Waste Management 30 (2010) 50–56

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Waste Management
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Vermicomposting of source-separated human faeces for nutrient recycling

Kunwar D. Yadav a,*, Vinod Tare b, M. Mansoor Ahammed a
a
Department of Civil Engineering, SV National Institute of Technology, Surat 395 007, India
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur 208 016, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The present study examined the suitability of vermicomposting technology for processing source-sepa-
Accepted 22 September 2009 rated human faeces. Since the earthworm species Eisenia fetida could not survive in fresh faeces, modifi-
Available online 21 October 2009 cation in the physical characteristics of faeces was necessary before earthworms could be introduced to
faeces. A preliminary study with six different combinations of faeces, soil and bulking material (vermi-
compost) in different layers was conducted to find out the best condition for biomass growth and repro-
duction of earthworms. The results indicated that SVFV combination (soil, vermicompost, faeces and
vermicompost – bottom to top layers) was the best for earthworm biomass growth indicating the posi-
tive role of soil layer in earthworm biomass growth. Further studies with SVFV and VFV combinations,
however, showed that soil layer did not enhance vermicompost production rate. Year-long study con-
ducted with VFV combination to assess the quality and quantity of vermicompost produced showed
an average vermicompost production rate of 0.30 kg-cast/kg-worm/day. The vermicompost produced
was mature as indicated by low dissolved organic carbon (2.4 ± 0.43 mg/g) and low oxygen uptake rate
(0.15 ± 0.09 mg O2/g VS/h). Complete inactivation of total coliforms was noted during the study, which is
one of the important objectives of human faeces processing. Results of the study thus indicated the
potential of vermicomposting for processing of source-separated human faeces.
Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Composting technology has been widely used for processing of

Human excreta are a good source of organic matter and plant
nutrients. The use of human excreta as fertilizer in agriculture
has been a common practice in some parts of the world. Of late,
considerable emphasis is being laid all over the world, especially
in rural areas of developing countries, on adopting sanitation sys-
tems that use negligible quantities of water, promote cycling of
nutrients, and envisage utilization of human excreta to produce
fertilizers for supporting agricultural needs. Of the total nutrients
in domestic waste, urine contains approximately 80% of the nitro-
gen (N), about 50% of the phosphorus (P) and nearly 60% of the
potassium (K), while the faeces contain about 10% of the N, 25%
of the P and 20% of the K (Vinnerås et al., 2006; Niwagaba et al.,
2009). Since faeces contain lower concentration of heavy metals
than farmyard manure and artificial phosphorus fertilizers, they
can be considered as clean fertilizers (Schonning et al., 2002;
Niwagaba et al., 2009). However, since faeces may contain patho-
gens, processing of faecal matter/faeces is necessary before this
can be utilized as a fertilizer. Conversion of human excreta to good
quality manure without any foul odour, flies and pathogen trans-
mission is a challenging task.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 9428398266.
E-mail address: kdjhansi@yahoo.com (K.D. Yadav).
source-separated human faeces (WHO, 2006; Niwagaba et al.,
2009). To be effective, composting requires well-balanced condi-
tions of moisture and aeration. In composting, pathogens are killed
as a result of elevated temperatures and also competition with the
favored thermophilic microbes (Faechem et al., 1983; Niwagaba
et al., 2009). Several studies on composting of source-separated
faeces have shown that a sufficiently high temperature for patho-
gen destruction is difficult to achieve, as temperatures normally in-
creases by 10–15 °C above the ambient temperature (Bjorklund,
2002).
Vermicomposting, on the other hand, is emerging as a most
appropriate alternative to conventional aerobic composting. This
process is not only rapid, easily controllable, cost effective, energy
saving, and zero waste process, but also accomplishes most effi-
cient recycling of organics and nutrients (Eastman et al., 2001).
Vermicomposting is a viable low-cost technology system for the
processing and treatment of organic solid wastes (Hand et al.,
1988). It involves the joint action of earthworms and mesophilic
microorganisms and does not involve a thermophilic stage. In con-
trast to traditional waste processing, vermicomposting results in
the bioconversion of the waste into two useful products: the earth-
worm biomass and the vermicompost. Numerous studies have
shown the ability of certain earthworm species such as Eisenia fet-
ida (also known as brandling, red wiggler or manure worm), Eisenia
andrei (red tiger), Lumbricus rubellus (red worms), to process a wide

