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Seminar QM Eng-7
Seminar QM Eng-7
Seminar QM Eng-7
2 The Principles of QM 27
2.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.1.1 The superposition principle [postulate I] . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.1.2 The Observables postulate [postulate II] . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.1.3 The Measurement postulate [postulate III] . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3
4 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1
Background Mathematical
Concepts
1.1 Theory
1.1.1 Complex Numbers - Review
The set of complex numbers C contains elements of the form:
z = (a, b),
where a, b are two real numbers, a, b ∈ R. They referred to as the real part and,
respectively, the imaginary part of z:
a = Re(z), b = Im(z) .
On the set of complex numbers C we define two operations:
1. ”+” : C × C → C gives the addition of two complex numbers, whose result
is a complex number, defined as:
• z1 +z2 = (a1 , b1 )+(a2 , b2 ) ≡ (a1 + a2 , b1 + b2 ) ∈ C
2. ”·” : C × C → C gives the multiplication of two complex numbers, whose
result is a complex number, defined as:
• z1 ·z2 = (a1 , b1 )·(a2 , b2 ) ≡ (a1 a2 − b1 b2 , a1 b2 + a2 b1 ) ∈ C .
The set of complex numbers together with the addition operation ”+” and
the multiplication operation ”·” is said to have the mathematical structure of a
field, denoted by (C, +, ·).
Imporant note: If just the addition would have been defined, then (C, +)
would have been actually just (R2 , +). It is the particular ”·” multiplication
operation that entitles C to be called ”the set of complex numbers”.
5
6 CHAPTER 1. BACKGROUND MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS
Who is ”i”?
In practice, it is extremely useful to define the ”imaginary unit” by i = (0, 1),
thus:
• Re(i) = 0
• Im(i) = 1.
z ≡ a + ib
Some examples:
Definition: (V, +, ·) = vector space over the field K (the notation is V /K) if:
ψ+φ = φ+ψ, ∀ ψ, φ ∈ V
(ψ+φ)+χ = ψ+(φ+χ), ∀ ψ, φ, χ ∈ V
∃ 0V ∈ V such that: ψ+0V = 0V +ψ = ψ , ∀ ψ ∈ V
∀ ψ ∈ V, ∃ − ψ such that: ψ+(−ψ) = (−ψ)+ψ = 0
• hψ, ψi ≥ 0, ∀ ψ ∈ V ; hψ, ψi = 0 ⇐⇒ ψ = 0V
8 CHAPTER 1. BACKGROUND MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS
Solved exercise1 : Prove that a scalar which multiplies a vector on the left side
of the scalar product, gets out of the scalar product with a complex conjugation,
that is ha·ξ, ϕi = a∗ ·hξ, ϕi.
ha·ξ, ϕi = hϕ, a·ξi∗
∗
= (a·hϕ, ξi)
= a∗ ·hϕ, ξi∗
= a∗ ·hξ, ϕi
Solved exercise2 : Prove that the scalar product is linear also in the left
component, that is: hψ+φ, χi = hψ, χi+hφ, χi, ∀ ψ, φ, χ ∈ V
hψ+φ, χi = hχ, ψ+φi∗
∗
= (hχ, ψi+hχ, φi)
= hχ, ψi∗ +hχ, φi∗
= hψ, χi+hφ, χi
Exercise3 : Using the previous two exercises, prove that:
ha1 ·ξ1 +a2 ·ξ2 +a3 ·ξ3 , ϕi = a∗1 ·hξ1 , ϕi+a∗2 ·hξ2 , ϕi+a∗3 ·hξ3 , ϕi
and that: X X
h cn ·ψn , φi = c∗n ·hψn , φi
n n
1.1. THEORY 9
• A:V →V
Hermitian Operators
Let
A = A†
• ∀ a1 , a2 , ..., an ∈ K:
1.1.8 Convention
We choose the convention:
 = Operator
A = The matrix associated to the operator Â
OBSERVATION:
• If  is a Hermitian operator, there is a unitary matrix U (U † = U −1 ) such
that U −1 AU = diagonal matrix.
