วพ งงานและเมแทบอ มของคา โบไฮเดรต

Dr. Pichayada Somboon

Bioenergy Molecule and Carbohydrate Metabolism

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Energy in Biological System

2 https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub
Metabolism in a eukaryotic cell

3 http://www.nature.com/nature_education
 An ATP molecule
❖ Cells do not use the energy from oxidation reactions as soon as it is released. Instead, they convert it
into small, energy-rich molecules such as ATP and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH),
which can be used throughout the cell to power metabolism and construct new cellular components.

ATP molecule

http://www.nature.com/nature_education
https://www.bioserendipity.com 4 Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NADH)
Carbohydrate

✤ carbohydrates are organic molecules comprised of carbon, hydrogen, and

oxygen, which serve multiple roles within a cell

✤ general formula of (CH2O)n, where n ≥ 3

✤ often referred to as sugars

✤ most importantly role, store chemical energy

✤ provide structural support, indicate cellular identity by serving as molecular

identi cation tags
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 Group of carbohydrate
Carbohydrates are divided into three major groups based on their structures
(1) simple sugars (monosaccharides and disaccharides), such as glucose or
sucrose (glucose and fructose)
(2) complex carbohydrates, such as glycogen, starch, and cellulose, which are
multiple conjugated glucose molecules
(3) glycoconjugates, which are modi ed forms of glucose covalently attached
to either proteins (glycoproteins) or lipids (glycolipids), which participate in
important functions, such as immunity, and as components of cell membranes.

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Carbohydrates in living organism

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Monosaccharides

✤ the smallest carbohydrates and contain 3-9 carbon atoms plays a major role in
biological systems
✤ common monosaccharides are either aldehydes or ketones

✤ for example, glucose is an aldohexose

ketodohexose aldohexose

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Monosaccharides

✤ D-ribose and deoxyribose

✤ 5 carbon ring-structured sugar molecules
✤ essential components of DNA and RNA

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Disaccharides

✤ formed by the condensation of two monosaccharides

✤ for example, maltose is formed by the condensation of two glucose molecules via
α-1,4 glycosidic linkage

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Disaccharides

sucrose is the major sugar in found in milk and whey

photosynthetic plants
often a major component in arti cial
growth media
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Monosaccharide and disaccharide structures

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Polysaccharides
✤ formed by the condensation of more than two monosaccharides by glycosidic bonds
✤ polysaccharide processing industry makes extensive use of enzymatic processing and
biochemical engineering

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Amylose
✤ starch polymer is made of 20% -30% amylose
✤ water insoluble
✤ a straight chain of glucose molecules linked by α-1,4 glycosidic linkages
✤ molecular weight (MW) is between 7000 and 1.5 million daltons

α-1,4 glycosidic linkages

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Amylopectin
✤ a branched chain of D-glucose molecules, with a MW of 1 to 2 million daltons
✤ water soluble
✤ partial hydrolysis of starch (acidic or enzymatic) yields glucose, maltose, and dextrins
✤ dextrins are branched sections of amylopectin and used as thickeners
α-1,4 glycosidic linkages α-1,6 glycosidic linkages

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Cellulose

✤ unbranched chain of D-glucose

✤ MW between 50,000 and 1 million daltons
✤ a β-1,4 glycosidic links between glucose
monomers
✤ a β-1,4 glycosidic bond is resistant to enzymatic
hydrolysis
✤ few microorganisms can hydrolyze
β-1,4 glycosidic bonds of cellulose
✤ remains one of the most challenging

problems in attempts to convert cellulosic

wastes into fuels or chemicals

AI-Jawhari, I.F.H. (2020) 16

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Overview of carbohydrate metabolism

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 Simple sugars catabolism
❖ Simple sugars have different levels of sweetness in mammals
❖ The sensation of sweetness is based on sugars binding to G-protein-coupled receptors
expressed on the surface of taste cells (gustatory cells) on our tongues, which stimulate a
neuronal signal to brain
❖ The differential af nity of sugars to the G-protein-coupled receptors in these cells
determines the perceived sweetness
❖ For example, fructose is sweeter than glucose, making certain fructose-based drinks
addictive