0956-053X/$ - see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2009.09.034
 K.D. Yadav et al. / Waste Management 30 (2010) 50–56
variety of organic matter such as animal excreta, sewage sludge,
crop residual and agricultural wastes (Benitez et al., 1999; Bansal
and Kapoor, 2000; Kaushik and Garg, 2004; Loh et al., 2005; Garg
et al., 2006; Monroy et al., 2006; Suthar, 2008; Khwairakpam and
Bhargava, 2009). Various physical/mechanical and biochemical
processes are affected by earthworms. The physical processes in-
clude substrate aeration, mixing and actual grinding. The biochem-
ical processes are affected by microbial decomposition of substrate
in the intestines of the earthworms (Ndegwa et al., 2000). During
this process, the important plant nutrients in the material are re-
leased and converted through microbial action into forms that
are much more soluble and available to plants than those in the
parent compounds (Ndegwa and Thompson, 2001). Eastman
et al. (2001) have reported that vermicomposting technology is
one of the best methods for reducing pathogen concentration in
human faeces.
While many studies have been reported in the literature on the
use of vermicomposting for processing of different organic wastes,
few studies reported its use in the processing of source-separated
human faeces. Puri (2004) worked on the survivability and repro-
duction of E. fetida in human faeces and reported that their survival
was possible only if the physical characteristics of faeces were
changed along with the use of bulking material. Shalabi (2006)
has attempted vermicomposting with partially degraded faecal
matter by using two different earthworm species E. fetida and
Dendrobena veneta at different temperatures. He concluded that
faecal matter can be converted to mature compost by vermicom-
posting within 3 months if the temperature is kept between 20
and 30 °C. It was also found that CaCO3 addition to faecal matter
resulted in a product with advanced maturity in terms of volatile
solids, TOC and respiration activity. However, a lot more studies
need to be conducted before the process can be applied for pro-
cessing of human excreta.
The objective of the present study was to assess the suitability
of vermicomposting technology for processing of source-separated
human faeces. For this, tests were conducted in three phases. In
first two phases, conditions suitable for growth and reproduction
of earthworm species E. fetida fed on human faeces were identified
by providing soil and/or vermicompost as bulking/supporting
medium. In the third phase a year-long study was conducted to as-
sess the quality and quantity of vermicompost produced.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Earthworms (E. fetida)
Earthworm species E. fetida supplied by a Non-Governmental
Organization (NGO) called ‘‘Baif” working in Gonda district, Uttar
Pradesh, India was used in the present study. The NGO maintained
the worm culture by feeding a mixture of partially degraded ani-
mal dung and plant residues such as leaves. The worm culture
was subsequently developed outside the laboratory in specially
made rectangular brick reactors of size 2000  1000  2000 mm.
Proper drainage was provided by successive layers of blast slag,
gravel and sand to avoid any water logging conditions. The reactors
were covered with paddy sheds. Separate cultures that fed on par-
tially degraded animal dung and human faeces were maintained by
keeping optimum moisture levels.
2.2. Soil
Earthworms normally prefer to perform most of their activities
in the soil and hence are referred to as soil animals. It is with this
background that soil is considered as an important supporting
material for vermicomposting in this study. Soil collected from
51
Table 1
Characteristics of the soil used.
Parameter Value
pH 8.0
Electrical conductivity, lmho/cm 294
Water holding capacity, % 32
Carbon, % 1.448
Nitrogen, % 0.090
% Sand (0.05–0.50 mm) 40
% Silt (0.002–0.05 mm) 30
% Clay (<0.002 mm) 30
Bulk density, kg/m3 1120
an agricultural field from a village Barasirohi near Indian Institute
of Technology, Kanpur was used in the study. Top 10 cm layer of
soil was scrapped and objectionable materials in the soil were re-
moved manually. It was then sifted and thoroughly mixed before
used in different experiments. Some relevant characteristics of
the soil used in the present study are presented in Table 1.
2.3. Bulking material
Bulking material is needed for enrichment of the diversity of
microbial population and enzymatic activities in addition to
improving the physical environment for the sustenance in the
experimental reactors. In the present study fresh and mature ver-
micompost was used as bulking/supporting material. It was col-
lected from stock culture reactors. Partially degraded animal
dung and human faeces were added to the reactors as feed to the
earthworm species E. fetida to produce vermicompost.
2.4. Human faeces
In the present study human faeces were collected from a non-
flush, drop and store type of toilet from a village named Mandhana
near IIT Kanpur. The toilet was designed to have separate seats for
defecation and anal cleaning. Faeces were collected daily from 4 to
5 houses and thoroughly mixed before used for analysis, mainte-
nance of earthworm stock, feeding in different experiments. The
composition of human faeces is presented in Table 2.
2.5. Phase I: preliminary tests
These tests were performed with an objective to assess the best
conditions for earthworm biomass growth and reproduction by
using different combinations of feed (faeces) and support materials
(soil and/or vermicompost). The best combinations were used in
further studies. The tests were conducted in the laboratory at room
temperature (25 ± 2 °C) in transparent PVC reactors. The reactors
(diameter 180 mm and depth 90 mm), with 0.025 m2 of exposed
top surface area, were covered using perforated lids to provide
proper air ventilation. One millimetre diameter perforations on
the lid allowed exchange of gases but restricted the movement of
worms out of the reactors. In these tests, six different combinations
of up to four layers of feed and support materials were used. De-
tails of the reactors with layer thickness used in each reactor are
presented in Table 3. Three replicates were prepared for each com-
bination. The soil was properly homogenized and moistened to the
maximum water holding capacity prior to placing in the reactors.
Experiments were conducted by applying a loading of 200 g of
moist faeces (corresponding to a thickness of 15 mm) which was
placed in the centre covering approximately 75% of the reactor sur-
face area. Twenty mature earthworms having body weight of 0.25–
0.29 g were introduced in the reactors after 1 week of starting the
reactors. A moisture content of 60–65% was maintained by regu-
52 K.D. Yadav et al. / Waste Management 30 (2010) 50–56

