15AT32T

DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION E-CONTENT
15AT32T - AUTOMOBILE TRANSMISSION & CONTROL

SYSTEMS
Note: This is only Basic Information for students. Please

refer “Reference Books” prescribed as per syllabus
Unit 1 Chassis Frame
Frames- purpose- loads acting – types –construction-ladder type-x type-integral, sections

used in frames- Channel-Box-Tubular, materials used for frames, sub frames-need.
1.1 Meaning of Chassis or Introduction

Chassis is a French word. Automotive chassis is a skeleton frame on which various mechanical
parts like engine, tires, axle assemblies, brakes, steering etc. are bolted. The chassis is considered to
be the most significant component of an automobile.
1.2 Chassis Frame.
A frame is the main structure of the chassis of a motor vehicle. All other components
fasten to it; a term for this is design is body-on-frame construction. In 1920, every motor
vehicle other than a few cars based on motorcycles had a frame. Since then, nearly all cars
have shifted to unit-body construction, while nearly all trucks and buses still use frames.
Fig 1.1 Chassis Frame.

1.3 Purpose of frame
1. To carry the weight of the vehicle and passengers
2. To provide connecting link for front and rear axle
3. To withstand the bending stress and twisting due to the rise and fall of the front and rear
axle.
4. To with stand load/force caused due to turning of the vehicle
5. To support the load of the body, gearbox and radiator
1.3 Loads acting on frames

1. Short duration Load – While crossing a broken patch.
2. Momentary duration Load – While taking a curve.
3. Impact Loads – Due to the collision of the vehicle.
4. Inertia Load – While applying brakes.
5. Static Loads – Loads due to chassis parts.
6. Over Loads– Due to heavy load, moment of inertia and center of gravity makes the
frame to buckle and bend.
1.4 Types of frames.

Following are the types of frames
1. Conventional frame
2. Integral or unit frame
3. Half integral and half frame chassis
1.4.1 Conventional frame.
In this type of frame the load on the vehicle is transfer to the suspension by the
frame, which is the main skeleton of the vehicle. This frame supports the engine, power
train and body. This frame has long two members and five to six cross members join
together with the help of rivets or bolts. the section used for long or cross are of the
following shapes.
Conventional frames is again classified in two types
a) Ladder type b) X- Type
1.4.1.1 Ladder type
Fig 1.2 Ladder type

The side members are part of the frame are shaped to accommodate the body and
support the weight. They are narrow toward the front of the vehicle to permit a shorter
turning radius for the wheels, and then widen under the main part of the body where the body
is secured to the frame.
The cross members are fixed to the side members to prevent weaving and twisting of the
frame. The number, size, and arrangement of the cross members depend on the type of
vehicle for which the frame was designed.
1.4.1.2 X- type.
Fig 1.3 X- type.

In this type of frame central cross member is in the shape of X.This type of frame used in
pickup vans and light commercial vehicles. The frame may be I-section or Tubular section.

1.4.2 Integral frame.
Fig 1.4 Integral frame.

There is no frame and all the components are attached to the body. All the function of the
frame is carried by the body itself. Used in modern car and commercial vehicle.
1.5 Sections used in frames
Fig 1.5 Sections of frames

a) Chanel section
Used in three wheeler and matador and it is made up of heat treated alloy steel, press
steel
b) Box section
Used in heavy and light commercial vehicles
c) Tubular
Used in two wheelers motor cycles
1.6 Materials used for frames
a) Cold rolled open earth steel
b) Heat treated alloy steel
c) Pressed steel
d) Composites
1.7 Need- sub frames.
A subframe is a structural component of a vehicle, such as an automobile, that uses a
discrete, separate structure within a larger unit body to carry certain components, such
as the engine, drivetrain, or suspension. The subframe is bolted and/or welded to the
vehicle. When bolted, it is sometimes equipped with rubber bushings or springs to
dampen vibration.
Fig 1.6 Need- sub frames.

Unit-2 CLUTCH AND GEAR BOX

Clutch-purpose-requirements-classifications- principle of friction clutch, construction and
working -single plate- multi plate- centrifugal, advantages and disadvantages-single plate-
multi plate-centrifugal clutch, Clutch Lining materials, Clutch operating mechanisms-
mechanical- hydraulic.
Gear box-necessity- Classification-construction and working - constant mesh-synchromesh

gear box, synchroniser-need-construction and working, gear selector mechanisms-types-
construction and working –floor mounted mechanism.
2.1 Clutch purpose
Clutch is a device used in transmission system of motor vehicle to engage and
disengage the engine to the transmission. Clutch is located between engine and the
transmission (gear box.). When the clutch is engaged the power from engines to rear
axles through transmission system. When the clutch is not engage the power will not
flow.
2.2 Clutch requirements
1) The clutch should be engage gradually to avoid sudden jerks
2) The clutch should be easily repaired and overhaul
3) The clutch should be simple and cheap
4) The clutch should be light in weight
5) The clutch should be easy in operation
6) The clutch should be able to transmit maximum torque of engine
7) The clutch friction material should be high coefficient of friction i.e., presence of
water and oil should not effect it
8) The clutch should not slip and produce noise
9) The clutch should properly balanced at high speed
2.3 Classification of clutch
The clutch is classified as follows
1) Friction clutch
a) Single plate clutch
b) Multi plate clutch
i) Wet ii) Dry
c) Cone Clutch
i) External ii) Internal
2) Centrifugal clutch
3) Diaphragm
4) Hydraulic

2.4 Principle of friction clutch
Fig 2.1 friction clutch
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pqF-aBtTBnY
It operates on the principle of friction. When two surfaces are brought in contact and are held
against each other due to friction between them, they can be used to transmit power. If one is
rotated, then other also rotates. One surface is connected to engine and other to the
transmission system of automobile. Thus, clutch is nothing but a combination of two friction
surfaces.
2.5 Construction and working of single plate clutch
Fig 2.2 single plate clutch

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XZ2Y6LPBd8U
Construction
Main Parts Of clutches:
1) The driving members consist of a flywheel mounted on the engine crankshaft. The
fly wheel is bolted to a cover which carries a pressure plate or driving disc, pressure
springs and releasing levers. Thus the entire assembly of the flywheel and the cover
rotate all the times. The clutch housing and the cover provided with openings
dissipate the heat generated by the friction during the clutch operation.
2) The driven members consists of a disc or plate, called the clutch plate. It is free to
slide lengthwise on the splines of the clutch shaft. It carries friction materials on both
of its surface. When it is griped between the flywheel and the pressure plate, it rotates
the clutch shaft through the splines.
3) The operating members consist of a foot pedal, linkage, release or throw-out

bearing, release levers and the springs necessary to insure the proper operating of the
clutch.
Working
It is the most common type of clutch used in motor vehicles. Basically, it consists of
only one clutch plate, mounted on the spines of the clutch shaft. The fly wheel is
mounted on the engine crankshaft and rotates with it. The pressure plate is bolted to
the flywheel through clutch springs and is free to slide on the clutch shaft when the
clutch pedal is operated. When the clutch is engaged the clutch plate is gripped
between the flywheel and the pressure plate. The friction linings are on both the sides
of the clutch plate. Due to the friction between the flywheel, clutch plate and pressure
plate, the clutch plate revolves with the flywheel. As the clutch plate revolves, the
clutch shaft also revolves.
Clutch shaft is connected to the transmission. Thus the engine power is transmitted to
the crankshaft to the clutch shaft.
When the clutch pedal is pressed, the pressure plate moves back against the force of
the springs and the clutch plate becomes free between the flywheel and the pressure
plate. Thus, the flywheel remains rotating as long as the engine is running and the
clutch shaft speed reduces slowly and finally it stops rotating. As soon as the clutch
pedal is pressed, the clutch is said to be disengaged, otherwise it remains engaged due
to the spring forces.
2.6 Multiplate clutch:
Fig 2.3 Multiplate plate clutch

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7L1cnYEOpDI
Construction
Multiplate clutch consists of a number of clutch plates, instead of only one clutch
plate as in the case of single plate clutch. As the number of clutch plates is increased,
the friction surface also increases. The increased number of friction surfaces
obviously increases the capacity of the clutch to transmit torque. The plates are
alternately fitted to the engine shaft and the gear box shaft. They are firmly pressed by
strong coil spring and assembled in a drum. Each of the alternate plate slides in

grooves on the flywheel and the other slides on splines on the pressure plate. Thus,
each alternate plate has inner and outer splines.
Working
The multiple clutches works in the same way as the single plate clutch, by operating
the clutch pedal. The multi plate clutches are used in heavy commercial vehicles,
racing cars and motor cycles for transmitting high torque.
The multiple clutches may be dry or wet. When the clutch is operated in an oil bath, it
is called a wet clutch. When the clutch is operated dry, it is called dry clutch. The wet
clutch is generally used in conjunction with, or as a part of the automatic
transmission.
2.7 Centrifugal clutch
Fig 2.4 Centrifugal clutch