• U is the matrix of eigenvectors of A.
Let V = RN .
• dim V =?
• Write down a basis of V . Can any vector in V be written as a finite linear
combination of basis vectors?
• Let v = (1, 1, . . . , 1, . . . ) ∈ V . What is the norm of v?
Problem 2: Sequences converging to a limit outside the space.
x(1) = (1, 0, 0, . . . ),
1
x(2) = 1, , 0, . . . ,
2
..
.
(n) 1 1
x = 1, , . . . , n−1 , . . . .
2 2
Also, let the vector x = 21k k∈N∗ . Does the sequence x(n) converge to x?
Is x an element of V ?
Let V be the space of square integrable functions, defined on [1, ∞). Also,
let there be the operator Q̂ : V → V defined by Q̂f (x) = xf (x).
1
Consider the function g(x) = . What is the norm of the vector Q̂g(x)?
x
Does the vector Q̂g(x) belong to the space V ?
In the infinite dimensional case the pre-Hilbert space is insufficient for the
description of Quantum Mechanics because it is not:
• F :V →K
hφF , .i = F (.)
We now just need to prove that with this definition of φF , we have that
hφF , χi = F (χ), for ∀ χ ∈ V .
We start from hφF , χi, and use the properties of the scalar product:
∗
X
hφF , χi = h [F (ψn )] ·ψn , χi
n
X
= F (ψn )·hψn , χi
n
P
Note: we may expand χ in the basis {ψn } as χ = n cn ·ψn . Using
this, together with the properties of the scalar product and those of linear
functionals, we obtain:
X X
hφF , χi = F (ψn )·hψn , cm ·ψm i
n m
X X
= F (ψn )· cm ·hψn , ψm i
n m
X X
= F (ψn )· cm · δmn
n m
X
= F (ψn )·cn
n
X
= cn ·F (ψn )
n
X
= F( cn ·ψn )
n
= F (χ)
1.2 Exercises
1. The conjugate of a complex number z = a + ib, a, b ∈ R is denoted by z ∗
and is defined as z ∗ = a − ib. Show that:
(a) zz ∗ = |z|2
(b) z + z ∗ ∈ R
(c) (z1 + z2 )∗ = z1∗ + z2∗
(d) (z1 z2 )∗ = z1∗ z2∗
(e) |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |
2. Calculate:
5
1+i
1−i
1.2. EXERCISES 15
n
X
ha, bi = a∗i bi
i=1
11. Let A and B be two Hermitian matrices. Show that they may be simul-
taneously diagonalized (by the same matrix U ) if and only if AB = BA.
12. Show that the absolute value of the eigenvalues of a unitary operator is 1.
13. Show that the sum and the product of two linear operators are also linear
operators.
16 CHAPTER 1. BACKGROUND MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS
where  is an operator. The Dirac notation allows for the previous expression
to also be read in two equivalent ways:
• the bra hψ| acting on the vector Â|φi, that is: hψ|Â|φi = hψ| Â|φi
• the bra hψ|Â acting on the vector |φi, that is: hψ|Â|φi = hψ|Â |φi
Thus, within the Dirac notation is natural to extend the action of operators
and also let them act on bras (functionals). The rule is that there should be
the correspondence:
hψ| ↔ † |ψi (1.7)
such that:
D E D E
hψ| |φi = † |ψi , |φi = |ψi, Â|φi = hψ| Â|φi (1.8)
Note:
• Operators always act on kets from the left, like Â|φi.
• Operators always act on bras from the right, like hψ|Â.
1.3. DIRAC NOTATION 17
Th: Two operators commute if and only if they have a common basis of eigen-
vectors.
• A complete set of observables is the set of operators {Â, B̂, Ĉ, ...} for which
any pair of operators commutes and the basis of common eigenvectors is
unique.
• Two observables are called compatible if the commutator of their associ-
ated operators vanishes.
• Measuring an observable B which is compatible with A after first doing a
measurement of A, leaves the system as it was after the first measurement
(that of A).