Table 2 2.7. Phase III: bench scale experiment

Characteristics of human faeces.

Parameter
Moisture content, %
Bulk density, kg/m3
pH
Electrical conductivity, mmho/cm
Volatile solids, mg/g dry weight
Total carbon-C, mg/g dry weight
Total organic carbon (TOC), mg/g dry weight
Dissolved organic carbon (DOC), mg/g dry weight
Total nitrogen (TN), mg/g dry weight
C:N ratio
Oxygen uptake rate, mg O2/g VS/h
Phosphorous as P2O5, mg/g dry weight
Potassium as K2O, mg/g dry weight
Calcium, mg/g dry weight
Magnesium, mg/g dry weight
Sodium, mg/g dry weight
Iron, mg/g dry weight
Manganese, mg/g dry weight
Zinc, mg/g dry weight
Nickel, mg/g dry weight
Total coliforms, MPN/g
a
Values indicate mean ± standard deviation based on 48 samples.
larly sprinkling water over the entire period of the experiment.
Reactors were manually examined after 15, 30, 45 and 60 days
for survival and growth of earthworms by counting the number
of cocoons and total biomass.
2.6. Phase II: scale-up tests
The scale-up study was conducted with two promising combi-
nations of SVFV and VFV. This study was conducted in open back-
yard of the Environmental Engineering Laboratory of IIT Kanpur
during October 2004–January 2005 in brick reactors of dimension
300  300  600 mm at ambient temperature (5–30° C). The top
surface of the reactors was covered with thick jute sheet. Details
of the reactors with layer thickness are presented in Table 3. Thirty
mature earthworms having approximately same body weight
(0.25–0.29 g) were introduced in all the reactors after 1 week of
starting the reactors. Experiments were conducted in duplicate
and the loading of faeces was done monthly alternatively in two
different half portion of the surface area for 4 months. All reactors
were manually examined after 4 months for survival and growth of
earthworms by counting the number of cocoons and mature earth-
worms. Vermicompost produced was also measured at the end of
4 months. Total weight of earthworms was estimated and average
individual weight of the worms was calculated based on the num-
ber of earthworms present in reactor.
Valuea This experiment was conducted to study the quality and quan-
80 ± 5 tity of vermicompost produced from human faeces. Galvanized
1200 ± 200 iron (GI) sheet reactor (300 mm length, 450 mm width and
5.3 ± 0.2 300 mm depth) using VFV combination with 50 mm thick faeces
60.0 ± 15.0 layer sandwiched between 75 mm thick vermicompost layer was
820 ± 50
425 ± 25
used in this study. The experiment was run continuously for
415 ± 15 12 months at stocking density of 4.0 kg/m2 and feeding rate of
25 ± 3 1.2–1.5 kg/m2/day. Feeding of fresh faeces was done at 7 days
41.0 ± 4.0 interval alternatively in two different half portion of the surface
10.5 ± 1.0
area. The experiment was run with four replicates. Some typical
70.0 ± 5.0
11.0 ± 2.0 parameters, namely moisture content, pH, volatile solids, carbon
28.0 ± 1.7 content and nitrogen content were monitored after each feeding.
32.0 ± 6.0 The vermicompost produced was removed monthly and final ver-
8.2 ± 1.5 micompost quality was assessed on termination of the reactor.
8.5 ± 1.3
3.8 ± 0.9
0.27 ± 0.50 2.8. Chemical analysis
0.24 ± 0.04
0.009 ± 0.002
For determination of pH and electrical conductivity of faeces,
5.0  109
soil and compost, 1:10 suspension with de-ionized water was
made. The water holding capacity was determined by submerging
the material for 24 h in water and draining the excess water for
30 min. Moisture content was determined upon drying the sam-
ples to constant weight at 70 ± 2 °C for 24–72 h by using hot air
oven. Organic matter content was obtained by burning the dried
samples at 550 ± 5 °C. The analysis of pH, electrical conductivity,
water holding capacity, moisture content and organic matter was
done by methods as given in USDA and USCC (2002). The total car-
bon and nitrogen was determined by using Elemental Analyzer
(Model: CE440, Leeman Labs Inc., USA) on dried samples. The me-
tal analysis was done using atomic absorption spectrophotometer
(Model: 220 FS, Varian, Australia) by digesting the samples (USEPA
3051 method modified for compost) in microwave digester (Mod-
el: V-800, Varshal Inc., USA).
2.9. Statistical analysis
Various statistical analyses of the experimental data were per-
formed using Microsoft Excel 2007.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Preliminary tests
The results of the preliminary tests are presented in Fig. 1.
Earthworms became inactive within 15 min and died within an
hour of introducing in faeces in the absence of any support media
(Reactor F). Also, earthworms did not survive for more than 3 days

Table 3
Details of the reactors used in preliminary and scale-up tests.

