Construction Materials

CENG 2092

Abenezer T.
January 2023
CHAPTER Five
 Uses of timber

Formwork
Cladding

Roof truss Stairs Flooring

Tree Components

Dead /Outer Bark- Protective outer layer

Living / Inner bark - Carry nutrients from the leaves to the roots
Cambium - Creates new bark cells and wood cells

Sapwood (living wood) - Nutrients are stored and sap (sugar & starch) is
pumped upward from roots to leaves.
Heartwood (dead wood) - Sapwood dies progressively and becomes dead
and contribute strength to tree.

Pith - A small zone of weak wood cells from first year growth / central
core of the tree.
 Commercial Classification
Hardwood Softwood
• Broad leafed trees • Coniferous trees (needle-like
• Heavy leaves)
• Dark coloured • Light in weight
• Do not show distinct • Light colored
annual ring • Show distinct annual ring
• Generally stronger • Weak, liable to split easily
• Beautiful grained • Uninteresting grain
• Thicker cell walls, • Thin cell walls, open cell
close cell structure structure
 Lumber production
Lumber - timber that has been cut into boards, planks or
other structural members of standard length for use as a
building material.

Lumber production

1) Logging & Transporting to saw mill

2) Sawing / milling
3) Seasoning / Drying
4) Surfacing
5) Grading
6) Preservation (Optional)
 Lumber production
 Logging
- The cutting and preparation of timber
for shipment to sawmills.

 Sawing / Milling process

- Convert logs into boards in a manner that
secure maximum product with minimum
waste & labour.
- Log breakdown
(Cutting log to
provide flat surface)
 Methods of sawing /
cutting techniques

- Used for framing

- Very economical,
less wastage

Plain sawn (slab-cut)

Radial sawn
- Used for - Not common
flooring, interior
trim and furniture

Quarter sawn
 Seasoning / Drying
The process of drying timber to remove the bound moisture
contained in wall cells in order to produce seasoned timber.
Lumber is considered seasoned when moisture content is
less than 15 - 19%.

Purpose of seasoning
• Improved strength, reduce shrinkage
• Greater resistance to decay
• Reduced weight; easily handled & transported
• Paints applied will last longer
 Methods of seasoning

Air dry (traditional method)

Lumber is stacked. Air circulate
through & around the stacks.
Takes months to reach moisture
content 20 %.

Dried in kiln
The lumber is stacked as in air dry &
placed in a special chamber. Takes
days to one week. Most commonly
used.
Surfacing
The surface of lumber is machined to give smooth
surface and a more precise dimension, easier to
work with & less damaging to hands.

Grading
All sawn timber are graded based on quality e.g.
appearance and structural strength.
 Characteristics of a good timber

• Strength
- Tensile, compressive, shear, bending (depends on
species and grade)
• Hardness
– i.e. wood should not be hurt by an ordinary impact
• Free from defects - e.g. knots
• Heavy weight
• Durable
– able to resist atmospheric effects, attacks of worms
or fungi
• Workable – easily planed
 Testing of timber

• Tensile strength in (a) is 2 – 4 times larger than compressive

strength in (c)
 Factors affecting timber strength
 Moisture content

 Density – depends on cell size, cell wall thickness,

number & types of cells. Strength and stiffness
increases with density.

 Defects – e.g. Knots (disturb continuity of grain),

decay, splits & checks

 Grain types - straight grain has higher strength.

 Seasoning / Drying

 Preservation / Treatment
 Lumber defects
Any form of imperfection in or on surface of wood that
lowers the strength, durability and economy of wood.

Types of defects
• Growth / Natural Defects – wind, abnormal growth
• Production defects - felling, sawing or drying process

• Growth Defects
- Knots
Portions of branch over which the
tree has grown. Reduce wood
strength, desirable for appearance.
• Decay
Fungus (microscopic plant like organism)
which feeds on wood fiber.
Cause softening, loss of strength, weight
and change of texture and color.

• Damage
Due to insects such as beetle, termite & marine organisms
 Production Defects
Cracks occur in various parts of trees

• Checks - radial cracks on surface of

wood as a result of rapid drying. Effect
on appearance and strength.