Properties of the commutator:
•
[A, B] = −[B, A] (1.13)
[A, B + C] = [A, B] + [A, C] (1.14)
† † †
[A, B] = [B , A ] (1.15)
[A, BC] = [A, B]C + B[A, C] (1.16)
[AB, C] = A[B, C] + [A, C]B (1.17)
• Jacobi identity:
[A, [B, C]] = [B, [C, A]] + [C, [A, B]] = 0 (1.18)
• Distributivity
n−1
X
n
[A, B ] = B j [A, B]B n−j−1 (1.19)
j=0
n−1
X
[An , B] = An−j−1 [A, B]Aj (1.20)
j=0
1.3.3 Exercises-I
1. Let |ψi and |ξi two states in the Hilbert space H
where
(a) hψ|ξi
(b) hψ|ψi
1.3.4 Exercises-II
H.1 Let |ψi and |ξi two states in the Hilbert space H
(b) Let there be a state of arbitrary polarization |ψi = a|~xi + b|~y i. Find
out a0 , b0 such that |ψi = a0 |Li + b0 |Ri
(c) Consider the operators
Z ∞
lim f (x)δα (x)dx = f (0) (1.23)
α→0 −∞
Z −
lim f (x)δα (x)dx = 0 (1.24)
α→0 −∞
Z ∞
lim f (x)δα (x)dx = 0 (1.25)
α→0
or, locally:
δ(x) ≡ lim δα (x)
α→0
The Dirac Delta function may be seen as the derivative of the Heaviside θ(x)
function:
d
(θ(x)) = δ(x) (1.27)
dx
0, x < 0
where: θ(x) = {
1, x ≥ 0
Let x0 ∈ R be a specific point. Then the following relations are valid:
Z ∞
f (x)δ(x − x0 )dx = f (x0 )
−∞
R∞ f (0) 0 ∈ [a, b]
−∞
f (x)δ(x − x0 )dx = {
0 0 6∈ [a, b]
Z ∞
δ(x − x0 )dx = 1
−∞
Z ∞ Z 0
1 x x
lim δα (x) = lim ( e− α dx + e α dx) =
α→ 0 α→ 0 2α 0 −∞
1 x x 1
lim (−αe− α |∞ α 0
0 + αe |−∞ ) = lim (−0 + α + α − 0) = 1
α→ 0 2α α→ 0 2α
∞
1 √ 2
Z
lim δα (x)dx = lim √ α π=1 (1.31)
α→ 0 −∞ α→ 0 α π
∞ ∞ π
sin( α x) π
Z Z
1 1
lim δα (x)dx = lim π d( x) = π = 1 (1.33)
α→ 0 −∞ π α→ 0 −∞ ( α x) α π
α sin2 ( αx )
δα (x) = (1.34)
π x2
∞ ∞
sin2 ( αx ) x
Z Z
1 1
lim δα (x)dx = lim d( ) = π = 1 (1.35)
α→ 0 −∞ π α→ 0 −∞ ( αx )2 α π
P δ(x − xi )
3. δ(g(x)) = i , where xi are simple zeroes of g, i.e. g(xi ) = 0
|g 0 (xi )|
and g 0 (xi ) 6= 0.
5. xδ 0 (x) = −δ(x)
Z ∞
1 i
φ̃(p) = √ φ(x) e− ~ px dx (1.36)
2π~ −∞
The Fourier transform of the Dirac Delta Function δ(x − x0 ) may be written
as:
Z ∞
1 i 1 i
δ̃x0 (p) = √ δ(x − x0 )e− x px dx = √ e− ~ px0 (1.38)
2π~ −∞ 2π~
1
For x0 = 0 we have δ̄0 (p) = √
.