Reactor Layer 1 (bottom-most layer) Layer 2 Layer 3 Layer 4

Preliminary test
SVFVa Soil(25)b Vermicompost (15) Faeces (15) Vermicompost (15)
SVF Soil (25) Vermicompost (15) Faeces (15) –
VFV Vermicompost (25) Faeces (15) Vermicompost (15) –
VF Vermicompost (25) Faeces (15) – –
SF Soil (25) Faeces (15) – –
F Faeces (25) – – –
Scale-up test
SVFV Soil (300) Vermicompost (75) Faeces (50) Vermicompost (75)
VFV Vermicompost (300) Faeces (50) Vermicompost (75) –
a
S: soil; V: vermicompost; F: faeces.
b
Numbers given in parentheses are thickness of each layer in mm.
 K.D. Yadav et al. / Waste Management 30 (2010) 50–56 53

when the moisture was low in feed layer, soil supplied the mois-
0 Days
175 ture to the feed layer. Since soil is a good conducting material it
15 Days
also helped in controlling the temperature in the feed layer. Satvat
30 Days
150
45 Days and Tare (2004) also reported that soil layer positively influenced
60 Days the survival of worms as it helped to maintain moisture in the ver-
Cocoons, Number

125
micomposting and feed layer.
100 Hundred percent earthworm’s mortality in reactors SF and F
indicated that provision of support material such as compost/ver-
75 micompost either as separate layer beneath and/or above human
50 faeces is necessary for survivability of earthworms. Fresh faeces
have high amount of organic matter and high moisture content
25 that promote formation of anaerobic conditions. In case of SF com-
bination, due to movement of earthworms from inside to outside
0
or vice-versa, the faeces spread to the entire surface of soil which
resulted in anaerobic condition. Frederickson and Knight (1988) re-
25 0 Days ported that in anaerobic conditions alcohol, ammonia, acetic acid
15 Days
and methane gas are produced which could be lethal to the
30 Days
20 earthworms.
45 Days
Total Biomass, g

60 Days It was also observed that faeces were not accepted by earth-
worms until the conditions within feed became aerobic and/or
15 the faeces were partially degraded. Neuhauser et al. (1988) re-
ported that partial degradation, anaerobically or aerobically, of or-
ganic wastes is essential for survivability and growth of
10
earthworms. Vermicompost as support material on above or be-
neath of fresh faeces helps (i) in preventing the faeces turning into
5 anaerobic by absorbing the excess moisture, and (ii) in partial deg-
radation by providing the active microbial biomass. Several
researchers (Satchell, 1983; Mulongoy and Bedoret, 1989) reported
0 that vermicompost helps in the degradation process by providing
SVFV SVF VFV VF microbial biomass and enzymes.
Reactors The individual weight of worms in different reactors varied be-
tween 0.30 and 0.58 g which is in the range of 0.30–1.26 g reported
Fig. 1. Variation in total biomass growth and cocoons production in different in the literature (Kaushik and Garg, 2004; Monroy et al., 2006).
reactors. (Earthworms did not survive in reactors S and SF and hence not shown in
figure. Temperature: 25 ± 2 °C, relative humidity: 53 ± 2%.)
3.2. Scale-up tests

