolus Structure in the nucleus responsible for forming ribosomal

RNA
Nucleoplasm That part of the protoplasm within the nucleus
Cytoplasm That part of the protoplasm outside the nucleus.
Ribosome Structure that is the site of protein synthesis
Gene Segment of a chromosome that controls each

characteristic/ a unit of sequenced pieces of DNA that carry
the genetic information that will determine the hereditary
characteristics of an organism.
Hereditary Characteristics that are passed from parents to offspring
DNA Nucleic acid that is a constituent of chromosomes
Helix Coiled (natural) shape of a DNA molecule
RNA Type of nucleic acid that occurs as a single strand / nucleic

acid that contains uracil
Nucleotide Building blocks of nucleic acids consisting of a sugar, a
54
base and a phosphate
Replication The formation of an exact copy of the DNA in a cell
Template The original strand upon which a new strand is developed
Complementary The new strand that is made based on the sequence of

strand nucleotides on the template
Cytosine The base that pairs off with guanine
Thymine The base that pairs off with adenine
Uracil The base found in RNA and not DNA
Hydrogen bonds The chemical bonds which link base pairs in the DNA
molecule
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) forms the chromosomes in the

nuclei of all living cells and carries the hereditary
information of the organism. The DNA molecule is a double
helix (twisted) strand.
DNA Replication Process involving the formation of two new identical DNA
molecules from an original DNA.
Enzyme A protein that speeds up a chemical reaction / a catalyst
Codon The three adjacent bases found on a mRNA molecule
Anticodon The three adjacent bases found on a tRNA molecule that

will determine which amino acid will be brought to the
ribosome
Transcription The synthesis of mRNA from a DNA template
Translation The process of converting the information carried by m-

RNA to the correct sequence of amino acids to form a
particular protein
RNA (Ribose nucleic acid) a single strand, located in the

nucleoplasm and cytoplasm. The RNA molecule is always a
single strand of nucleotides. Remember that the RNA
contains Uracil instead of Thymine (A, G, C and U). RNA
is responsible for protein synthesis.
Synthesis Building up of separate parts into a whole
Amino acid The basic building block of a protein molecule
Peptide link A link between two adjacent amino acids

55
Monomer A single unit that makes up a larger molecule
Polymer A large molecule which is formed from many small

molecules (monomers)
Mutation A sudden and relatively permanent gene / chromosomal

change
Mitochondrial The type of DNA found only in the mitochondrion

DNA
Messenger RNA Responsible for carrying the genetic code that is

(mRNA): transcribed from DNA, to specialized sites of the ribosomes
where the information is translated for protein synthesis
Nitrogenous These are nitrogen containing molecules viz. Adenine, (A);
bases: Thymine (T); Guanine (G); Cytosine (C) and Uracil (U).
Nucleotide: The building block (monomers) of RNA and DNA. Each

nucleotide consists of a pentose sugar, a phosphate ion
and a nitrogenous base.
Ribosomal RNA Form the ribosomes and produce the proteins, based on
(rRNA) the information received from the tRNA
Transfer RNA Has anticodons, which codes for a specific amino acid. The
(tRNA) anticodons are complementary to the mRNA codon, during
the production of proteins.
Genome All the genes present in an organism
SECTION B

question number (1.1 to 1.5 in your ANSWER BOOK, for example 1.6 D.
56
1.1 The three molecules that make up a nucleotide are ...
A water, sugar and a phosphate group.

B a nitrogenous base, water and sugar.
C a phosphate group, sugar and a nitrogenous base.
D water, a nitrogenous base and a phosphate group.
1.2 During translation, the type of amino acid that is added to the
growing polypeptide depends on the …
A codon on the mRNA only.

B anticodon on the tRNA to which the amino acid is attached only.
C codon on the mRNA and the anticodon on the tRNA to which the
amino acid is attached.
D anticodon on the mRNA only.
1.3 How many nitrogenous bases form a codon?
A 9
B 12
C 3
D 6
1.4 The table below shows the anti codons of tRNA that code for different
amino acids found in human protein.
What is the corresponding amino acid for the DNA base triplet TCG?
A Alanine
B Tryptophan
C Serine
D Asparagine
57
1.5 A structural difference between DNA and RNA is …
A DNA is shorter than RNA.

B DNA has 4 different nitrogenous bases and RNA only 2.
C the sugar in RNA is ribose and in DNA deoxyribose.
D RNA is a double strand and DNA a single strand. (10)

BOOK.
2.1 Synthesis of mRNA from DNA (1)
2.2 The nitrogenous base found in RNA but not in DNA (1)
2.3 The bonds between amino acids in a protein molecule (1)
2.4 The process of converting the information carried by m-RNA to the (1)
correct sequence of amino acids to form a particular protein
2.5 The basic building block of a protein molecule (1)
2.6 The organelle where translation occurs during protein synthesis (1)
(6)

ANSWER BOOK.
COLUMN I COLUMN II
3.1 Contains uracil A: DNA

B: RNA
3.2 tRNA A: Cytoplasm
B: Nucleus
3.3 mRNA A: Transcription
B: Translation
(3x2) (6)
58
The diagram below shows part of a process involved in the production of a

protein.
4.1 Identify:
(a) Molecule Y (1)
(b) The group of nitrogenous bases Z (1)
4.2 If X is the next amino acid required after W, then identify:

(a) Nitrogenous bases 1, 2 and 3 (2)
(b) The base triplet that codes for X (2)
(6)
Describe the process of transcription (6)
Describe the structure of RNA in a cell. . (10)
SECTION C
59
HOMEWORK QUESTIONS
The diagram below represents transcription during protein synthesis.
7.1 Name the part of the cell where this process occurs. (1)
7.2 Identify:
(a) Sugar X (1)
(b) Nitrogenous base Y (1)
7.3 Tabulate TWO differences between transcription and DNA
replication. (5)
(8)
60
A mutation has occurred on a section of an mRNA molecule as shown below.
8.1 Name the type of mutation that has occurred (1)
8.2 Give a reason for your answer to QUESTION 8.1. (1)
8.3 The table below shows some mRNA codons and the amino
acids that they code for.
(a) State the number of different amino acids coded for by

the original sequence of the mRNA molecule given
above. (1)
(b) Give the anticodon on the tRNA molecule that carries
the amino acid isoleucine. (1)
(c) Use information in the table to describe the effect of
the mutation on the protein formed. (4)
(8)
61
SESSION 5: MEIOSIS
SECTION A
EXAM GUIDELINE
Meiosis introduction
 Revision of the structure of a cell, with an emphasis on the parts of the