2π~
By applying the inverse Fourier transform to δ̃x0 (p) we find the original
function δ(x − x0 ) as:
Z ∞ Z ∞
1 i 1 i
δ(x − x0 ) = √ δ̃x0 (p) e ~ px dp = e ~ p(x−x0 ) dp (1.39)
2π~ −∞ 2π~ −∞
p
We may define the wave-number as k = . The Delta function becomes:
~
Z ∞
1
δ(x − x0 ) = eik(x−x0 ) dx (1.40)
2π −∞
Z ∞
1
z = x − x0 ⇒ δ(z) = eikz dk (1.41)
2π −∞
0, x2 + y 2 =
6 0
δ 2 (x, y) = {
∞, x2 + y 2 = 0
By integrating the Delta function over the two dimensional space we obtain:
Z ∞ Z ∞
dx dy δ 2 (x, y) = 1 (1.42)
−∞ −∞
δ(x)
The identitaty δ(cx) = (valid for the one dimensional case) becomes, for
|c|
the two dimensional case:
1 2
δ 2 (ax, by) = δ (x, y) (1.43)
|ab|
The two-variable Delta function can be decomposed in a product of one-
variable Delta functions:
Using polar coordinates (r, θ), the two dimensional Delta function assumes
the form:
δ(r)
δ 2 (r, θ) = (1.45)
πr
Exercise: Check that the normalization condition holds:
Z ∞ Z 2π
dr r dθ δ 2 (r, θ) = 1
0 0
By integrating the Delta function over the three dimensional space we obtain:
Z ∞ Z ∞ Z ∞
dx dy dz δ 3 (x, y, z) = 1 (1.46)
−∞ −∞ −∞
δ(r)
δ 3 (r, θ, φ) = (1.49)
2πr2
On may also use a vectorial notation to write:
Upon integration over the three dimensional space R3 with a well behaved
test function f (~r), we obtain:
Z
δ(~r − r~0 )f (~r)d3~r = f (r~0 ) (1.51)
R3
~k = (kx , ky , kz ) = ( px , py , pz ) (1.53)
~ ~ ~
By taking into account the decomposition of the 3D delta function into a
product of 1D delta functions, and also the integral representation of the 1D
delta function deduced previously, we may write:
Z Z
1 3~ i~ r −r~0 ) 1 1 ~0
δ(~r − r~0 ) = 3
d k e k(~
= 3
d3 p e ~ p~(~r−r ) (1.54)
(2π) R3 (2π~) R3
Chapter 2
The Principles of QM
2.1 Theory
2.1.1 The superposition principle [postulate I]
• The states of a quantum system are represented by vectors |ψi of a Hilbert
space H.
• To each quantum system we associate a Hilbert space H that contains all
its possible states.
• The state vector associated to a system’s state contains all the information
available on that system.
27
28 CHAPTER 2. THE PRINCIPLES OF QM
Â|φi i = λi |φi i
PN
such that we may expand ∀|ψi ∈ H as |ψi = i ci |φi i.
The expansion coefficients are ci = hφi |ψi, i.e. {|φi i} form an orthonormal basis
of H.
As a consequence, we get the spectral resolution of the identity operator and
that of the operator Â:
X X
Iˆ = |φi ihφi | , Â = λi |φi ihφi |
i i
In the case of infinite dimensional spaces, the above theorem is not true
in general: although there are countably infinite orthogonal bases, a Hermi-
tian operator does not necessarely have a countably infinite set of eigenvectors.
However, the following theorem can be proven:
II. There are spaces for which the generalization of the spectral decomposition
of the finite dimensional case may be proven for all Hermitian operators used in
QM:
XN Z
|ψi = hφi |ψi|φi i + |φihφ|ψidφ
i
For example, see the Lecture notes regarding the eigenstates of the position
operator:
The ket |xi represents a state for which the position of the particle is localized
exactly at the point x, on the real axis. In QM it is impossible to realize such
a state physically.
The mathematical property ”|xi is not an element of the Hilbert space”
corresponds to the physical property ”|xi is not a realizable physical state”.
The physically realizable states are always represented by ”true” vectors
belonging to the Hilbert space, that is the normalized kets, i.e. vectors of norm
one.
The generalized normalization condition hx|x0 i = δ(x − x0 ) implies that the
norm of the pseudo-eigenvector |xi is hx|xi = δ(x − x) = δ(0) = ∞.