in reactor SF where faeces were added above the soil layer. How- Based on the preliminary tests, two combinations, SVFV and
ever, in all other reactors earthworms survived, grew and VFV, were selected for scale-up studies. Summary of results of
multiplied. these studies is reported in Table 4. In the scale-up studies, the
It may be noted that the earthworms were introduced in all the individual weight of mature worms was similar (0.45 ± 0.01 g) in
reactors after 1 week of starting the reactors. It was realized that all reactors. The biomass growth and reproduction rate was higher
this period of precomposting helped (i) to eliminate anaerobic con- in SVFV reactor compared to VFV reactor, similar to what was
ditions, at least at the exterior of the feed, (ii) to reduce the concen- found in preliminary tests indicating the influence of soil layer
tration of mortality causing substances, and (iii) to make the feed on biomass growth. However, as can be seen from Table 4 soil
acceptable to the earthworms. During this period, the feed pH in- did not affect the rate of vermicompost production as SVFV and
creased from acidic to neutral, moisture content reduced by 20– VFV reactors showed similar levels.
25%, and the levels of toxic volatile substances reduced signifi-
cantly (data not shown). Gunadi et al. (2002), Garg et al. (2005,
3.3. Bench scale experiments
2006) also reported that precomposting of waste was essential to
avoid death of earthworm and to enhance the survivability of
As mentioned earlier bench scale experiments were conducted
earthworms.
with VFV reactor for 1 year. Table 5 shows the characteristics of
Higher biomass growth of earthworms was found in reactors
containing both soil and vermicompost. The total biomass growth
was on an average 22–37% higher in reactors with soil bedding Table 4
layer compared to those without soil layer. The total biomass (that Summary of the results of the scale-up experiments after 4 months processing.
is the weight of mature and unmature earthworms that are pro- Parameters Reactor
duced within the reactor) increased from 5.2 to 22.2 g within
SVFV VFV
60 days in SVFV combination. The biomass growth was higher in
Total biomass (g) 120 ± 11.31 94 ± 1.41
reactor SVFV compared to VFV. Similarly the biomass growth
Earthworm, number 126 ± 11 106 ± 23
was higher in SVF compared to VF. This observation showed that Juvenile, number 280 ± 83 212 ± 21
provision of soil layer increases the biomass growth rate. This in- Cocoons, number 126 ± 17 102 ± 25
crease was possibly due to soil layer facilitating in maintaining a Individual weight (g) 0.45 ± 0.01 0.45 ± 0.01
favorable environmental conditions inside the reactors by control- Vermicompost quantity (g) 135 ± 21 130 ± 14

ling the temperature and moisture. During the experiments, it was Temperature: (5–30 °C); relative humidity: 50–70%; reactor surface area: 0.09 m2
observed that soil layer works in two ways. When the moisture number of earthworms introduced: 30; individual weight: 0.25–0.29 g, values are
was higher, the soil helped in absorbing the excess moisture, and mean ± standard deviation.
54 K.D. Yadav et al. / Waste Management 30 (2010) 50–56