nucleus, the centrosome and the cytoplasm
 Structure of chromosomes:
• Chromosomes consist of DNA (which makes up genes) and protein
• The number of chromosomes in a cell is a characteristic of an organism (e.g.,
humans have 46 chromosomes)
• Chromosomes which are single threads become double (two chromatids
joined by a centromere) as a result of DNA replication
 Differentiate between:
• Haploid (n) and diploid (2n) cells in terms of chromosome number
• Sex cells (gametes) and somatic cells (body cells)
• Sex chromosomes (gonosomes) and autosomes
 Revision of the process of mitosis
Meiosis the process
 Definition of meiosis
 Site of meiosis in plants and in animals
 Meiosis is a continuous process, but the events are divided into different
phases for convenience
 Events of interphase:
• DNA replication takes place
o Chromosomes which are single threads, become double
o Each chromosome will now consist of two chromatids joined by a centromere
62
o DNA replication helps to double the genetic material so that it can be shared
by the new cells arising from cell division
 The events of the following phases of Meiosis I, using diagrams:
• Prophase I - Including a description of crossing over
• Metaphase I – including the random arrangement of chromosomes
• Anaphase I
• Telophase I
 The events of each phase of Meiosis II, using diagrams:
• Prophase II
• Metaphase II – including the random arrangement of chromosomes
• Anaphase II
• Telophase II
 The importance of meiosis:
• Production of haploid gametes
• The halving effect of meiosis overcomes the doubling effect of fertilisation,

thus maintaining a constant chromosome number from one generation to the
next
• Mechanism to introduce genetic variation through:
o Crossing over
o The random arrangement of chromosomes at the equator
Abnormal meiosis
 Non-disjunction and its consequences

 Non-disjunction of chromosomes at position 21 during Anaphase in humans to
form abnormal gametes with an extra copy of chromosome 21
 The fusion between an abnormal gamete (24 chromosomes) and a normal
gamete (23 chromosomes) may lead to Down syndrome
Comparison of meiosis and mitosis
 Similarities of mitosis and meiosis

 Differences between mitosis and meiosis
63
NOTES & EXAM TIPS
Meiosis is a cell division whereby a diploid cell undergoes two cell divisions and
divides to form four dissimilar haploid cells (sex cells).
It takes place in the testis and ovaries of animals and the anther and ovaries of
plants.
Difference between diploid and haploid:
• A chromosome consists of DNA molecules that are supercoiled.

• Every species has a specific number of chromosomes in the nucleus.
• Human somatic cells have 46 chromosomes in the nuclei and gametes
have 23 chromosomes.
• Somatic cells (body cells) have the diploid number(2n) - (equal number of
chromosomes) di=2
• Sex cells (gametes) contain only half the number of chromosomes (n)
• When a female (n) gamete and a male gamete(n) fuse the resultant zygote
is diploid (2n)
INTERPHASE
• DNA replicates
• Chromosomes which are single threads(unreplicated), become double
• Each replicated chromosome will now consist of two chromatids joined by a
centromere
• DNA replication helps to double the genetic material so that it can be shared
equally by the new cells arising from cell division
Phase 1 of meiosis – take note of the homologous pair of chromosomes. Two

chromosomes of the same size
Prophase 1 • Chromosomes shorten and

become visible as two
chromatids joined by a
centromere (replicated
chromosomes).
• Homologous pairs of
chromosomes are now
visible.
• The nuclear membrane and
nucleolus disappear.
• The spindle starts to form.
• Chromatids from each
64
Look for pairs of homologous chromosomes homologous pair touch. The
that are touching each other. point where they touch is
called a chiasma.
DNA is crossed over
(swopped) at the chiasma.
(They are only known as
bivalents when they are busy
overlapping)
METAPHASE 1 • The homologous

chromosomes line up along
(meta  think of middle) the equator of the cell in their
homologous pairs.
• The spindle extends across the
whole cell.
• One chromosome of each pair
lies on either side of the
equator.
• The centromere of each
chromosome attaches to the
spindle fibers.
• Random arrangement-
The chromosomes could come
to lay at the equator
randomly/in different
combinations. (Source of
variation)
ANAPHASE 1 • Chromosomes-- move to

opposite sides of the cell,
Chromosomes move to opposite poles spindle fibers shorten.
• Random assortment of
chromosomes
• The chromosomes move away
from the equator during
Anaphase I
• The combination in which the
chromosomes move to the
poles depends on the random
arrangement of
chromosomes at the equator
during Metaphase I.
• The random segregation of
65
chromosomes is not a source
of variation since it is
dependent on the random
arrangement of chromosomes
at the equator.
TELOPHASE 1 • The nuclear membrane re-
forms around the
chromosomes.
• The nucleolus reforms.
• Each pole has half the number
of chromosomes present in the
original cell.
• The cell membrane
constricts and divides the
cytoplasm in half to form two
cells.
PROPHASE 2 • Centrioles move to opposite

sides-- in animal cell
• Nuclear membrane and
nucleolus disintegrate.
• At the very end of prophase,
the spindle forms.
• No crossing over
Chromosomes have a patched appearance

(that is a difference between prophase 1
and 2)
METAPHASE 2 • Centromeres, which hold the

chromatids together, attach to
(Look for single chromosomes in middle of spindle fibers.
cell) • Individual/Single
chromosomes line up across
the equator of the cell.
• Random arrangement of
chromosomes takes place –
source of variation.
66
ANAPHASE 2 Centromeres split and
chromatids move to opposite
Single chromatids move to the poles sides of the cell.
Random assortment takes place.
TELOPHASE 2 • The nuclear membrane re-

forms around the single
Unreplicated chromosomes in cells stranded (unreplicated)
chromosomes. The
nucleolus reforms.
• The cell membrane of each
cell constricts and the
cytoplasm divides into two
cells. Cytokinesis
• Four haploid daughter cells
are formed.
• Each daughter cell has half
the number of
chromosomes of the original
cell.
• The daughter cells are
genetically different.
Non-disjunction
• Spindle fibre fails to separate during meiosis
• Members of one pair of homologous chromosomes fail to become separated
during Anaphase 1 and may happen in Anaphase 2
67
• 2 gametes receive extra copy of affected chromosome
• 2 gametes lack that chromosome
• Due to non-disjunction of the human chromosomes number 21 a gamete is
produced that contains 24 chromosomes and when it fuses with a normal
gamete with 23 chromosomes it gives rise to a human with 47 chromosomes
and this person has Down syndrome
Exam Tips
Remember IPMAT to describe the phases of meiosis

• They usually give diagrams in the question papers and ask questions.
• You must identify the correct event in a phase.
• You must know the differences between meiosis I and meiosis II
• For example: Look at metaphase 1 and 2. What are the differences?
Metaphase 1 has a pair of homologous chromosomes at the equator of the
cell while Metaphase 2 have single chromosomes at the equator. Anaphase 1
has chromosomes moving to the poles while anaphase 2 has chromatids
moving to the poles.
• If they ask you to identify the phase you must give the full description for
example anaphase 1 not only anaphase, you must write the phase as well.
• Know the difference between a centrosome, centromere and a centriole
• Centrosome: Structure that is responsible for the formation of spindle fibres
during cell division in animal cells. Composed of centrioles.
• Centromere: Structure that holds two chromatids together in a replicated
chromosome and which also attaches the chromosome to the spindle thread
during cell division.
• Avoid using the term bivalent for homologous chromosomes.
• The definition of cytokinesis is a popular question.
SECTION B
68

1.1 A chemical used in laboratories prevents spindle fibres from

forming in cells undergoing meiosis. As a result, meiosis cannot
start on the completion of interphase.
In an investigation, this chemical was added to cells in the anthers

of the flowers of rice plants. Each cell in the anther has 24
chromosomes.
What is the expected number of chromosomes in each cell at the

end of the investigation?
A 12 replicated chromosomes
B 24 replicated chromosomes
C 24 unreplicated chromosomes
D 48 unreplicated chromosomes
1.2 The diagram below shows a cell undergoing meiosis.
The diagram above shows ...