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 Front. Pharmacol., 30 November 2020
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 Simple sugars catabolism
❖ Glucose, galactose, and fructose enter glycolysis through different routes
❖ Glucose becomes glucose 6-phosphate by an ATP-dependent reaction, using
hexokinases
❖ Galactose enters through the Leloir pathway to get glucose 6-phosphate
❖ In the liver, glucose 6-phosphate can be converted to glucose, whereas, in
other tissues, it is metabolized through glycolysis
❖ galactose metabolism through glycolysis is too slow to generate enough ATP
to meet metabolic demands, resulting in metabolic catastrophe and cell death

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Galactose catabolism

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 Fructose metabolism
❖ Fructose is primarily metabolized by the liver and, to a lesser extent, by the
small intestine and kidney
❖ glycolytic intermediates generated can either proceed through glycolysis and
its subsidiary biosynthetic reactions, including generation of fatty acids or
storage as glycogen
❖ fructose enters glycolysis after the important regulatory step of PFK1 in
glycolysis

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Fructose metabolism

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 GLYCOLYSIS

❖ Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that breaks down (catabolism) hexose

(six-carbon) monosaccharides such as glucose, fructose, and galactose into
two molecules of pyruvate, two molecules of ATP, two molecules of NADH,
two water (H2O) molecules, and two hydrogen ions (H+)
❖ Glycolysis involves 10 enzyme-mediated steps and is best envisioned in two
phases—phosphorylation and energy production—all of which occur in the
cytoplasm

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Glycolysis steps

https://byjus.com/biology/glycolysis/

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 Gluconeogenesis
❖ Blood glucose levels are maintained by gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis
❖ At the cellular level, liver and kidney cells can generate glucose either by
converting stored glycogen in the liver into glucose or synthesizing new
glucose molecules (gluconeogenesis) to maintain blood glucose levels
❖ Too-high glucose levels in the blood—hyperglycemia—can also be
detrimental because this condition is linked to diabetes
❖ The widely used antidiabetic drug, metformin, diminishes hyperglycemia by
reducing hepatic gluconeogenesis

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 Gluconeogenesis
❖ Gluconeogenesis reactions occur both in the mitochondrial matrix and
cytosol
❖ Gluconeogenesis begins with mitochondrial oxaloacetate being converted to
phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) by either mitochondrial or cytosolic
phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK)

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Cori cycle

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Regulation gluconeogenesis

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Glycogen
✤ a branched chain of glucose molecules that resembles amylopectin
✤ highly branched and contains about 12 glucose units in straight-chain segments
✤ MW of a typical glycogen molecule is less than 5 x106 daltons

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Glycogen metabolism

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 The Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP)
❖ The pentose phosphate pathway is a pathway for the synthesis of three pentose
phosphates: ribulose 5-phosphate, ribose 5-phosphate, and xylulose 5-phosphate
❖ The complete pathway has two stages: an oxidative stage and a nonoxidative
stage
❖ Role of the PPP
❖ Synthesis of precursor of nucleotide synthesis
❖ Synthesis of precursor of amino acids synthesis (shikimic pathway)
❖ Formation of NADPH
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 https://media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art:10.1007/s00253-021-11314-x/MediaObjects/
35 253_2021_11314_Fig1_HTML.png
 The Krebs cycle
❖ Krebs cycle is also known as the TCA (Tricarboxylic acid) cycle or citric acid
cycle because citric acid is produced in the rst step which has 3 carboxyl (-
COOH) groups
❖ the Krebs cycle is one of the crucial cyclic breaking down acetyl CoA in the
presence of oxygen
❖ the nal pathway for catabolism or the breakdown of fats, carbohydrates,
and amino acids
❖ produces 10 ATP molecules

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pyruvate

pyruvate Mitochondria

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 The Electron Transport System

❖ Electron Transport System also called the Electron Transport Chain

❖ a chain of reactions that converts redox energy available from oxidation of
NADH and FADH2, into proton-motive force which is used to synthesize
ATP through conformational changes in the ATP synthase complex through a
process called oxidative phosphorylation

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40 https://microbenotes.com
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