Table 5
Characteristics of vermicompost from human faeces.
Parameter
Faeces, kg dry weight loaded
Vermicompost, kg dry weight produced
Moisture content, %
Bulk Density, kg/m3
Water holding capacity, %
pH
Electrical conductivity, mmho/cm
Volatile solids, mg/g dry weight
Total carbon-C, mg/g dry weight
Total organic carbon (TOC), mg/g dry weight
Dissolved organic carbon (DOC), mg/g dry weight
Total nitrogen (TN), mg/g dry weight
C:N ratio
Oxygen uptake rate, mg O2/g VS/h
Phosphorous as P2O5, mg/g dry weight
Potassium as K2O, mg/g dry weight
Calcium, mg/g dry weight
Magnesium, mg/g dry weight
Sodium, mg/g dry weight
Iron, mg/g dry weight
Manganese, mg/g dry weight
Zinc, mg/g dry weight
Nickel, mg/g dry weight
Total coliforms, MPN/g
Temperature: (5–25 °C); relative humidity: 50–80%; reactor surface area: 0.135 m2;
stocking density: 4.0 kg/m2; feed application rate: 1.2–1.5 kg/m2/day; replicates: 4.
a
Values indicate mean ± standard deviation based on 48 samples.
vermicompost produced from human faeces. Stocking density esti-
mated on termination of the experiment was 3.2 ± 0.2 kg/m2 which
was lower than the initial value of 4.0 kg/m2. This change in the
stocking density showed that stocking density of 4.0 kg/m2 is not
sustainable on a long-term basis.
During the vermicomposting of the faeces, pH of the reactors
started increasing and within a week it was above 9.0 (Fig. 2). After
remaining constant for 2 weeks at that value, it started decreasing.
The final pH of the vermicompost was 8.0 ± 0.31. The changes in
pH are related to degradation of organics and formation of inter-
mediate products such as ammonium ions and humic acids during
the degradation process. Several authors have reported similar re-
sults (Short et al., 1999; Komilis and Ham, 2006).
In the present study the volatile solids was reduced from
820 ± 50 mg/g to 340 ± 20 mg/g (58% reduction). Significant reduc-
tion in the volatile solids is one of the indicators used for compost
maturity. Higher decrease in volatile solids means a more stable
product indicating that earthworms play an important role in deg-
radation of waste (Ramos et al., 2005; Shalabi, 2006).
10
9 (Benitez et al., 1999). This value depends upon the type of waste,
8 the vermicomposting. This indicates that C/N ratio can not be used
pH
In the present study the total carbon was reduced from 425 ± 25
to 182 ± 12 mg/g while total organic carbon (TOC) content came
Valuea down from 415 ± 15 to 175 ± 10 mg/g during vermicomposting.
62 ± 5 During processing of the faeces most of the organic carbon was oxi-
25 ± 3 dized and whatever carbon remained was not easily degradable.
43 ± 5 While the present study showed a TOC removal of 57%, different
720 ± 100 authors have reported TOC reduction values ranging between
75 ± 5
8.0 ± 0.3
26% and 66% during vermicomposting of wastes such as biosolids,
28.5 ± 3.0 sewage sludge and mixture of different organic waste with varying