A non-disjunction in metaphase II.
B a chromosomal aberration that results in haemophilia.
C a chromosomal aberration involving chromosome pair number
23 leading to Down syndrome.
D non-disjunction in anaphase 1
69
1.3 Which ONE of the following is a source of variation that occurs
during normal meiosis?
A Random mating
B Random arrangement of chromosomes
C Chromosomal mutations
D Cloning
(6)
QUESTION 2. (Questions taken from various sources)
BOOK
2.1 The structures formed by the centrioles during cell division
2.2 The division of the cytoplasm after a cell nucleus has divided
2.3 The phase in the cell cycle during which DNA replication occurs
2.4 Syndrome where a person have an extra chromosome at

chromosome pair 21.
2.5 The point where two chromatids overlap during prophase I
2.6 The structure responsible for pulling chromosomes to the poles of

an animal cell during cell division
2.7 The name of the process when homologous chromosome pairs fail
to separate during meiosis
(7)

ANSWER BOOK.
70
COLUMN I COLUMN II
3.1 Introduces variation to a A Random assortment

species B Random arrangement
3.2 The exchange of DNA during A Crossing over
Meiosis B Metaphase 1
3.3 Occurs during telophase of A Dividing of the cytoplasm

meiosis I B Centrioles move to the opposite
poles
3.4 Result of non-disjunction of A Gamete with 22 chromosomes
chromosome pair 21 in B Gamete with 24 chromosomes
humans
3.5 Chromosomes align at the A Metaphase 1
equator B Metaphase 2
(5x 2) (10)
QUESTION 4 (DBE, Nov. 2018,Paper 1)

The diagrams below represent various phases of meiosis
4.1 Identify the phase of meiosis in diagram:

(a) A (1)
(b) B (1)
4.2 Draw a labelled diagram to show the cells that will be formed at
the end of meiosis from the cell in diagram C. (5)
(7)
71
The diagram below shows the structure of a chromosome
5.1 Identify parts D and E.
5.2 How many pairs of chromosomes are found in a normal human somatic
cell?
5.3 Give only the LETTER of the part that:
(a) Attaches to the spindle fibres during cell division
(b) Represents a gene

(6)
QUESTION 6
(DBE, March 2017, Paper 2)
The diagrams below represent a chromosome pair in a female human cell.

The cells (A, B and C) show different events in a phase of meiosis, which
are not necessarily in the correct sequence
72
6.1 How many pairs of chromosomes occur in a normal human cell? (1)
6.2 Give labels for:
. a) Structure X (1)
b) Area Y (1)
Name the organ in the human female where meiosis occurs. (1)
6.3 Name the:
6.4 (a) Process occurring in diagram B (1)
(b) Phase represented by the diagrams above (1)
(c) Type of cells that would result from meiosis of this cell (1)
Arrange the letters A, B and C to show the correct sequence of the
6.5 events. (1)
(8)
QUESTION 7
(DBE, Nov. 2020, Paper 1)
The diagrams below represent two phases of meiosis.
7.1 Identify part A. (1)

7.2 Identify the phase represented by diagram 1. (1)
. Describe the events that took place in the phase before the one
7.3 represented in diagram 2. (2)
Name the process that causes the chromosomes to have a
7.4 combination of genes as shown in the diagrams. (1)
Give ONE reason why the process named in QUESTION 7.4 is
7.5 important. (1)
If this was a human cell, how many chromosomes would be present in
7.6 the cell during the phase represented in diagram 1? (1)
Structure B and structure C are both chromosomes. Explain why they
7.7 are structurally different. (3)
(10)
73
SECTION C
HOMEWORK QUESTIONS
The diagram below represents ALL the chromosomes in a cell that is undergoing
normal cell division.
8.1 Name the:
(a) Type of cell division that is occurring in the cell in the diagram. (1)
(b) Phase of cell division during which the chromosomes behave as

shown in the diagram. (1)
8.2 Where in the human female body would the type of cell division
. named in QUESTION 8.1(a) take place? (1)
Give the LETTER and NAME of the structure that attaches to the
8.3 spindle fibres.
(2)
How many chromosomes will be found in each daughter cell at the
8.4 end of this cell division? (1)
(6)

The diagram below represents part of an abnormal human karyotype.
74
9.1 How many autosomes are shown in the diagram? (1)
9.2 Name the type of chromosomes represented by pair 23. (1)

.
Name the:
9.3
(a) Disorder represented in the diagram (1)
(b) Process during anaphase of meiosis that resulted in the abnormal
number of chromosomes in this karyotype (1)
State the gender of the person represented in this karyotype. (1)
9.4
(5)

The number of chromosomes in the somatic cells of organisms differs from
species to species.
The graph below shows the number of chromosomes in each somatic cell of
THREE different species.
10.1 How many chromosomes will be present in:

(a) Mouse cells during Telophase II of meiosis (1)
(b) A leaf cell of a pineapple plant. (1)
10.2. Explain why the sperm cell of a giraffe has 15 chromosomes.
(4)
75
10.3 Name the phase of meiosis where the halving of the chromosome
number begins. (1)
(3)
10.4 Describe the events in the phase named in QUESTION 10.3.
(10
)
76
SESSION 6:
 Diversity of reproductive strategies
 Human reproduction: Structure of the male and female reproductive system
& Puberty
SECTION A
EXAM GUIDELINE
Diversity of reproductive strategies

The role of the following reproductive strategies in animals in maximising
reproductive success in different environments (using relevant examples):
• External fertilisation and internal fertilisation
• Ovipary, ovovivipary and vivipary
• Amniotic egg
• Precocial and altricial development
• Parental care
Introduction: Human reproduction

 Revision of the schematic outline of the human life cycle to show the role of
meiosis, mitosis and fertilization
Structure of the male reproductive system
 Structure of the male reproductive system, using a diagram
 Functions of the testis, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicle, prostate
gland, Cowper's gland, penis and the urethra
Structure of the female reproductive system
 Structure of the female reproductive system, using a diagram
 Functions of the ovary, Fallopian tubes, uterus lined by endometrium, cervix,
vagina with its external opening and the vulva
 Structure of the ovary, using a diagram, showing the primary follicles, the
Graafian follicle and the corpus luteum
Puberty
 Main changes that occur in male characteristics during puberty under the
influence of testosterone
 Main changes that occur in female characteristics during puberty under the
influence of oestrogen
77
NOTES & EXAM TIPS
REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES IN VERTREBRATES
The topic accounts for 8 marks out of 150 in paper 1. Make sure you know the
terminology.