• Splits – deep crack that penetrate the

entire depth of wood due to drying
stresses or inappropriate handling.
Effect on appearance & reduce shear
strength.

• Shake - Defects that are caused due to

stresses during growth (heavy wind),
relief of stresses when tree is felled or
impact on soil during felling.
Knots – growth defects

Checks - production defects

Shake – growth & production defects

Splits - production defects

 Production Defects
Warping – distortion of wood from the desired plane.
Results from differential drying and relief of internal
stresses.

• Cup – Deformation of the cross

section – edges move upward
• Bow – Deformation over the
length of a board in the minor axis
direction
• Spring – Deformation over the
length of a board in the major axis
direction
• Twist – lifting one corner of the
plane
 Timber Treatment /
Preservation

Treating wood with solutions (preservatives) to increase its

durability e. g. make it poisonous to fungi and insects attacks
and to prevent it from absorbing more moisture.
Types of preservatives
• Paints
• Oil type preservatives (petroleum based) e.g
- Creosote – brownish black oil made by distilling coal tar.
- Pentachlorophenol (PCP), copper naphthenate –
(Application – railroad ties, utility poles)
• Waterborne oxides (salts) preservatives – e.g. chromated
copper arsenate (CCA), ammoniacal copper arsenate
(ACA).
 Methods of preservation
• Brushing & spraying – Surface of timber is sprayed with
preservatives.

• Cold steeping (soaking) – Timber is soaked in a tank of

preservative. Limited penetration of preservatives.

• Hot & cold open tank treatment – Timber placed in a tank of

preservative. Heated & allowed to cool. Preservatives
penetrate during cooling.

• Pressure absorption – Timber is placed in vacuum

cylinder. Air bubbles are removed from wood. Preservative
is forced into the entire structure of wood.
 Fire proofing of timber
The rate of burning can be retarded or to make timber fire
resistance to some extent.

• Lumber is placed in a pressure vessel.

• Impregnated with chemical salts e.g. ammonium sulfate,
borax.
• Use fire retarding paint e.g. sodium silicate.
 Advantages and disadvantages of
timber as a construction material
Advantages of wood
• Light in weight
• Easy to cut
• Good finishes and appearance
• Low heat and electrical conductivity
• High durability if properly treated

Disadvantages of wood
• Easy to catch fire (Combustibility)
• Susceptibility to attack by fungi and insects
• Shrinkage & swelling
•Deforestation
METAL
 Metal

• Ferrous metal
(Iron as main constituent)
- e.g. cast iron, wrought iron, steel

• Non ferrous metal

(Iron is not the main constituent
- e.g. copper, aluminum, zinc, tin
 Production of ferrous metal

Raw Material Iron ore

Coke – supplies carbon
Limestone – reduces impurities

Blast Furnace Slag

removed

Pig Iron

Cast iron Wrought iron Steel

(Commercial forms of iron)
Pig iron Production
Iron ore is reduced to pig iron in a
blast furnace. Iron ore is Iron ore,
combined with coke, and limestone,
limestone. Hot air are forced coke
through the material to ignite the
coke and melt the iron ore. The
impurities in the iron are absorbed
Chute
by the limestone and forms blast
furnace slag. The molten iron
(with an excess carbon) collects
at the bottom of the furnace.
Hot air
Pig iron content:
high carbon content : 4-5%. Hot air
silicon : 2 %, manganese: 1 %,
sulfur: 0.05 %, phosphorous: < slag Liquid
2%. Very brittle; not very useful iron
Blast furnace
directly as a material.
 Cast iron
• Made by re-melting pig iron &
removing impurities in a furnace
(cupola)
• Contain
- iron (92 – 95 %)
- carbon (2 – 4 %)
- silicon (1 - 3%)
- traces of manganese,
phosphorus, sulfur
• Shaped by being poured into a mold
while it is liquid, allowed to solidify inside
the mold.

cupola
Properties
• Brittle – due to large carbon amount, difficult to weld.
• Low tensile strength (110 MPa) but high compressive
strength.