340 ± 20 vermicomposting duration using different earthworm species
182 ± 12 (Elvira et al., 1998; Benitez et al., 1999; Nogales et al., 1999; Kaviraj
175 ± 10
and Sharma, 2003; Kaushik and Garg, 2004; Garg and Kaushik,
2.4 ± 0.43
28.0 ± 0.2 2005; Garg et al., 2005, 2006). The TOC reduction depends upon
6.5 ± 0.5 the degradable amount of organic carbon present in the waste.
0.15 ± 0.09 Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) was reduced from 25 ± 3 to
23.5 ± 2.5 2.4 ± 0.43 mg/g during vermicomposting representing more than
65.0 ± 7.5
90% reduction. DOC is the most easily degradable carbon fraction
62.5 ± 11.5
19.5 ± 3.5 of the substrate because it gets easily dissolved in water. A higher
19.5 ± 7.0 reduction in the DOC is considered as an indicator of compost
8.0 ± 1.5 maturity. Ramos et al. (2005) reported soluble carbon less than
0.54 ± 0.16
5 mg/g after 60 days of vermicomposting with different mixtures
0.48 ± 0.17
0.02 ± 0.006 of biosolids with cow manure and oat straw. Several researchers
<3.6 (Elvira et al., 1998; Eggen and Vethe, 2001; Manna et al., 2003) re-
ported DOC level of 3–15 mg/g after maturity of compost produced
from different organic wastes.
Nitrogen content in the vermicompost was 28 ± 0.2 mg/g com-
pared to 41 ± 4 mg/g in the feed (faeces) corresponding to a loss
of 32% on a dry weight basis. Though generally during biodegra-
dation process nitrogen content increases due to mineralization
of organic matter but in the present study the nitrogen was lost.
As reported earlier, during the vermicomposting process pH in-
creased to greater than 9 during the first 2 weeks and then
remained constant at around 8. During the initial period nitrogen
might have lost in the form of ammonia. Benitez et al. (1999) re-
ported that 36% nitrogen content was lost during the vermicom-
posting of sewage sludge. Joseph, 1999 reported that composting
microorganisms need 30 parts of carbon and 1 part of nitrogen in
balanced diet. If the nitrogen content was very high then excess
nitrogen will be lost in the form of smelly ammonia, and
at low C/N ratio the nitrogen loss was high and it can be up to
60%. Martin and Dewes (1992) and Nogales et al. (1999) also re-
ported similar results during vermicomposting. On the contrary,
Garg et al. (2006) and Kaushik and Garg (2004) reported 1.8–
2.5 times higher nitrogen content during the vermicomposting
of wastes. It is likely that the nitrogen content in the final com-
post depends upon the amount of nitrogen and C/N ratio of the
feed.
During vermicomposting, C/N ratio decreased from 10.5 to 6.5.
Reduction in the C/N ratio was not in accordance with the reduc-
tion in carbon, presumably due to loss of nitrogen from the reac-
tors during the degradation as mentioned earlier. A wide range
of C/N ratio for mature compost has been reported in the literature
and its degradation rate and the fate of carbon and nitrogen during

as maturity criterion for the vermicomposting if waste is rich in

7 nitrogen.
Oxygen uptake rate (OUR) or respiration rate is considered as
6 one of the most reliable indicators for compost maturity. In the
present study matured vermicompost had very low (0.15 mg/g)
5 OUR compared to feed OUR of 70 mg/g. It is assumed that during
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 the mineralization of waste, the microbial activity slows down
Week and OUR gets reduced significantly. Several investigators (Paletksi
and Young, 1995; Willson and Dalmat, 1996) have suggested that
Temperature: 25±2OC; Relative Humidity: 53±2%; Replicates: 4
respiration activity is the most appropriate method to check the
Fig. 2. Variation of pH during the vermicomposting of human faeces. composting process stability.
 K.D. Yadav et al. / Waste Management 30 (2010) 50–56
Total nutrient content in the vermicompost depends upon the
characteristics of the raw material. On a dry weight basis, the
nutrient content (excluding nitrogen) in the vermicompost was
2.1–2.4 times its value in the feed. Several researchers have re-
ported higher content of N, P, K and micronutrients in vermicom-
post after processing. Tripathi and Bhardwaj (2004) reported that
phosphorous and potassium contents were 1.36 and 2.14 times
the initial concentration, respectively, after vermicomposting. In
another study, total potassium concentration after the vermicom-
posting was reported to be 1.2–1.7 times the initial concentration
(Garg et al., 2006). Though nutrients are required for assimilation
of earthworms during the vermicomposting, the quantity required
is very low compared to the total quantity present in the feed
material. However, if expressed on a dry weight basis, the nutrients
concentration showed an increase due to oxidation of organic mat-
ter during vermicomposting.
Vermicompost production rate was found varying in the
range 0.23–0.35 kg-cast/kg-worm/day with an average value of
0.30 kg-cast/kg-worm/day during the study. The vermicompost
production rate generally depends on the characteristics of feed,
environmental conditions and type of earthworm species. Gaja-
lakshmi et al. (2001), Jain et al. (2003) reported that the vermi-
cast production of 0.20–0.29 and 0.20–0.21 g-cast/g-worm/day
for municipal solid waste and mixture of paper and cow dung,
respectively.
One of the important advantages of vermicomposting over com-
posting is its ability to destroy pathogenic organisms. In the pres-
ent study, no coliforms were detected in any of the mature
vermicompost samples tested, while the faeces had an average
coliform content of 5.0  109 MPN/g. In vermicomposting, killing
of pathogens is prominently achieved through earthworm actions
such as intestinal action, secretion of fluids and selective grazing
(Bhawalkar, 1995; Dominguez and Edwards, 1997).
4. Conclusions
The studies conducted have shown the potential of vermi-
composting technology for processing source-separated human
faeces. Precomposting of faeces in the presence of bulking mate-
rial (vermicompost) is necessary to make the feed acceptable to
earthworms. The presence of soil layer helped to increase earth-
worm biomass growth; it did not influence the vermicast pro-
duction rate. Long-duration (1 year) study showed an
acceptable earthworm stocking density of 3.2 kg/m2 and feeding
rate of 1.2–1.5 kg/m2/day for processing of faeces. The vermicast
production varied between 0.23 and 0.35 kg/kg-worm/day with
an average value of 0.30 kg/kg-worm/day. The low levels of oxy-
gen uptake rate and dissolved organic carbon indicated vermi-
compost maturity. Vermicomposting resulted in complete
elimination of total coliforms. It was observed that C:N ratio
can not be considered as a criterion for compost maturity for
wastes with low C:N ratio.
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