Allantois The structure in the amniotic egg that stores wastes
The reproductive strategy when offspring are not able to move
Altricial development
and feed themselves
A type of egg where the embryo develops inside a fluid-filled
Amniotic egg
sac which is surrounded by a shell
Type of reproduction of organisms from parts or the whole
Asexual reproduction
parent body form – no gametes involved
A type of fertilisation in which the nucleus of a sperm fuses with
External fertilisation
the nucleus of an ovum outside the body of the female
Internal fertilisation A type of fertilisation in which the nucleus of a sperm fuses with
the nucleus of an ovum inside the reproductive system of
the female
The reproductive strategy involving the laying of eggs outside
Ovipary
the body of the female
Producing young by means of eggs which are hatched/retained
Ovovivipary
within the body of the female and the young are born live
Precocial The reproductive strategy when offspring are able to move and
development feed themselves.
Type of reproduction that involves the fusion of motile (male)
Sexual reproduction
and stationary (female) gametes.
A type of reproduction where the foetus develops inside the
Vivipary
uterus
Zygote The diploid cell formed by the process of fertilisation
Comparison of External and Internal fertilisation
External fertilisation Internal fertilisation
Requires water for fertilisation No water required for fertilisation
Gametes (sperm and egg cells) are Sperm cells are released into the
released into water female’s body
Many gametes released Fewer gametes released
High mortality rates among young Lower mortality rates among young
due to lack of protection. Eggs can – protection provided by the
easily desiccate or be predated on mother’s body or a hardened
calcareous / leathery shell.
78
e.g. fish and amphibia e.g. reptiles; birds and mammals
The amniotic egg

The developing embryo:
Three extra embryonic membranes:

1. The amnion – produces amniotic fluid which cushions the embryo and
protects it against mechanical injury, temperature changes and dehydration.
2. The allantois – collects nitrogenous waste and assists in the exchange of
gases.
3. The chorion – allows for gaseous exchange in reptiles and birds, where a
shell is present and in mammals, where no shell is present, it forms the
placenta.
The yolk sac

1. The yolk sac contains the food reserves for the developing embryo. If yolk is
present in smaller quantities, the young are hatched sooner, are
underdeveloped and usually require more parental care.
2. If yolk is present in larger quantities, the incubation period is longer, and the
young are usually well developed when they hatch.
A hardened calcareous or leathery shell

The shell helps to protect the developing embryo from mechanical injury and
prevent desiccation, while still allowing gases to move through.
Comparison between Ovipary, Ovovivipary and Vivipary
79
Ovipary Ovovivipary Vivipary
Fertilisation External/internal Internal Internal
Development of Yolk is the only Yolk present in the Inside female’s

embryo form of nutrition for egg. Young are body
the developing independent of the
embryo and is mother’s body
usually present in
small quantities
Nutrition Yolk is the only Yolk present in the Young receive

form of nutrition for egg. Young are nutrition from the
the developing independent of the mother’s body
embryo and is mother’s body through the
usually present is placenta
in small quantities
Type of egg Jelly-like or Calcareous or None

calcareous leathery
Comparison between altricial and precocial development
ALTRICIAL DEVELOPMENT PRECOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Development in birds that is incomplete Development in birds that is complete

such that the young are born helpless, such that the young are born
with eyes closed, without down feathers independent, with eyes open, with down
and unable to move or feed feathers and able to move or feed
independently. This is due to the small independently. This is due to the large
quantity of yolk in the egg which quantity of yolk in the egg which lasts
restricts the time available for full longer, allowing more time for
development. development.
Other organisms such as humans, Also in other animals like elephants,
mice, cats, dogs, etc. zebras, antelopes etc. These baby
animals must be able to move and run
directly after birth to safeguard them
against predators.
HUMAN REPRODUCTION
The schematic outline of the human life cycle to show the role of meiosis,
mitosis and fertilisation.
80
All the body cells (somatic cells) of a human being are diploid (2n) i.e., have two sets
of each chromosome. Sexual reproduction requires two parents. Both the male and
the female produce gametes (ovum and sperm) by a reduction division referred to as
meiosis. Meiosis ensures that the gametes are haploid i.e., they have only one set of
chromosomes.
When two gametes fuse (a sperm and an ovum) as a result of fertilization, a diploid
zygote is formed. The zygote then divides by mitosis to form a human.
THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM:
Diagram of the side view of the male reproductive system with functions:
81
The male reproductive system (front view)
Structure and functions of the male reproductive system:
82
The testes contain seminiferous tubules.
 The tubules are lined by germinal epithelium cells which produce sperm cells.
 Some of the cells develop into Sertoli cells which provide nutrients for the
spermatids to become mature sperm cells.
 The seminiferous tubules are surrounded by connective tissue that contain the
Cells of Leydig which produce testosterone.
83
THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The female reproductive structure consists of:
 The main female sex organ – the ovaries

 The ducts – fallopian tubes
 The accessory organs – the uterus and the vagina
 The external genitalia – the vulva
84
Diagram of the female reproductive organ:
Structure and function of the female reproductive system: (Source DBE textbook
page 76)
85
The Ovary
PUBERTY
• This is a time of life when a person becomes sexually mature.

• Physical changes occur between 10 and 14 in girls and 12 and 16 for boys.
• It begins when the hypothalamus in the brain starts releasing gonadotropin-
releasing hormone (GnRH).
IN MALES…
• Starts when the pituitary gland secretes:

– Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) – which stimulates the testes to
produce sperm,
– Luteinising hormone (LH) – which stimulates the testes to produce
testosterone
86
– Secondary sexual characteristics (caused by testosterone)
• Rapid increase in height, size and strength of muscles
• Development and functioning of the prostate gland, seminal
vesicles and Cowper’s glands
• Voice deepens
• Hair grows in the pubic area, armpits and on the face
• Testes and penis increase in size
IN FEMALES…
• Starts when the pituitary gland secretes:

 Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) – stimulates a follicle in the
ovary to develop and secrete oestrogen
 Luteinising hormone (LH) – stimulates the development of the corpus
luteum in the ovary to secrete progesterone (not responsible for
secondary sexual characteristics)
 Secondary sexual characteristics (caused by oestrogen)
• Rapid increase in height and breast development
• Hair growth in the pubic area and armpits
• Increase in size of the vagina
• Uterine and endometrial growth
• Onset of menstruation
• Increase in body fat
87
SECTION B

1.1 Which ONE of the following involves the development of the young
inside the uterus of the mother and where it receives nutrients
through the placenta?
A Ovipary
B Vivipary
C Ovovivipary
D Amniotic egg
1.2 Below is a list of terms relating to reproduction:
(i) Precocial development

(ii) Altricial development
(iii) Amniotic egg
(iv) Parental care
Which of the terms above refer to strategies used by birds that

incubate their eggs in a nest and feed their young until they are able
to fly?
A (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv)