2.1. THEORY 29
• However, if Ntot is very large, the relative frequencies of the various pos-
sible outcomes of the individual measurements usually approach a stable
limit.
In the limit of very large Ntot , it thus makes sense to define the probabil-
ities for each outcome:
Nai
Pexp (ai ) ≡ lim ,
Ntot →∞ Ntot
where Nai is the number of times ai was the outcome of the measurement.
• At each measurement, the state of each copy of the system will collapse to
the eigenstate of  corresponding to the obtained eigenvalue. In agreement
with the above example, we have that:
the state of the first copy of the system collapses to |a3 i;
the state of the second copy of the system collapses to |a5 i;
the state of the third copy of the system collapses to |a1 i;
the state of the fourth copy of the system collapses to |a1 i;
the state of the fifth copy of the system collapses to |a2 i;
..
.
the state of the 856th copy of the system collapses to |a6 i;
..
.
• Combining the Observables and the Measurement postulates, we may see
already at this level why physical observables need to be represented by
Hermitian operators:
the results of measurements always have real values, as are the eigen-
values of Hermitian operators.
if a second measurement of the same observable is performed on a
system, the result will always be the same as the first measurement.
Say, for example, that the state of a copy of the system has collapsed
to |a5 i after the first measurement on this copy. Thus |a5 i is the
initial state for the second measurement.
Now, according to the Observables postulate, the associated operator
 is Hermitian, and thus its eigenvectors corresponding to different
eigenvalues are orthogonal. Hence for any ai 6= a5 , hai |a5 i = 0. Thus
the probability for collapse to another eigenstate with a different
eigenvalue is zero.
Also, the scalar product that gives the transition from |a5 i → |a5 i is
ha5 |a5 i = 1. The state will remain in the same state |a5 i.
32 CHAPTER 2. THE PRINCIPLES OF QM
hÂiψ ≡ hψ|Â|ψi
!
X
= hψ|Â |ai ihai |ψi
i
X
= hψ|Â|ai ihai |ψi
i
X (2.3)
= hψ|ai |ai ihai |ψi
i
X
= ai hψ|ai ihai |ψi
i
X
= ai |hai |ψi|2
i
2.2 Problems
1. A system is in the initial state |ψi expressed in terms of the orthonormal
basis vectors |φi i, i = 1, 5:
√ √ √
|ψi = N (|φ1 i + 2|φ2 i + 2|φ3 i + 3|φ4 i + 5|φ5 i).
The states |φi i are the eigenvectors of the Hamiltonian operator Ĥ, such
that Ĥ|φn i = nε|φn i, with a parameter having the dimensions of energy.
(a) Find out N such that |ψi is normalized to unity.
(b) If we measure the energy on a large number of identical systems,
each in the state |ψi, what values would we obtain and with what
probabilities?
(c) What is the obtained average energy of the system for the state |ψi?
2. Let ε ∈ R+ . The initial state of the system is hψ| = N ∗ (1 + i, 1 + i, 1).
The Hamiltonian operator has the representation:
0 i 0
Ĥ = ε −i 0 0
0 0 −1
(a) Is Ĥ Hermitic?
(b) Find out N such that |ψi is normalized to unity.
(c) If we measure the energy on a large number of identical systems,
each in the state |ψi, what values would we obtain and with what
probabilities?
(d) What is the obtained average energy of the system for the state |ψi?
1
|φ1 i = √ (|ψ1 i + |ψ2 i)
2
1
|φ2 i = √ (|ψ1 i − |ψ2 i)
2
The states |φi i are the eigenvectors of the Hamiltonian operator Ĥ, such
that Ĥ|φn i = n2 ε0 |φn i, with a parameter having the dimensions of
energy.
(a) Find out N such that |ψi is normalized to unity.
(b) If we measure the energy on a large number of identical systems,
each in the state |ψi, what values would we obtain and with what
probabilities?
(c) What is the obtained average energy of the system for the state |ψi?
(d) Let there be a Hermitian operator  whose action on |φn i is: