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Power Systems
Power Systems
Power Systems
ig g jb ic ig g jb ic
For overhead line conductors, conductance (g) is neglected because ic >>> ig.
Skin Effect. The internal inductance of the conductor gives rise to a voltage of
self-induction so that the voltage drop in the conductor is the sum of the voltage
of self-induction and the ohmic resistance drop.
l
R (for solid conductors)
A
For stranded wires:
l
R (1.01) (three strands)
A
l
R (1.02 ) (above three strands)
A
where: R – resistance in
– resistivity, -cmil/ft
l – length, ft
A – area, cmil
R1 R2
ALSO,
(T t 1 ) (T t 2 )
t2
t1
R
R1 R2
Conductivity:
annealed copper – international standard of conductivity
hard drawn copper – 97.3% conductivity
hard drawn aluminum – 61% conductivity
Conductors
Advantages of Aluminum over Copper Conductor
lower cost
lighter weight for the same resistance
has larger diameter than copper for the same resistance
Types of Aluminum Conductors
AAC – All Aluminum Conductor
AAAC – All Aluminum Alloy Conductor
ACSR – Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced
ACAR – Aluminum Conductor Alloy Reinforced
Ds – geometric mean radius (GMR) or self GMD or the geometric mean of all
possible distances of every element in a group to all other elements in the
same group including itself.
D S 9 D 11 D 12 D 13 D 21 D 22 D 23 D 31 D 32 D 33 (three-strand conductor)
2
D S n D 11 D 12 .....D 1n D 21 .....D nn (n-strand conductor)
Dm – geometric mean distance (GMD) or self GMD or the geometric mean of all
possible distances of every element in a group to all other elements in the
other group.
Illustration:
a d
b e
m n
D m mn D ad D ae D bd D be D cd D ce
C B
A
A C
B
B A
C
Three phase lines with unsymmetrical spacing
D eq
L 2 x 10 7 ln H/m per phase
DS
where: D eq 3 D ab D bc D ca
D Sb 4 D S2 D 2 D S D (two-bundle conductor)
D Sb 9 D S3 D 6 3
D S D 2 (three-bundle conductor)
Parallel Circuits
a c’
b b’
c a’
p
D eq
L 2 x 10 7 ln
D Sp
8.85 x 10 12
C F/m [line to line]
D
ln
r
17.7 x 10 12
Cn F/m [line to neutral]
D
ln
r
For stranded wires, r is replaced by do/2 where do is the outside diameter of the
conductor.
17.7 x 10 12
Cn F/m per phase [line to neutral]
D
ln
r
With unsymmetrical spacing
17.7 x 10 12
Cn F/m per phase[line to neutral]
Deq
ln
r
where: D eq 3 D ab D bc D ca
Bundled Conductors
17.7 x 10 12
Cn F/m per phase [line to neutral]
D
ln b
DS
where: D Sb r d (2-bundle)
D Sb 3 r d 2 (3-bundle)
D Sb 1.09 4 r d 3 (4-bundle)
Parallel Circuits
17.7 x 10 12
Cn p
F/m
D eq
ln
D Sp
Short Transmission Line. For short lines, only the resistance and inductance
are being considered.
I
L
Y O
VSN I2 I1 Y IR VRN
A
2 2 D
ZY
VSN 1 VRN I R Z
2
ZY ZY
I S Y 1 VRN 1 2 I R
4
pf R cos R and pf S cos S
PLOSS 3I 2 R
VRNL VRFL
%VR x 100%
VRNL
Z/2 Z/2
IS IR
VSN V1 I1 VRN
Y
ZY ZY
VSN 1 VRN Z 1 IR
2 4
ZY
I S YVRN 1 IR
2
PLOSS 3 I S2 I 2R
R
2
For both nominal PI and nominal T equivalent circuit,
2
VRNL VSN
2 ZY
P PR
Efficiency R x 100% x 100%
PS PR PLOSS
jb jb
V ZCI R X VRN Z C I R X
VSN RN e e
2 2
VRN V
IR Z IR RN
Z C X
IS C X
e e
2 2
z
where: ZC characteristic impedance
y
zy j propagatio n cons tan t
attenuation cons tan t (neper per unit length)
phase cons tan t (radians per unit length)
In hyperbolic form,
VSN VRN Cosh x Z C I R Sinh x
VRN
I S I R Cosh x Sinh x
ZC
Velocity of Propagation
2f
v unit length per second
VRN ZCI R X
e - incident wave (voltage)
2
VRN Z C I R X
e - reflected wave (voltage)
2
Note: At infinite line, reflected wave is zero. If the line is terminated by its
characteristic impedance, ZC, the reflected wave is zero (both voltage
or current).
Sometimes, ZC is called the surge impedance. However, surge impedance is
associated with “load less” line ( R and g are zero ).
L
Therefore, ZC = surge impedance (resistive impedance)
C
The power transmitted by a line that is terminated by its surge impedance is
called surge impedance loading (SIL).
2
VLL
SIL ; pf = 1.0 (resistive)
L
C
Sag-Stress Analysis (Mechanical Design Of Transmission Lines)
A uniform conductor suspended in still air from two supports takes the form of a
catenary (sag is more than 10% of span).
T wx
s O Sinh
w TO
T wx
y O Cosh 1
w O
T
2
wx
T ws TO 1 Sinh
2
TO2
TO
wx
T TO Cosh
TO
Approximate Equations:
Applicable only for parabolic conductors. The sag is less than 10% of the span.
The weight is assumed to be uniformly distributed along the horizontal.
sx
wx 2
y d (sag)
2T
T TO
Unstretched length of a conductor
wl 3
LU L
EAd
d h2
h1 C
X1 X2
hT hT
x1 l x2 l
2wl 2wl
Note: If l < hTO / 2wl , then x1 is negative. A negative value of x1 means that
lowest point of the conductor falls outside the span as in the case of a
very steep mountain side.
WW
P C
WC WT
wT w C2 w 2W
w 22l 2 w12l 2
f 2
2 t 2 t 1 f 2 f1
6f 2 A 2
6A 2 1
Submarine cables – used to transmit electric energy across water that cannot be
spanned by overhead conductors.
Insulation Resistance:
r
R ln 2 ohms
2L r1
where: r1 = radius of the conductor
r2 = radius of the cable
= r1 + thickness of insulation
= specific resistance of the insulation
2 k ok r l
C
r
ln 2
r1
2ko l
C (If the insulation consists of different materials)
r2
ln
r
k 1
r
Cn = Cs + 3CC
q volts
g
2 k ok r x m
E volts
gm
r m
r1 ln 2
r1
Losses in Cables
I2R (ohmic loss) – temperature dependent
Dielectric loss – voltage and temperature dependent
Shield losses – current dependent losses due to circulating and eddy
currents
Pipe losses – current dependent losses from hysteresis and eddy current
losses due to incomplete cancellation of magnetic field from three
conductors
Visual Critical Voltage – the potential difference at which faint luminous glow
of violet color is seen to surround each conductor. The luminous glow is called
visible corona.
where: – ratio between density of air at P(cm Hg) and T (C) and density of
air at 76 cm of Hg and 25C
d – distance between centers of conductors (cm)
r – radius of the conductors (cm)
mO – irregularity factor
= 1 for smooth, polished, cylindrical conductor
= 0.93 to 0.98 for weathered cylindrical conductor
= 0.87 to less than 0.93 for weathered, more than seven strands
= 0.80 to less than 0.87 for weathered having up to 7 strands
0.3 d r kV rms
VV 21.2δ r m V 1 ln
δr r phase
242
PO f 25
r
V VO 2 x 105 kW
per phase
d km
Effects of Corona
Interference with communications
Non-sinusoidal charging current which causes non-sinusoidal voltage drop
Corona power loss
Corona helps to attenuate high voltage surges caused by lightning or
switching
Methods of Feeding
Feeding at one end
Feeding at both ends with equal voltages
Feeding at both ends with unequal voltages
Feeding at some intermediate zone
Types of Loads
Concentrated loading
Uniform loading
Combination of a and b
I1 I2 I3 I4
VD = IACRAC + ICDRCD + IDERDE + IEBREB
A C D E B
I1 I2 I3
A B
I I I I I I
VD(AB) = ½ IR
When fed at both ends with equal voltages, the point of minimum potential is
the middle point.
1
VD( MIDDLE POINT ) IR
8
Per Unit Value. A value by which voltage, current, power, impedance and
admittance are represented to simplify the calculations in power system
problems such as load flow studies, fault analysis, etc.
actual value
Per unit value
base value
Bases:
SB – base power IB – base current
ZB – base impedance VB – base voltage
YB – base admittance
SB SB
YB YB
VB2 VB2
VB2 VB2
SB SB
SB SB