B (i), (iii) and (iv) only
C (ii), (iii) and (iv) only
D (i), (ii) and (iii) only
1.3 The structure in the amniotic egg that supplies nutrients:
A Shell
B Allantois
C Chorion
D Yolk sac
88
1.4 QUESTION 1.4 AND 1.5 ARE BASED ON THE DIAGRAM OF THE HUMAN
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM BELOW
Which part stores sperm until maturation?
A3
B4
C5
D6
1.5 A man who had cancer underwent surgery to remove part 1 and
part 2.
The man. . .
A will be able to release semen not containing sperm and

therefore cannot reproduce.
B cannot reproduce because he will produce abnormal sperm.
C cannot reproduce as his sperm will not be able to survive the
acidic conditions of the vagina.
D will be able to reproduce but his sperm will not be able to move
fast as they will not have energy.
1.6 The structure in the amniotic egg that removes waste products:
A Yolk sac
B Chorion
C Amnion
D Allantois
1.7 The structure that connects the uterus to the ovaries.
89
A Cervix
B Vulva
C Endometrium
D Fallopian tube
1.8 The place where the embryo implants in the female reproductive
system.
A Fallopian tube
B Cervix
C Endometrium
D Ovary
1.9 The part of the female reproductive system that secretes

progesterone.
A Uterus
B Fallopian tube
C Vulva
D Ovary
(18)
BOOK.
2.1 A structure in the female reproductive system where semen is

deposited during copulation
2.2 The stage when secondary sexual characteristics develop in males
and females
2.3 The accessory gland in male reproductive system that secretes
nutrient-rich fluid to provide sperms with energy
2.4 The type of fertilisation that requires water
2.5 Extra embryonic membrane which produces amniotic fluid
2.6 The type of egg produced by reptiles that has extra-embryonic
membranes
2.7 The type of development in birds where the hatchlings' eyes are
open and their bodies are covered with down feathers
2.8 A type of fertilisation in which the nucleus of a sperm fuses with the
nucleus of an ovum outside the body of the female
The type of development in birds where the young are incapable of
90
2.9 moving around on their own
The type of fertilisation associated with vivipary
2.10 A behavioural pattern of animals feeding their young and protecting
2.11 them from predators
Happens mostly in aquatic habitats when eggs are released from
2.12 the female's body and are sprayed with sperm
The type of fertilisation where the ovum is fertilised inside the
2.13 female reproductive organs
(13)

ANSWER BOOK.
COLUMN I COLUMN II
3.1 The young develops and is A Ovipary

nourished in an amniotic egg B Ovovivipary
that is retained in the mother’s
body
3.2 A zebra calf standing up and A Altricial development
drinking milk from his mother B Precocial development
directly after birth
3.3 A hormone that stimulates the A Prolactin
maturation of sperm B Testosterone
3.4 Produces a nutrient rich fluid A Cowper’s gland
that provides energy to B Epididymis
sperms
(4x 2) (8)
QUESTION 4 (DBE, Nov. 2020,Paper 1)

Male hormone contraceptive (birth control) pills have been in development
for over 50 years. The pills contain a substance called TU, which inhibits the
secretion of testosterone. There is, however, no product available on the
market yet, mainly due to many side effects associated with the product.
An investigation was done to determine how TU affects male fertility.
The procedure was as follows:
 308 healthy, male volunteers were selected.

 A sperm count for each volunteer was done initially.
 Each volunteer was given 500 mg of TU monthly over a period of 12
months.
 During the period of the investigation, the volunteers were asked to
91
wear loose-fitting trousers and underwear made of the same light
fabric.
 A sperm count was done weekly over a period of 24 months.
 The average sperm count was calculated per volunteer.
NOTE: Sperm count refers to the total number of healthy sperm per ml of
semen and is an indication of male fertility.
4.1 Identify the dependent variable in the investigation. (1)

4.2 State how the dependent variable in QUESTION 4.1 was measured. (1)
4.3 Name TWO other factors that should be considered when selecting
volunteers. (2)
4.4 Explain how TU reduces fertility. (2)
4.5 Explain why wearing tight-fitting trousers will decrease male fertility. (2)
4.6 Suggest ONE reason for doing the sperm count for an additional 12
months after stopping the TU treatment. (1)
4.7 The contraceptive options that are currently available for men are
limited to condoms and vasectomy. Vasectomy involves the cutting and
tying of both the vas deferens.
Explain how a vasectomy prevents pregnancy. (2)
(11)
QUESTION 5
The table below shows a comparison of the composition of the amniotic egg in three
different bird species
5.1 Define ovovivipary. (2)

5.2 Which ONE of the bird species (1, 2 or 3) most probably shows a precocial
development reproductive strategy? (1)
5.4 Which ONE of the bird species (1, 2 or 3) will possibly produce offspring
requiring the highest degree of parental care? (1)
(6)
QUESTION 6 (DBE, Nov. 2015 backup, Paper 1)
92
REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGY IN KANGAROOS
The red kangaroo reproduces by sexual reproduction. After mating, the

fertilised egg undergoes gestation in the uterus. After 33 days of gestation,
the red kangaroo gives birth to an offspring that is hairless, blind and only a
few centimetres long.
The offspring moves from the vagina by following a trail of saliva secreted by
the mother to a protective pouch where it remains for a year. During this time
the offspring drinks milk from the mother who has teats in her pouch.
After 190 days it leaves the pouch.
6.1 State whether
(a) Fertilisation in the red kangaroo species is INTERNAL or

EXTERNAL (1)
(b) The red kangaroo species is OVIPAROUS, OVOVIVIPAROUS
or VIVIPAROUS (1)
6.2 Give a reason for your answer to QUESTION 6.1(b). (1)
6.3 State TWO ways in which the survival of the offspring immediately
after birth is ensured in the red kangaroo species.
(2)
(5)
SECTION C
93
HOMEWORK QUESTIONS
The diagram below represents the human male reproductive system.
7.1 Identify structure A. (1)

7.2 State ONE function of part D in reproduction. (1)
7.3 Give TWO reasons why structure B is NOT considered to be an endocrine
gland. (2)
7.4 Name the type of gametogenesis that occurs in part C. (1)
7.5 Explain how the secretions of structures A and B improve the chances of
fertilisation. (4)
(9)
94
Read the extract below.
8.1 Name the type of fertilisation that takes place in both fish species. (1)
8.2 Explain why both fish species are oviparous. (2)
8.3 Describe TWO ways in which the chances of fertilisation are increased in the
northern pike fish. (2)
8.4 Which graph (X or Y) represents the survival rate of the northern pike fish? (1)
(9)
95
SESSION 7:
Gametogenesis & Menstrual cycle
SECTION A
EXAM GUIDELINE
Gametogenesis
 Formation of gametes (gametogenesis) by meiosis

 Male gametes formed by spermatogenesis
 Female gametes formed by oogenesis
 Spermatogenesis:
 Under the influence of testosterone
 diploid cells in the seminiferous tubules of the testes undergo meiosis
 to form haploid sperm cells
 Structure of a sperm, using a diagram
 Functions of the parts of a sperm cell (acrosome, head with haploid nucleus,
middle portion/neck with mitochondria and a tail)
 Oogenesis:
 Diploid cells in the ovary undergo mitosis
 to form numerous follicles.
 At the onset of puberty
 and under the influence of FSH,
 one cell inside a follicle enlarges and undergoes meiosis.
 Of the four cells that are produced, only one survives to form a mature,
haploid ovum.
 This occurs in a monthly cycle.
 Structure of an ovum, using a diagram
Functions of different parts of an ovum (jelly layer, haploid nucleus,
cytoplasm)
 The menstrual cycle includes the uterine and ovarian cycles

