Construction Materials

CENG 2092

Abenezer T.
January 2023
Chapter Four
Block Work
CONCRETE BLOCK
 Types of Concrete Blocks
• Concrete blocks are produced in a large
variety of shapes and sizes either solid,
cellular or hollow, dense or lightweight, air-
cured or steam-cured, load bearing or non-
load bearing, and can be produced
manually or with the help of machines.
Stretcher blocks
The most commonly used concrete blocks
are the stretcher blocks with a nominal
dimensions of:
40 cm x 20 cm x 10cm
40 cm x 20 cm x 15cm
40 cm x 20 cm x 20cm
Types of Concrete Blocks
Solid blocks

Solid blocks have no cavities, or have

voids amounting to not more than 25 % of
the gross cross-sectional area.
Cellular blocks
Cellular blocks have one or more voids
with one bed blind on the other face, and
are laid with this 'blind end' upwards,
preventing wastage of bedding mortar,
which would otherwise drop into the
cavities.
Hollow blocks
Hollow blocks are the most common types
of concrete blocks, having one or more
holes that are open at both sides. The total
void area can amount to 50 % of the gross
cross-sectional area.
Advantages of hollow concrete blocks

The use of hollow concrete blocks has several

advantages:
• they can be made larger than solid blocks,
and if lightweight aggregate is used, can
be very light
• they require far less mortar than solid
blocks (because of the cavities and less
proportion of joints, due to large size), and
construction of walls is easier and quicker;
• the voids can be filled with steel bars and
concrete, achieving high seismic
resistance;
• the air-space provides good thermal
insulation, which is of advantage in most
climatic regions, except warm-humid
zones; if desirable, the cavities can also
be filled with thermal insulation material;
• the cavities can be used as ducts for
electrical installation and plumbing.
Production Process
1. Batching and Mixing
2. Molding
3. Curing
 Batching and Mixing
Aggregates can be batched by volume or
by weight, but the latter is more accurate.
For this reason, cement should only be
batched by weight, or preferably by using
only whole bags of 50 kg.
Molding
Concrete blocks can be molded by several
methods, ranging from manually tamping
the concrete in wooden or steel mould
boxes to large-scale production with 'egg-
laying' mobile machines and fully
automatic stationary machines.
Block making Machines

Automatic stationary machines

'egg-laying‘ machine
The following points should be kept in mind while
manufacturing the concrete masonry blocks:
i. The cement-aggregate ratio should not be leaner
than 1:6.
ii. Blocks should be taken out from the moulds only
when concrete has sufficiently set.
iii. Machine casting is preferable to hand casting, to
obtain better finish.
iv. After taking the blocks out of mould they should be
kept under shade for a week and should be properly
cured 3 to 4 weeks.
v. Bocks should be used only after about 3-4 weeks
of curing.
Curing
Air curing is the standard procedure for the
strength development of concrete, by which the
concrete is kept wet for 7 days or more.
Steam curing, by which the concrete is exposed
to low or high pressure steam (in autoclaves),
high early strengths can be achieved (with
autoclaving the 28 day strength of air-cured
concrete can be obtained in 24 hours). However,
in developing countries, steam curing is unlikely
to be implemented, because of its high cost and
sophistication.
Minimum compressive strength of HCB

Class Average of 6 Individual Units

units (MPa) (MPa)
A 4.2 3.8

B 4.0 3.2

C 2.0 1.8
 BRICKS

• Building bricks are structural units of

rectangular shape and convenient size
that are made from suitable type of clays
by winning, preparing, molding, drying and
burning.
 Suitability of bricks
At present, bricks are the most favored
construction material worldwide due to the
following reasons:
• Availability-clays are available almost universally
• Construction methods-very experienced skill
bricklayers are available in all villages,& towns
• Size, shape and handling-Bricks are made in
ready-to-use sizes and shapes
 RAW MATERIALS

Bricks are manufactured from clays.

By moistening and mixing with water,

clays become plastic, easy to mould
and are capable to retain their shape on
drying.
FUNCTIONS OF THE CONSTITUENT OF CLAY

Clays generally consist of the following

chemical elements:
• Alumina- (Al2O3)
• Silica – (SiO2)
• Lime - (CaO)
• Iron oxide - (Fe2O3)
• Magnesia – (MgO)
 MANUFACTURE OF BRICKS
The process of manufacture of bricks is carried
out in a number of stages.
1. Selection of suitable type of brick earth
2. Preparations and tempering of mud
3. Shaping and molding of brick units
4. Drying of molded bricks
5. Firing or burning of units
6. Cooling of the units
 1. Selection of suitable type of brick earth
A clay soil for brick making should be such
that when prepared with water, it can be
molded, dried and burnt without cracking or
changing its shape or warping. The ideal
composition of a good brick earth is:
• Alumina – 20-30%
• Silica – 50%-60%
• CaO, MgO – 4.5%
• Iron oxide – 4%-6%
 The earth should be free from alkalis, organic
matter and free lime.
 2. Preparation and tempering of mud

A two stage process:

• Clay Wining: The operations of selecting the
earth, clearing and digging it, spreading it for
weathering.
• Tempering: the process of converting the
prepared brick earth into a homogeneous mix of
desired plasticity by mixing it thoroughly with
proper quantities of water.
 3. Shaping and Molding of bricks

• Molding is the process of making properly

shaped brick units from thoroughly
tampered clay.
 4. Drying of bricks

After molding, the bricks have to be dried.

Reasons for drying:
• To make them sufficiently rigid, strong for
handling and stacking
• To minimize the risk of rapture
• To save fuel during burning stage
Drying of bricks is achieved either by natural
methods or by artificial methods.
 5. Firing

Firing of the dried bricks is essential to

develop in them the desired building
properties such as:
• Sufficient strength
• Hardness
• Durability and
• Resistance to decay and disintegration
 THE FIRING PROCESS

• When clay bricks are heated to a high

temperature, a chemical reaction occurs in
the clay which makes the brick
permanently hard, durable and resistant to
weather and water.
 Effects of improper burning

1. Over or under sized bricks

2. Glazed bricks
3. Low strength bricks
4. Cracked or broken bricks
 TYPES AND CLASSIFICATION OF BRICKS

Bricks can be classified

according to their usage
as:
• Common bricks and
• Facing Bricks
 1. Common Bricks
Common bricks are those that are used
where they will not normally be
exposed to view and where there is no
claim as to their appearance. They are
suitable for general use in construction,
given that they possess adequate
strength and durability for the location.
The term relates to appearance only.
 2. Facing Bricks
• Facing bricks have a
suitable appearance
for use where they will
be exposed to view so
that they give an
attractive and
pleasant effect.
 Solid and hollow clay bricks

Bricks can be classified according to their

shape and nature as:
• Solid clay bricks and
• Hollow clay bricks
 Solid Clay Bricks

According to the Ethiopian Standard, solid

bricks are of the following three types.
1. Brick without holes or depression (type TS)
2. Brick with holes up to 20 mm in diameter each and
having a total cross sectional area not exceeding 25%
of the base area of the brick (type TH)
3. Brick with depression not exceeding 25 percent of the
base area having a maximum depth of the depression
not more than 10mm (type TD).
 Hollow Clay Bricks

According to the Ethiopian Standard, hollow

and beam tiles bricks are of the following
three types.
1. With two faces keyed for plastering or
rendering (type kk)
2. With two faces smooth and suitable for use
with out plastering or rendering on either side.
(type ss) and
3. With one face smooth and another face keyed
for plastering (type sk)
 Properties of Bricks
The essential properties of bricks may be
conventionally discussed under four
headings:
Physical properties,
Chemical characteristics,
Thermal characteristics and
Durability.
 1.Physical properties
a.Shape- rectangular
b.Size – 60 mmx120mmx250mm
c.Color – brick red
d.Density- density varies from 1600 kg/m3
to 1900 kg/m3 meter. A single bricks
(60x120x250) will weigh between 3.2kg to
3.5kg depending upon its density.
 2. Mechanical properties
Compressive strength is the most
important property of bricks especially
because they are to be used in load
bearing walls. The compressive
strength of a brick depends on the
composition of the clay and degree of
burning.
 3.Thermal properties
The heat and sound conductivity of bricks
varies greatly with their density and
porosity. Very dense and heavy bricks
conduct heat and sound at a great rate.
They have therefore poor thermal and
acoustic (sound) insulation qualities. For
this reason, bricks should be so designed
that they are light and strong and give
adequate insulation.
 4. Durability
By durability of bricks is understood the
length of time for which they remain
unaltered and strong when used in
construction.
The durability of bricks depends on a
number of factors such as: absorption
value, frost resistance and efflorescence.
 Tests for Clay Bricks

Two types of tests are used to determine

the quality of building bricks.
A. Field test
B. Laboratory test
 A) Field tests:
such as appearance, hummer
 Appearance test is that: shape, plainness, color etc.
 When stroked with hummer, a properly burnt dry brick
free from cracks emits a highly metallic ring.
 The hardness of a brick sample can be checked by
scratching its surface or broken section with a knife or
fingernail. A well-burnt brick will be scratched with
difficulty.
 A rough test for the strength of the brick is to let it fall
freely from a height of about one meter on to a hard
floor. It should not break.
 B) Laboratory tests
1. Compressive strength test
2. Water absorption test
3. Efflorescence test and
4. Saturation coefficient test will be done on
a solid brick.
 Minimum Compressive Strength