Types
(depends on chemical composition and cooling rate)
• Gray cast iron – commonly used
• White cast iron – harder, more resistant
• Malleable cast iron – can be malleable
Uses
Manhole covers, engine blocks,
machine tools, cookware, hardware,
fire hydrants, pipes. (Not subjected to
tensile strength)
 Wrought iron

• Purest form of iron

• Made by refining pig iron in a furnace
• Contain
- iron (96-98 %)
- carbon (0.1 – 0.25 %)
- slag (2-3%)
- traces of sulfur, silicon,
phosphorus, manganese
Properties

• Malleable, ductile, can be easily welded &

machined.
• Good resistance to corrosion
• Moderate tensile strength (310-380 MPa)
Uses
• Ornamental work, pipes, vehicle
components, bars, chain.
 Steel
• Invention of steel in 1856 by
Henry Bessemer
• Bessemer process was the first
inexpensive process for the mass-
production of steel from molten pig iron.
• Replace by basic oxygen process. Bessemer Converter
• Contain
- iron
- carbon (0.12 –1.5 %)
- phosphorous & sulfur < 0.1 %
- manganese up to 0.5 %
- silicon up to 0.3 %

Basic oxygen furnace

• High carbon steel (0·5% - 1.5 % carbon); Stronger than
mild steel but more brittle. Used to make tools and cutters.

• Steel Alloy
Ni-steel (Gear, shaft, cable), Mn-steel (Rail tracks)

• High tensile steel

e.g. as reinforcing material (in the form of
wires) in prestressed concrete.

• Galvanized Steel
Steel that has been plated with zinc to improve
corrosion resistance.
Advantages of steel in building construction

1. High strength/weight ratio

Steel has a high strength/weight ratio. This property
makes steel a very attractive structural material for
high -rise buildings & long span bridges

2. Ductility
Steel can undergo large plastic deformation before
failure, thus providing a . large reserve strength.
Properly designed steel structures can have high
ductility, which is an important characteristic for
resisting shock loading such as blasts or
earthquakes.
3. Speed of erection.
Steel structures can be erected quite rapidly therefore
reducing the cost of construction. Structural steel framing
can be rapidly designed, purchased, fabricated and
erected without need for curing and other delays of
concrete and masonry construction.
4. Quality of construction
Steel structures can be built with high-quality
workmanship.
5. Ease of repair, modification & change
Steel structures in general can be repaired quickly and
easily. When building uses change or are improved,
structural steel can be easily modified and reinforced to
accommodate the new requirements.
6. Adaptation of prefabrication
Highly suitable for prefabrication and mass production.

7. Repetitive use
Steel can be reused after a structure is disassembled. Most
steel today is a recycled product, and nearly all structural
steel from building demolition is recycled. This provides
salvage value, reduces demolition expenses, reduces
landfill volume and helps the environment.

8. Expanding existing structures

Steel buildings can be easily expanded in any direction.
Disadvantages of steel

1. General cost
Steel structures may be more costly than other types of
structures.

2. Fireproofing
The strength of steel is reduced substantially when heated
at temperatures commonly observed in building fires.
Consequently, steel frames in buildings must have
adequate fireproofing.
3. Maintenance
Steel structures exposed to air and water, such as
bridges, are susceptible to corrosion and should be
painted regularly.Application of weathering and corrosion-
resistant steels may eliminate this problem.

4. Susceptibility to buckling
Due to high strength/weight ratio, steel compression
members are in general more slender and consequently
more susceptible to buckling than reinforced concrete
compression members.
Non ferrous metal
- use as original metal or as alloy

Aluminum
• Lightweight - 1/3 weight steel and cooper; excellent
corrosion resistance; low strength
Uses
• Roofing, window & door frames, door & window handles,
protective covering

Copper
• High electrical conductivity; readily bent & cut; good
corrosion resistance
Uses
• Electrical conductor, heating vessels
Zinc
• Good conductor of heat; high corrosion resistance,

Uses
• Roofing material, batteries, protective covering

Tin
• Resistance to acid corrosion, good conductor of heat &
electricity

Uses
• Protective covering, alloy, household purpose, coating
for food containers
THANK YOU!!!