 Events in the ovarian cycle:
 Development of the Graafian follicle
 Ovulation
 Formation of the corpus luteum
 Events in the uterine cycle:

 Changes that take place in the thickness of the endometrium
 Menstruation
 Hormonal control of the menstrual cycle (ovarian and uterine cycles) with
reference to the action of FSH, oestrogen, LH and progesterone
96
 Negative feedback mechanism involving FSH and progesterone in controlling the
NOTES & EXAM TIPS
production of ova
Spermatogenesis
Spermatogenesis is the production of male gametes (sperm cells) in the testes of the
male. It occurs in the germinal epithelium of the seminiferous tubules in the testes.
During puberty the germinal epithelium contains a diploid number of chromosomes

(46). These cells go through the process of meiosis forming haploid sperm cells with
23 chromosomes. The gametes may have (22 + X) or (22 + Y) chromosomes.
Spermatogenesis takes places as follows:
1. Under the influence of testosterone, the diploid germinal epithelial cells (2n)
lining the seminiferous tubules go through meiosis.
2. Each cell that goes through meiosis produces 4 haploid spermatids (n).
3. Each spermatid matures to form a haploid sperm cell.
A diagram illustrating the process where sperms are produced through
meiosis.
97
The structure of a sperm
Oogenesis
Oogenesis takes place as follows:
1. The diploid germinal epithelium cells (2n) of the ovaries go through the
process of mitosis to form many follicles.
2. Every 28 days, the follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates one follicle.
3. Only one cell inside of that follicle enlarges and goes through the process of
Meiosis.
4. Out of the 4 (four) haploid cells produced through meiosis, only one cell will
survive to form a mature ovum.
The other three cells from meiosis will degenerate.
98
Diagram indicating oogenesis taking place in an ovarium:
The ovum
The menstrual cycle
Hormones: FSH, LH, Oestrogen, Progesterone
Pituitary gland hormones Ovarian hormones
99
FSH- follicle stimulating hormone
LH= Luteinising hormone
(Know gland, hormone & function)
Sequence: FSH (stimulates follicle growth) secreted from the pituitary gland in
brain  Ovaries where oestrogen (thickening of endometrium) is secreted by
Graafian follicle  pituitary gland secretes LH (which stimulates ovulation) 
ovaries where corpus luteum secretes progesterone (that maintains thickness of
endometrium).
Ovarian cycle:
The ovarian cycle refers to the development and release of an ovum.
This takes place inside the ovary.
1. The ovarian cycle begins when FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone) is

secreted by the pituitary gland. FSH is transported to the ovary by the blood.
2. The follicle is stimulated to grow and become the Graafian Follicle and
secretes oestrogen.
3. Luteinising hormone is secreted by the pituitary gland which causes the
ovulation and the formation of the Corpus Luteum which in turn secretes
progesterone. (Luteinising hormone causes the Corpus Luteum)
The following diagram illustrates the sequence of the ovarian cycle from day 1
to day 28:
Uterine cycle:
100
The Uterine cycle shows the changes that occur in the uterus wall as it gradually
thickens and becomes more vascular (richly supplied with blood vessels) over a
period of 28 days.
1. During the first 4-7 days the uterine lining(endometrium) is shed which is
called menstruation.
2. The oestrogen secreted by the developing follicle thickens the uterine lining
(endometrium) and increase blood vessels.
3. After ovulation, the hormone progesterone causes the endometrium to
thicken even more and develop even more blood vessels.
A diagram indicating the sequence of the uterine cycle starting from day 1 to
day 28
Diagrammatic representation of the menstrual cycle indicating what happens

in the ovaries and uterus:
101
Graph showing how the uterine cycle, ovarian hormones, pituitary hormones,
body temperature and ovarian cycle varies throughout the menstrual cycle.
102
Hormonal regulation of the menstrual cycle
Remember: If the progesterone level stays high or doesn’t decrease it means

that the women is pregnant (fertilisation has taken place). Endometrial lining
will stay intact for implantation to take place and no menstruation will take
place.
FSH and Progesterone negative feedback mechanism
When the levels of progesterone increases (as it is secreted by the Corpus

luteum), it inhibits the secretion of FSH.
Which will in turn inhibit the development of another follicle in the ovarium.
When the levels of progesterone drop, FSH secretion is no longer inhibited (or
FSH levels will increase)
A new follicle starts to develop.
SECTION B
103

1.1 The structure that the sperm needs to swim up the fallopian
tube to reach the ovum:
A Nucleus
B Tail
C Acrosome
D Head
1.2 During the ovarian cycle FSH stimulates the formation of

the…
A Corpus Luteum
B Corpus Albicans
C Graafian follicle
D Germinal epithelium
1.3 Which of the following are hormones that directly stimulate the
development of the endometrium?
A FSH and LH
B Progesterone and oestrogen
C FSH and progesterone
D LH and oestrogen (6)
QUESTION 2
BOOK. (Questions taken from various sources)
2.1 A hormone that stimulates the development of the Corpus luteum

2.2 The structure that secretes progesterone in the ovarium
2.3 The process where the endometrial lining is shed
104
2.4 The follicle that secretes oestrogen
2.5. The structure in the sperm that contains many mitochondria
2.6 The structure in the sperm that contains an enzyme that will
dissolve the ovum membrane (6)
QUESTION 3

ANSWER BOOK.
COLUMN I COLUMN II
3.1 The process that a A Mitosis

spermatogonium undergoes to
change into spermatids B Meiosis
3.2 A hormone that stimulates the A Prolactin

maturation of sperm
B Testosterone
3.3 If the levels of this hormone do A FSH

not drop during menstrual
cycle it is an indication of B Oestrogen
pregnancy
(3 x 2) (6)
QUESTION 4
105
4.1. Identify part:
(a) A
(b) B
(c) C (3)
4.2 Name the process involving meiosis that leads to the formation of an ovum. (1)
4.3 Write down only the LETTERS of TWO parts that enable the sperm to move
towards the ovum. (2)
QUESTION 5
(DBE, Nov 2019, Paper 1)
Contraceptives are used to prevent pregnancy. Some females use pills that contain
progesterone. In one packet there would be 28 pills, of which 21 contain different
concentrations of progesterone according to the day in the cycle and the remaining 7
will contain no progesterone. A female has to take one pill daily at the same time in a
given sequence, as shown below:
The graph below shows the difference in the progesterone levels during a menstrual
cycle of a woman taking contraceptive pills and a woman not taking contraceptive
pills.
106
5.1 Oestrogen levels between days 8 and 22 will remain low in the
woman who takes contraceptive pills. Explain why this is the case. (4)
5.2 Ovulation took place on day 14 in the woman not taking
contraceptive pills.
Explain the evidence in the graph that supports this conclusion. (2)
5.3 Suggest ONE reason for including pills with no hormones in the
contraceptive pill packet. (1)
(7)
107
QUESTION 6
(DBE, March 2018, Paper 1)
The diagram below represents the sequence of events that takes place during
the ovarian cycle of a female.
6.1 Give the name of the:

(a) Hormone that controls the development of structure A
(b) Process taking place at C (2)
6.2 Describe the change that takes place in the uterus as the result of the
hormone secreted by structure A. (2)
6.3 Structure B degenerates if fertilisation does not take place.
Explain the implications of this for the:
(a) Ovarian cycle (3)
(b) Uterine cycle (3)
(10)
108
QUESTION 7
(DBE, Nov 2020, Paper 1)
The structure below represents a part of the female reproductive system.
7.1 Identify part D. (1)

7.2 State ONE function of part A. (1)
7.3 Describe the process of oogenesis as it occurs in part B. (4)
7.4 State ONE way in which structure C is suited for its function during
pregnancy. (1)
7.5 A person undergoes a surgical operation to remove part B on both sides.
Explain why this person will not menstruate. (3)
(10)
SECTION C
109
HOMEWORK QUESTIONS
QUESTION 8 (DBE, Nov 2022, Paper 1)
The graph below shows the levels of two hormones that are secreted by the
pituitary gland during the menstrual cycle.
8.1 State TWO functions of hormone B. (2)

8.2 Explain why a female who is struggling to get pregnant:
(a) May be given pills containing hormone A as a treatment (3)
(b) Will have her levels of hormone B constantly monitored (2)
8.3 Explain how the levels of hormone A on days 0 to 5 will differ in a
pregnant female. (3)
(10)
110
SESSION 8:
FERTILISATION AND IMPLANTATION
SECTION A
EXAM GUIDELINE
Fertilisation and development of zygote to blastocyst

 Definition of copulation and fertilisation
 Process of fertilization
 Development of zygote  embryo (morula and blastula/blastocyst)  foetus
Implantation, gestation and the role of the placenta

 Definition of implantation
 The role of oestrogen and progesterone in maintaining pregnancy
 Structure of the developing foetus in the uterus, using a diagram
 Functions of the following parts:

 Chorion and chorionic villi
 Amnion, amniotic cavity and amniotic fluid
 Umbilical cord (including umbilical artery and umbilical vein)
 Placenta
111
NOTES & EXAM TIPS
FERTILISATION
• Sperm cells deposited in the vagina move by spiral movements towards the
ovum in the fallopian tubes
• The head of one sperm cell penetrates the membranous barrier around the
ovum
• Enzymes from the acrosome hydrolyse these barriers
• The sperm cell loses its tail
• The yolk membrane becomes impenetrable to other sperm
• The nuclei of the male and female fuse
• Fertilisation occurs in the fallopian tubes forming a zygote
• The zygote undergoes mitosis to form a ball of cells called the morula and
divides further to form a hollow ball of cells called the blastula
• The blastula moves along the fallopian tube until it reaches the uterus
112
IMPLANTATION
• The blastula forms two sac-like structures

1. Amnion
2. Yolk sac
• The outer most covering is called the chorion
• The yolk sac shrinks
• The amnion fills with fluid and fuses with the chorion after 2 months
• Villi develop from the chorion
• These become larger and more vascular called chorionic villi
• The region of the endometrium undergoes further changes and forms a
placenta
THE PLACENTA
Development of the Placenta
• Large spaces or sinuses develop in the endometrium where attachment

occurs
• Chorionic villi fit into these spaces
• where maternal blood bathes the villi
• NB!! Maternal and foetal blood never mix
• One vein and two arteries form the umbilical cord
• Nutrients diffuse from maternal blood across the membranes into foetal blood
Functions of the placenta
1. Nutrition
• Nutrients including vitamins and minerals diffuse from the maternal blood to
the foetus
2. Gaseous exchange
• Oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged between maternal and foetal
blood
3. Excretion
• Nitrogenous wastes are carried away from the foetus by maternal blood
4. Protection
• The placenta acts as a barrier or filter for certain harmful pathogens and
chemicals
• Maternal antibodies cross the placenta to the foetus
• However, HIV and alcohol are able to cross this barrier
5. Endocrine function
• After two months the placenta takes over the secretion of progesterone and
oestrogen to maintain the endometrial lining
113
Amnion and amniotic fluid
• The amnion is a membranous structure in which the foetus develops

• It is impenetrable and secretes fluid in which the foetus lives and moves
Functions of amniotic fluid

1. Shock absorber – protects the foetus from mechanical injury
2. Thermoregulatory – prevents extremes temperature changes
3. Moisturizing – prevents desiccation (drying out) of the foetus
4. Environment – provides the medium in which the foetus moves, breathes
and swallows
Gestation
 The gestation period is the time in which the embryo develops inside the
uterus.
114
 Gestation and the development of the embryo lasts for about 40 weeks or 280
days.
 After 12 weeks the embryo is known as a foetus
The vesicle which contains enzymes found in the head of

Acrosome
a sperm cell
A fluid that protects the human embryo against injuries

Amniotic fluid
and large-scale temperature changes
Blastocyst/blastula A hollow ball of cells formed from the zygote
The outermost membrane found around the

Chorion
embryo/foetus
The introduction of the male sex organ into the female

Copulation
sex canal, followed by a discharge of semen.
The inner lining of the uterus where implantation of the

Endometrium
embryo occurs
Part of the female reproductive system where fertilisation

Fallopian tube
occurs
When the nucleus of the sperm cell fuses with the

Fertilisation
nucleus of the ovum
The period between fertilisation and birth when the

Gestation
foetus develops in the womb
Implantation The attachment of the fertilised ovum or blastocyst to the

wall of the uterus at the start of pregnancy.
115
The hormone that causes the thickening of the
Oestrogen
endometrium and is produced by the Graafian follicle
An organ that develops in the uterus during pregnancy,

which proved the foetus with nutrients and useful
Placenta
substances and removes waste products and harmful
substances
A hormone produced by the pituitary gland/hypophysis

Prolactin
that stimulates milk production in human females
Zygote The diploid cell formed by the process of fertilisation
EXAM TIPS
 Know the sequence of development:
Zygote  Morula  Blastocyst (not blastocyte)  Foetus
 Know the functions of the amniotic fluid, placenta and umbilical cord
 The period of development of the foetus in the uterus is ‘gestation’ which
spans from conception to birth as opposed to ‘pregnancy’ which refers to all
changes (hormonal, physical, emotional) that take place in the body of a
female as a result of the developing foetus
 Study the diagrams very well: Know the labels and functions
SECTION B

question number (1.1 and 1.2) in your ANSWER BOOK, for example 1.3 D.
QUESTIONS 1.1 and 1.2 REFER TO THE FOLLOWING INVESTIGATION
In an investigation, a group of scientists collected data on how smoking

influences the length of pregnancies. The normal average length of pregnancy is 42
weeks.
The scientists collected the following data:
• 1,2% of mothers who smoked heavily gave birth at 30 weeks compared to

0,46% of non-smoking mothers
116
• 1,8% of mothers who smoked heavily gave birth at 36 weeks compared to
0,9% of non-smoking mothers
1.1 The average percentage difference, in early births between mothers

who smoke heavily, and non-smoking mothers is …
A. 0,76%
B. 2,28%
C. 4%
D. 1,72%
1.2 The scientists measured the dependent variable by …
A. Dividing the smoking and non-smoking woman into two

groups.
B. Calculating the % woman giving birth.
C. Compare the number of women giving birth early and
woman who gave birth at 42 weeks.
D. Calculating the % smoking and non-smoking woman who
gave birth early at 24, 30 and 36 weeks.
(4)
QUESTION 2
Describe the development of a zygote until implantation occurs (4)
3. The diagrams below show structures formed during human reproduction.
3.2 Name the organelle found in large numbers in part C. (1)
3.3 Give the NUMBER (1, 2, 3 or 4) only of the diagram that represents
117
the following:
(a) Morula (1)
(b) Structure that will implant in the uterus (1)
(c) Blastula/Blastocyst (1)
3.4 Give the LETTER and NAME of the part that will enter the ovum
during fertilisation. (2)
3.5 Name the type of cell division that occurred to produce the structure (1)
in diagram 3.
(8)
QUESTION 4 (KZN, Sept 2020, Paper 1)

Study the following diagram:
4. Identify:
1 (a) Structure A (1)
(b) Hormone responsible for process E. (1)
(c) Process D (1)
4. Name the hormone produced by the follicle before process E. (1)
2
118
4. How many chromosomes does structure B have? (1)
3
4. On which day was structure A released? (1)
4
4. Describe the development from B until it forms structure C. (4)
5
4. Explain the importance of structure F remaining constant after process E.
6 (3)
(13
)
QUESTION 5 (DBE, May-June 2019, Paper 1)
119
Read the extract and study the diagram below.
Ectopic Pregnancies
An ectopic pregnancy is a problem in which the embryo attaches outside

the uterus. In most cases the embryo implants in the Fallopian tubes but
implantation can also occur on the ovaries, in the cervix or in the
abdominal cavity. An ectopic pregnancy cannot proceed normally. The
embryo usually cannot survive.
Ectopic pregnancies are caused by one or more of the following:
 An infection or inflammation of the fallopian tubes

 The development of scar tissue from a previous infection or a surgical
procedure in the Fallopian tubes
 Previous surgery in the pelvic area
In most cases, the Fallopian tube where the ectopic pregnancy occurs,
has to be removed surgically to save the woman’s life.
5.1 Explain why women who have had surgery on their Fallopian tubes
have a greater risk of experiencing an ectopic pregnancy. (3)
5.2 Explain why a woman who had her Fallopian tube removed after an (2)
ectopic pregnancy occurred, may still be able to fall pregnant.
5.3 Give TWO reasons why the embryo may not be able to survive (2)
during an ectopic pregnancy inside the Fallopian tube. (7)
QUESTION 6 (EC, Sept 2018, Paper 1)
120
The diagram below represents a developing human foetus in the uterus.
6.1 Name TWO blood vessels found in the part labelled B. (2)
6.2 Tabulate ONE difference in the composition of blood flowing to and

from the foetus in part B. (3)
6.3 Name the process that enables the exchange of substances between
the foetus and the mother at A. (1)
6.4 During pregnancy, one complication is that a part of A may tear away
from the uterus.
Explain the consequences to the foetus of such damage. (3)

(9)
SECTION C
HOMEWORK QUESTIONS
121
The diagrams below show the structure of a normal and an abnormal sperm.
(The diagrams are drawn to scale.).
7.2 Describe the role of structure B during fertilisation. (1)
7.3 Explain the role of the organelles found in large numbers in part C. (2)
7.4 Explain TWO reasons why sperm 1 is structurally better suited for
fertilisation than sperm 2. (4)
(8)
QUESTION 8 (EC, Prelim 2022, Paper 1)
122
DIAGRAM I shows the structure of a normal female reproductive system and
DIAGRAM II shows the structure of a female reproductive system with a
didelphys uterus. Women with a didelphys uterus may have a normal
pregnancy, but there may be complications in some cases such as ectopic
pregnancies, intra-uterine foetal growth restriction, abnormal placentation and
foetal malposition.
8.1 Tabulate TWO structural differences between the female

reproductive systems as shown in DIAGRAM I and DIAGRAM II. (5)
8.2 State TWO possible complications that may occur in a female with
didelphys uterus during pregnancy. (2)
8.3 A woman with didelphys uterus is 10 weeks pregnant.
Explain why no other implantation will occur in the second uterus
during this time. (4)
8.4 Describe the structures that develop after implantation to ensure
protection and nutrition of the developing embryo. (8)
(19
)
123

Life Sciences Ssip Learner Booklet Sessions 1-8-2023

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Life Sciences Ssip Learner Booklet Sessions 1-8-2023

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

SECONDARY SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT

SUBJECT: LIFE SCIENCES

LEARNER’S BOOKLET 2023

A Session 1: Skills needed in Life Sciences 3

B Session 2: DNA: location, structure and 26

C Session 3: DNA replication and DNA profiling 36

D Session 4: RNA: location, structure and 48

F Session 6: Diversity of reproductive 77

G Session 7: Gametogenesis & Menstrual cycle 96

H Session 8: Fertilization and implantation 110

Orientation to Life Sciences:

Scientific skills involve: • importance of biological principles such as relationship

NOTES & EXAM TIPS

Air temperature recorded over a time period of 24 hours.

Time (hours) Temperature

 Draw a set of axes and label the X and Y-axes.

 Choose a scale for the X and the Y-axes.

The values were taken directly from

 Give the graph a heading or caption.

How to draw a pie chart

Table of contraceptive use by a sampling group of women

Contraceptive Number of women

34 ⁄ 200 x 360 o = 61.2o (round down to 61o) 30 ⁄ 200 x 360 o = 54o

Use a mathematical compass to draw

 Dependent: This is the variable or factor that is being measured.

Use the table to identify the dependent and independent variables.

Point number Number of organisms

How to draw a histogram

Number of pupils in each percentage range

2.1 How to calculate averages:

Average weight of jackals: sum of the weight

2.2 Calculating Percentage:

Calculate the percentage sick jackals in the investigation above:

2 out of 6 jackals are sick.

Percentage: value x 100

Percentage increase: end – beginning (difference) x 100

2.4 Using Formulas

Substitute values in formulas.

Mark re-capture experiments

2.5 Calculations for magnification

Actual length of specimen = measured length of specimen x length on scale

Measure scale bar with ruler

Show all working and give the answer in microns (μm)

60mm x 1000 = 60 000 µm

12mm x 1000 = 12000 µm

Actual length of chloroplast = 60 000 x 1

 have a title or caption

Note: label lines must:

 be drawn with a ruler.

4. HYPOTHESIS TESTING INVESTIGATIONS

4.2 Hypothesis Definition:

How to state a hypothesis:

 A hypothesis is an idea that a person gets from observations made. It is a

The scientific method generally has the following steps:

1. State the problem (purpose)

The following example of a scientific investigation illustrates the above concepts:

4.4 Reliability and Validity

TYPICAL EXAM QUESTIONS

Distances of the lamp Diameter of the pupil

Research was done in Khayelitsha in site B and C on causes of death among

Category 2008 2010

The grade 10 learners investigated the amount of decomposing bacteria found

Soil pH No. of decomposing bacteria