Minimum Compressive Strength

Class
Average of 5 bricks Individual bricks
(N/mm2) (N/mm2)

A 20 17.5

B 15 12.5

C 10 7.5

D 7.5 5.0
 Qualities of good brick
1. It should have a regular shape, surface and red colored
appearance.
2. It should confirm in size to the specific dimensions
(60mmx120mmx250mm)
3. It should be properly burnt.
4. Absorption should not exceed 25% in any case.
5. A good building brick should posses requisite compressive strength,
which in no case should be less than 35kg/cm2.
6. Bricks should be hard enough so that it is not scratched by fingernail.
7. A good brick has a uniform color and structure through its body.
STONE
 General
• Natural Stone is one of the oldest
construction material known. Various types
and forms of natural stone can also be
processed to produced other construction
materials.

• As a part of the study of stones as a

construction material, some understanding
of the origin and occurrence of rocks is
essential.
The rock cycle
REQUIREMENTS OF BUILDING STONE
• Despite the abundance of rock, relatively few
stones satisfy the requirements as building
stones.
• The important requirements are:
(1) strength,
(2) hardness,
(3) workability,
(4) durability,
(5) color and grain,
(6) porosity and texture,
(7) ease of quarrying, and
(8) accessibility.
REQUIREMENTS OF BUILDING STONE

• Hardness is vitally important only where

the stone is to be used in floors, steps,
walks, etc.
• hardness does have a bearing on
workability. It varies all the way from soft
sandstone, which can be easily scratched,
to some stones harder than steel.
REQUIREMENTS OF BUILDING STONE

• Workability is important since the ease of

producing the required sizes and shapes
has a direct bearing on the cost.
• Durability is the ability of the stone to
withstand the effects of rain, spray, wind,
dust, frost action, heat, and fire
REQUIREMENTS OF BUILDING STONE
• Color is very important from the
standpoint of aesthetics and location but is
also partially a matter of taste and fashion.
The grain or surface appearance of stone
affects its desirability for decorative
purposes.

• Porosity has a direct bearing on the ability

of the stone to withstand frost action.
REQUIREMENTS OF BUILDING STONE
• Texture the fineness of grain, affects workability
and therefore cost. Fine-textured rock splits and
dresses more readily than coarse rock. For
many ornamental purposes, also, the texture is
important.
• The ease of quarrying is a prime consideration
in judging the suitability of stone for building. The
bedding and joint planes must be such that the
stone can be produced in sizable, sound blocks.
• Accessibility also affects cost. Transportation
over long distances is expensive but in some
cases becomes a necessity.
QUARRYING AND FINISHING OF STONE

• Quarrying is the process of removing

stone from its natural bed. The method of
quarrying will depend to some extent on
the nature of the stone.
 Dimension Stone
Production
Processing stages applied in
production:
 Drilling of closely spaced
boreholes in rock for
subsequent separation of
large lumps of stone from the
massif.
 Breaking of these lumps into
standard products or similar-
size stones.
 Treatment of stone surface
,dressing ,grinding and
polishing.
 Loading and hauling of stone.
GENERAL TYPES OF STONE USED IN ETHIOPIA

• Stone which does, in general, satisfy the

foregoing requirements and which is commonly
used for construction in Ethiopia include: basalt,
trachyte, granite, limestone, marble, sandstone,
ignimbrite, pumice, and scoria.
• Basalt and trachyte are very common in Ethiopia
and are mostly used for stone masonry work and
as boulders or crushed stone for road
construction and crushed aggregate for concrete
making.
GENERAL TYPES OF STONE USED IN ETHIOPIA

• Granite is generally hard, strong, durable,

and capable of taking a high polish. Granite
has a wide variety of use in building,
including flooring, interior and exterior
facing, stair trades and skirting.

• Owing to its beautiful colors and durability

marble is used as wall cladding material,
floor finishing and window sill.
GENERAL TYPES OF STONE USED IN ETHIOPIA

• Sandstone, and ignimbrite are widely used for

decorative purpose. Ambo sand stone is a typical
example in this aspect.

• Pumice and scoria are found in large quantities in

the rift valley .they are widely used in the
manufacture of light weight concrete block.
Owing to its light weight concrete made of
pumice is used for forming slopes on flat
concrete roofs. Pumice is also used for
production of Portland pozzolana cement.
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