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yuXnX6fRL38
In this type of clutch, the springs are eliminated altogether and only centrifugal force
is used to apply the required pressure for keeping the clutch in engagement position.
The advantage of the centrifugal clutch is that no separate clutch pedal is required.
The clutch is operated automatically depending upon the engine speed. This means
that car can be stopped in gear without stalling the engine. Similarly while starting,
the driver can first select the gear, put the car into the gear and simply press the
accelerator pedal. This makes driving very comfortable and easy. The following
figure shows a schematic diagram of a centrifugal clutch. As the speed increases, the
weight flies, thereby operating the bell crank lever that presses the plate. This force is
transmitted to the plate by means of springs . The plate containing friction lining is
thus pressed against the flywheel thereby engages the clutch. Spring G serves to keep
the clutch disengaged at low speed say 500 rpm. The stop H limits the amount of
centrifugal force.
2.8 Clutch lining materials
There are mainly 3 types of clutch friction materials
1. Millboard type
2. Moulded type
3. Woven type
• Solid woven type • Laminated type

Common clutch facing materials used are asbestos, reybestos, ferodo and
nonasbestos. Clutch facing. Due to environmental pollution asbestos, reybestos and
ferodo are not used nowadays. Non-asbestos clutch facings are used which are made
of man-made glass fiber, mixed with special rubber compound to improve frictional
performance, firmly locked with elastomer- based novalac binder and moulded with
pressure and heat. Some examples are SW3-AF and HWK 200.
2.9 Clutch operating mechanisms
The clutch operating mechanisms are of different types.
Mechanical Operation In the mechanical type actuating force is transmitted from
clutch pedal to release fork through mechanical linkages or through cables.
Fig 2.5 Clutch operating mechanisms

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bHskxVDxSj0
2.10 Hydraulic operation
Fig 2.6 Hydraulic operation

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jY6n6j2EHPM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zd18NcTDCLU
Hydraulic clutch activation systems consist of a master cylinder and a slave cylinder.
When pressure is applied to the clutch pedal (the pedal is depressed), the pushrod
contacts the plunger and pushes it up the bore of the master cylinder. During the first
movement, the center valve seal closes the port to the fluid reservoir tank and as the
plunger continues to move up the bore of the cylinder, the fluid is forced through the

outlet line to the slave cylinder mounted on the clutch housing. As fluid is pushed
down the pipe from the master cylinder, this in turn forces the piston in the slave
cylinder outward. A pushrod is connected to the slave cylinder and rides in the pocket
of the clutch fork. As the slave cylinder piston moves rearward the pushrod forces the
clutch fork and the release bearing to disengage the pressure plate from the clutch
disc. On the return stroke (pedal released), the plunger moves back as a result of the
return pressure of the clutch. Fluid returns to the master cylinder and the final
movement of the plunger lifts the valve seal off the seat, allowing an unrestricted flow
of fluid between the system and the reservoir.
Gear box
2.11 Purpose of transmission
The purpose of the transmission is to provide high torque at the time of starting, hill
climbing, accelerating and pulling a load. When a vehicle is starting from rest, hill
climbing, accelerating and meeting other resistances, high torque (tractive effort) is
required at the driving wheels. Hence a device must be provided to permit the engine
crankshaft to revolve a relatively high speed, while the wheels turn at slower speeds.
This is obtained by a set of gears called a transmission or gear set. The gear set is
enclosed in a metal box called a gear box. The vehicle speed is also changed with the
help of the transmission keeping the engine speed same with certain limit.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F_BpnpOc0Jw
2.12 Classification of transmission
The transmissions are classified as follows:
1. Manually operated selective transmission. A type used in cars, buses and trucks. It
is also known as standard or stickshift. It is of three types - constant mesh, sliding
mesh and synchromesh.
2. Overdrive. A semi-automatic type used in conjunction with a selective
transmission.
3. Chrysler semi-automatic. An electric and hydraulic Controlled type used in
conjunction with a fluid drive or a torque converter.
4. Automatic transmission.
(a) Hydromatic drive. (b) Torque converter
2.13 Construction and working of constant mesh gear box
Fig 2.7 constant mesh gear box

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HmKXomJ3pg8
In this type of gear box, all the gears of the main shaft are in constant mesh with the
corresponding gears of the countershaft (layshaft). Two dog clutches are provided on
the main shaft one between the clutch gear and the second gear, and the other between
the first gear and reverse gear. The main shaft is splined and all the gears are free on
it. Dog clutch can slide on the shaft and rotates with it. All the gears on the
countershaft are rigidly fixed with it. When the left hand dog clutch is made to slide to
the left by means of the gear shift lever, it meshes with the clutch gear and the top
speed gear is obtained. When the left hand dog clutch meshes with the second gear,
the second speed gear is obtained. Similarly, by sliding the right hand dog clutch to
the left and right, the first speed gear and reverse gear are obtained respectively. In
this type of gear box, because all the gears am in constant mesh, they am safe from
being damaged and unpleasant grinding sound does not occur while engaging and
disengaging them.
2.14 Construction and working of Synchromesh gear box
Fig 2.8 Synchromesh gear box

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0ZuWkgfhgeg
The basic requirements of synchromesh device are:

(1) A braking device such as cone clutch.
(2) To permit easy meshing means of releasing pressure on the clutch before
engagement of gears.
The engine shaft carries a pinion which meshes with a wheel fixed to the layshaft,
while the gear on the main shaft is free to rotate and is permanently meshed with
another wheel fixed to the layshaft. Both the pinion and the wheel on the main shaft
have integral dog tooth portions and conical portions. The synchronizing drum is free
to slide on spines on the main shaft. This drum has conical portions to correspond
with the conical portions on the gearbox shaft pinion and on the wheel that rotates
freely on the main shaft. The synchronizing drum carries a sliding sleeve. In the
neutral position, the sliding sleeve is held in place by the spring loaded balls which
rest in the dents in the sliding sleeve (or ring gear). There are usually six of these
balls.

In changing gear, the gear lever is brought to the neutral position in the ordinary way,
but is immediately pressed in the direction it has to go to engage the required gear.
When a shift starts, the spring loaded balls cause the synchronizing drum and sliding
sleeve, as an assembly to move toward the selected gear. The first contact is between
the synchronizing cones on the selected gear and the drum. This contact brings the
two into synchronization. Both rotate at the same speed. When the speeds of the two
have become equal, a slightly greater pressure on the gear lever overcomes the
resistance of the balls. Further movement of the shift fork forces the sliding sleeve on
toward the selected gear. The internal splines on the sliding sleeve i.e. the dog portion,
match the external splines on the selected gear the dog teeth are locked up, or
engaged, and thus positive connection is established. The gear shift is completed.
2.15 Synchroniser-need-construction and working
Fig 2.9 Synchroniser

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nM4CuWlnJY0
The synchronizer is a drum or sleeve that slides back and forth on the splined main
shaft by means of the shifting fork. Generally, it has a bronze cone on each side that
engages with a tapered mating cone on the second-and high-speed gears.
A transmission synchronizer has two functions, which are as follows:
1. Lock the main shaft gear to the main shaft.
2. Prevent the gear from clashing or grinding during shifting.
When the synchronizer is moved along the main shaft, the cones act as a clutch. Upon
touching the gear that is to be engaged, the main shaft is accelerated or slowed down

until the speeds of the main shaft and gear are synchronized. This action occurs
during partial movement of the shift lever. Completion of lever movement then slides
the sleeve and gear into complete engagement. This action can be readily understood
by remembering that the hub of the sleeve slides on the splines of the main shaft to
engage the cones; then the sleeve slides on the hub to engage the gears. As the
synchronizer is slid against a gear, the gear is locked to the synchronizer and to the
main shaft. Power can then be sent out of the transmission to the wheels.
2.16 Gear selector mechanisms

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-zH2ULIrsrw
There are many mechanisms used for selecting the desired gear.
Divided into two categories.The mechanism where the gear shift lever is mounted on
the top of transmission case and the other is mounted on the steering column.
However, in these two types most of the mechanism is similar and only the external
linkage is different. Figure shows a typical selector mechanism for a 4 forward speeds
and one reverse gear box. The gear lever is ball mounted in the gear box cover. This
facilitates its movement in any direction. The lower end of the gear lever fits into a
slot in the selector sleeve. There are forks mounted on the sleeves on three separate
selector rods which are supported in the gear box casing. Each selector sleeve can
slide on its rod. When a particular gear is to be engaged the corresponding selector
rod is moved in the desired direction. To avoid unwanted engagement of gears, slots
are made on the selector rods and the sleeves are provided with spring loaded balls.
These balls resist the movements of the forks until some force is applied to the gear
lever to overcome their resistance.
2.17 Construction and working of floor mounted mechanism
Fig 2.10 Floor mounted mechanism

The gear changing mechanism starts, with the gear lever. In early cars the lever ran
straight down into the gearbox because the engine and gearbox were separated by a
short shaft and this brought the gearbox into a convenient position for a directly-
acting lever. The modern practice is to bolt these two major components together, in
what became known as "unit construction". This gave greater rigidity to the
transmission. It did mean, though, that the gearbox was mounted further forward than
it used to be and this, in turn, meant that a floor-mounted lever could not be directly
coupled to the gearbox. If it was it would have been extremely awkward for the
driver, being either too far forward or so long that efficient, accurate changes would
be difficult to achieve. Most floor-mounted, mechanisms are based on a rod, though
cables have been used, the rod running forward from the gear lever to the striker arm
in the gearbox. A rod that is simply bolted to the gear lever and striker arm could
move in both directions.
Selector Forks
The job of the gear lever is to move the selector forks, which are those components
that actually slide the dog clutches in and out of mesh. The forks, one for each dog
clutch, locate in grooves in the dog and are in constant contact. The operation of the
forks is very simple. They are carried on rods that run parallel with the gearbox shafts
and when a gear change is required the relevant fork is moved along its shaft. Its
location in the groove means that the dog clutch is carried with it, bringing it into
contact with the pinion to be engaged. Similarly, when this pinion has to be
disengaged, the fork simply slides down the rod, carrying the dog clutch away from
the pinion.

UNIT III
PROPELLER SHAFT, FINAL DRIVE, DIFFERENTIAL AND REAR AXLE
Propeller shaft-function-construction, universal joints & slip joints- function- types-

construction & working- cross or spider type-flexible ring type-Rzeppa joint-Tripod joint.
Final drive- Purpose- types
Differential- necessity- principle- construction & working.
Rear axle- loads acting- types - construction and operation - hotch kiss - torque tube drive,
rear axle drive-construction-semi-floating -3/4 floating -fully floating rear axle drives,
double reduction axle-necessity-types
3.1 Function of propeller shaft:

1. It connects transmission to the differential
2. It transmit power from gear box to differential
3. It causes the rear wheel to move by taking rotary motion of transmission to the
differential
3.2 Propeller shaft construction
This is the shaft which transmits the drive from the transmission to the bevel pinion or
Worm of drive in front engine, rear drive vehicles and from the transfer box to the
front and rear axles in all-wheel drive vehicle. It is also called drive shaft. It consists
mainly of three parts:
(a) Shaft - As this has to withstand mainly torsional loads, it is usually made of
tubular cross-section it also has to be well balanced to avoid whirling at high speeds.
Shafts are made of steel, aluminium or composite materials.
(b) One or two universal joints - Depends upon the type of rear axle drive used. The
universal joint account for the up and down movements of the rear axle when the
vehicle is running. Modern vehicles use, however, high-speed constant velocity joints,
rubber couplings.
(c) Slip joint - Depending upon the type of drive, one slip joint may be there in shaft.
This serves to adjust the length of the propeller shaft when demanded by the rear axle
movements.

Fig 3.1 Propeller shaft

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bfggMbOpppg
A propeller shaft, with two universal joints at the ends and a slip or sliding joint. Slip
jointis formed by the internal splines on the sleeve attached to the left universal joint
and external splines on the propeller shaft. In some designs, slip arrangement is
slightly different. In these a universal joint and splined slip yoke are located at the
transmission end of the shaft where these are held in alignment by a bushing in the
transmission rear extension. This spline is lubricated internally by transmission
lubrication or grease. Sometimes a rubber element is incorporated in-between the two
sliding tubes to make the relative movement smooth and noiseless.
3.3 Function of Universal joints
An universal joint is used where two shaft are connected at an angle to transmit torque
The universal joints allow the drive shaft to move up and down, to allow for
suspension travel.
Three types of universal joints are commonly used. These are listed below:
(a) Cross or spider joint (variable velocity joint).
(b) Ball and trunnion joint (variable velocity joint).
(c) Constant velocity joints.
(a)Cross Type Universal Joint
Fig 3.1 Cross Type Universal Joint
It consists of two Y-shaped yokes and a cross piece (spider). One yoke is
connected to driving shaft and other is connected to driven shaft. The cross-piece has
four-arms which are known as trunnions and are attached to the ends of yokes. Four
needle bearings are provided one for each arm of cross-piece. These bearings allow
the yoke to swing around the trunnion when driving and driven shaft remove together
at an angle. A simple cross-type universal joint is shown in Cross-type Universal Joint
This is a variable velocity joint, i.e. the driving and driven shaft do not rotate at the

same speed throughout a revolution. However, their rpm is same. This happens
because both shafts are not in straight line. Ring and trunion type and cross ball type
designs also come in this category of universal joints.
(b) Ball and Trunnion Joint
Fig 3.2 Ball and Trunnion Joint

This type of joint consists of a ball type head which is fastened to one end of the
propeller shaft. A pin is also pressed through this end of shaft. Two steel balls are
fitted at the end of this pin. The joint facilitates rotary motion through ball and pin.
The balls can also move axially. Ball and trunnion joint is also a variable velocity
joint.
(C) Constant Velocity Universal Joint
Fig 3.3 Constant Velocity Universal Joint

This type of joint permits movement of both driving and driven shafts at constant
velocity. Because, two joints in this case operate at same angles. These joints are
generally used when the automobile in a front wheel (axle) drive. Because speed
variation between driving and driven shaft will introduce difficulty in steering and
excessive tyre wear.
3.4 Function of Slip joint in the propeller shaft

Slip joint serves to adjust the length of the propeller shaft when demanded by the rear
axle movements.Depending upon the type of drive, one slip joint may be there in
shaft
3.5 Final drive
Fig 3.4 Final drive

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gIGvhvOhLHU
Final drive is the last stage of power transfer from propeller shaft to rear axles and
then to wheels. It turns the propeller shaft motion at right angle to drive the rear axle.
The final drive is composed of a bevel gear (or pinion) and crown wheel.
3.6 Necessity of Differential
The purpose of a differential is to permit a vehicle to go around a curve without
skidding. To prevent skidding in a curve the wheel on the outside of the curve has to
turn faster than the wheel on the inside because it has to travel a greater distance in
the same amount of time as the inner wheel. Without a differential it couldn’t do this.
It splits the power from the drive shaft to the two drive wheels on either side of the
vehicle it reduces the speed from the drive shaft transmitted to the wheels at either
end of the axel. it increases the torque going to the wheels.
3.6.1 Principle of Differential
Differential is a very important part in a vehicle, as a component transfer the engine
power is transmitted to the wheels. Engine power is transferred by a rear propeller
shaft to wheel first changed direction by differential rotation are then referred to rear
axle shafts after that to the rear wheels.

3.6.2 Construction & working of Differential

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8qeaNQABPQk
Fig 3.4 Differential

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WeLm7wHvdxQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SOgoejxzF8c
When the car is taking a turn, the outer wheel will have to travel greater
distance as compared to the inner wheels. If the car has a solid rear axle only,
there will be tendency for the wheels to skid. Hence if skidding of the wheel is

to be avoided, some mechanism must be incorporated in the rear axle, which

would reduce the speed of the inner wheels and increase the speed of the outer
wheels while taking turns. It should at the same time keep the speeds of all the
wheels the same when going straight ahead. Such a device which serves the
above functions is called a differential.
The crown wheel of the final drive is attached on a cage which carries a
'crosspin. Two sun gears mesh with the two planet pinions. Axle half-shafts
are splined to each of these sun gears. The crown wheel is free to rotate on the
half-shaft as shown.
When the vehicle is going straight the cage and the inner gears rotate as a
single unit and the two half shafts revolve at the same speed. In this situation,
there is no relative movement among the various differential gears. To
understand what happens when the vehicle is taking a turn, assume that the
cage is stationary. Then turning one sun gear will cause the other to rotate in
the opposite direction. That means if left sun gear rotates 'n' times in a
particular time, the right sun gear will also rotate n times in the same period
but, of course, in the opposite direction. This rotation is super-imposed on the
normal wheel speed when the vehicle is taking a turn. Thus the outer wheel
rotates at higher speed than the inner wheel while taking a turn.
3.7 Different loads acting on rear axles
1. Bending force, 2. Shear force, 3. Side thrust, 4. Braking force
3.8 Rear axles are of two types:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4jWFphoG4TE
3.8.1 Hotchkiss Drive
Fig 3.6 Hotchkiss Drive

This is the simplest and most widely used type of rear axle drive. In this case
the springs besides taking weight of the body, also take the torque reaction,
driving thrust and the side thrust. The figure alongside shows such a drive.
The propeller shaft is provided with two universal joints and also a sliding
joint. The spring is fixed rigidly in the middle to the rear axle. The front end of
the spring is fixed rigidly on the frame, while the rear end is supported in a
shackle. The driving thrust is transmitted to the frame by the front half of the
springs. It uses two universal joints and one slip join.

3.8.2 Torque tube drive
Fig 3.7 Torque tube drive

In this type of drive, the spring takes only the side thrust besides supporting
the body weight. The torque reaction, braking torque and the driving thrust are
taken by another member which is called the torque tube. One end of torque
tube is attached to the axle casing, while the other end which is spherical in
shape fits in the cup fixed to the frame as shown in figure. The torque tube
encloses the propeller shaft. Since in this case the torque tube takes the torque
reaction, the centre line of the bevel pinion shaft will not shift and further it
will always pass through the centre of the spherical cup if the propeller shaft is
connected to the gear box shaft by means of a universal joint situated exactly
at the centre of the spherical cup. In such a situation, no universal joint is
needed at the rear end of the propeller shaft. Moreover, no sliding joint is
provided because both the pinion shaft and the propeller shaft in this case will
move about the same centre of the spherical cup. Clearly torque reaction and
the driving thrust are taken by the torque tube.
3.9 Rear axle
On this basis, these axles can be classified into three types :
(a) Half floating axle
(b) Three-quarter floating axle
(c) Fully floating rear axle
3.9.1 Half Floating Axle
Fig 3.8 Half Floating Axle

In a half floating rear axle, the axle is at the centre of the axle casing and the
bearings are inside the axle casing. The weight of vehicle is transmitted first to
suspension spring, then to axle casing, then to axle and finally to ground.
3.9.2 Three-quarter Floating Axle
Fig 3.9 Three-quarter Floating Axle

In three-quarter floating rear axle, bearings are on the outer side of axle
casing, i.e. between casing and wheel. In this case, major part of vehicle
weight is taken by axle casing and not by axle. This is the main advantage of
three-quarter floating type over half floating type. Thus, axle breakdown is
less in this case compared to the previous type.
3.9.3 Fully Floating Rear Axle
Fig 3.10 Fully Floating Rear Axle

In fully floating rear axle, the bearings are provided between axle casing and
the wheel. In this case, all the vehicle weight is transmitted to ground through
axle case and wheel. The axle is not supported by bearings but it is supported
at both ends. This type of axle is very strong and therefore, it is used for heavy
duty vehicles. In the event of breakdown of axle, wheel cannot come out. This,
it is safer but costly
3.10 Double reduction axle
Double Reduction Type Double reduction type differential provides further
speed reduction by additional gear. This type of differential is used in heavy duty
automobiles which require larger gear reduction between engine and wheels.

Unit4 FRONT AXLE AND STEERING SYSTEM

Front Axle-types-construction-live (drive shaft)-dead axle (conventional), stub axles-
types- construction - Elliot, reverse-Elliot, lemoine and reverse - lemoine.
Steering system-purpose- requirements-mechanisms-types-details –Ackerman
mechanism, layouts-rigid axle-independent suspension system, steering gear box-
need-types-construction and working- Rack & Pinion-worm and wheel re-circulating
ball and nut type, steering geometry-definition, define and explain-camber-caster-
king pin inclination-combined angle-toe in and toe out, wheel alignment and wheel
balancing-need.
4.1 Front Axle
• Front axle is used to carry the weight of the front part of the vehicle .
• It facilitates the searing mechanism.
• It absorbs shocks due to the road surface variations.
• It must be right and robust in construction.
• It is made of "I" section in the centre portion, while the ends are made either
circular or elliptical.
• Different components of the front axle are the axle beam , stab axle , king pin , tie
rod
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V2IqReiNneg
4.2 Types of Front Axle

• Live front axle (used for front wheel drive and 4X4 type of drive).
• Dead front axle (used for 4X2 type of drive).
4.2.1Construction of live Front Axle
Live axles are used to transmit power from gear box to front wheels. Live
front axles although resemble rear axles but they are different at the ends
where wheels are mounted. Maruti-800 has line front axle. It transmits the
engine power to the front wheel through the front axle. The axle is in type half
shafts. It also consists of universal joint, stub axle, swievel pinwheels ect.,
Fig 4.1 live Front Axle

4.2.2 Dead Front Axle
Fig 4.1 Dead Front Axle

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V2IqReiNneg
It does not consist of differential and hence power will not transmit to front
wheels. Such axles are called as dead axle. In case of rear wheel draive,front
axle is dead axle dead axles are those axles, which don’t rotate. These axles
have sufficient rigidity and strength to take the weight. The ends of front axle
are suitably designed to accommodate stub axles.
4.5 Stub axle
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZGrrTgnBu60
Stub axles are connected to the front axle by king pins. Front wheels are mounted on
stub axles arrangement for steering is connected to stub axles. Stub axle turns on kind
pins. King pins is fitted in the front axle beam eye and is located and locked there by a
taper cotter pin.
4.5.1 Stub axles are of four types:
(a) Elliot
(b) Reversed elliot
(c) Lamoine
(d) Reversed lamoine
4.5.1.1 Elliot type :
In Elliot stub axle is attached to the front axle by placing it in the yoke end
with a king pin and cotter pin to join together

Fig 4.2 Elliot type

4.5.1.2 Reverse Elliot:
In reverse Elliot type stub axle the arrangement is reversed. It is widely used
in current auto mobiles used in trucks
Fig 4.3 Reverse Elliot

4.5.5.3 Lemoine:
In lemoine type stub axle instead of yoke type hinge an L- shaped spindle is
used as shown in fig used in tractors
Fig 4.4 Lemoine

4.5.3.4 Reverse lemoine:
It is the reverse position of lemoine but not used in modern automobiles
Fig 4.4 Reverse lemoine

4 Steering system
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QxnZroGWk8A
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bX3JQgb7GZk

4.6 Steering system purpose

1. It helps in swinging the wheels to the left or right.
2. It helps in turning the vehicle at the wheel of the driver
3. It provides directional stability
4. It helps in archiving the self rightening effect
4.7 Requirements of steering system:
1. It should multiply the turning effort applied on the steering wheel

2. It should be to a certain degree irreversible so that the shocks of the road
surface encountered by the wheels are not transmitted to the driver’s hands.
4.8 Steering mechanisms
There are two types of Steering gear mechanisms
1. Ackermann steering gear
2. Davis steering gear
4.8.1 Ackermann steering mechanisms
Fig 4.5 Ackermann steering mechanisms

It consists of a cross link CD connected to the short axles AL and BM of the two fro
D through the short arms AC and BD, forming bell crank lowers LAC and MBI),
respectively. When the wheel is running straight, the cross-link CD is parallel to AB,
the short arms AC and BD both make angle to the horizontal axis of chassis. In order
to satisfy the fundamental equation for correct steering, the links AC and BD are
suitably proportioned and angle a is the suitably selected.
For correct steering, cot ∅ - cos θ = c/b
The angles ∅ and θ are shown in Fig
The value of c/b lies between 0.4 and 0.5, generally 0.455. The value of cot ∅ - cos θ
corresponds to the positions when steering is correct.
∅ θ
∅ θ
4.9 Layouts independent steering system
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aGVezPEud8E
Fig 4.6 Layouts independent steering system
4.10 Need of Steering gear box

1. To change the rotary motion of steering wheel into straight line motion.
2. To minimize the effort of vehicle steering.
3. Variation of gear ratio from 12:1 to 30:1.
4.11Types of Steering gear box
1. Worm and Roller

2. Worm and Sector
3. Cam and Roller
4. Cam and Peg
5. Cam and Turn lever
6. Screw and Nut
7. Reticulating Ball
8. Worm and Ball
9. Rack and Pinion
4.11.1 Construction and working of Rack & Pinion-worm
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2zkiSOxuVBc
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uTqU35K_8AU

Fig 4.7 Rack & Pinion-worm

A rack and pinion gear system composed of two gears. The normal round gear is
called "pinion" gear and straight or flat gear is called "Rack" gear.
A rack and pinion is a type of linear actuator that comprises a pair of gears which
convert rotational motion into linear motion. The circular pinion engages teeth on a
linear "gear" bar which is called the "rack".
Rotational motion applied to the pinion will cause the rack to move to the side, up to
the limit of its travel.
A rack-and-pinion gear set is enclosed in a metal tube, with each end of
the rack protruding from the tube. A rod, called a tie rod, connects to each end of
the rack. The pinion gear is attached to the steering shaft.
When you turn the steering wheel, the gear spins, moving the rack. The tie rod at each
end of the rack connects to the steering arm on the spindle.
4.11.2 Construction and Working of Re-circulating ball ant nut type
Fig 4.8 Re-circulating ball ant nut type

The Reticulating-ball steering gear contains a worm gear. You can image the gear in
two parts. The first part is a block of metal with a threaded hole in it. This block has
gear teeth cut into the outside of it, which engage a gear that moves the pitman
arm (see diagram above). The steering wheel connects to a threaded rod, similar to a
bolt that sticks into the hole in the block. When the steering wheel turns, it turns the
bolt. Instead of twisting further into the block the way a regular bolt would, this bolt is
held fixed so that when it spins, it moves the block, which moves the gear that turns
the wheels. Instead of the bolt directly engaging the threads in the block, all of the
threads are filled with ball bearings that reticulate through the gear as it turns. The
balls actually serve two purposes: First, they reduce friction and wear in the gear;
second, they reduce slop in the gear. Slop would be felt when you change the
direction of the steering wheel -- without the balls in the steering gear, the teeth would
come out of contact with each other for a moment, making the steering wheel feel
loose.Power steering in a reticulating-ball system works similarly to a rack-and-pinion
system. Assist is provided by supplying higher-pressure fluid to one side of the block.
Now let's take a look at the other components that make up a power-steering system.
4.12 Definition of steering geometry-
The term "steering geometry" (also known as "front-end geometry") refers to the
angular Relationship between suspension and steering parts, front wheels, and the road
surface. Because alignment deals with angles and affects steering, the method of describing
alignment measurements is called steering geometry.
1. Caster angle
2. Camber angle
3. Angle of king pin inclination
4. Toe-in
5. Toe-out
1. Caster Angle Caster angle is the tilt. i.e. the inclination of the top axle or kingpin towards
the front or rear of the car. If tilted towards the front it is positive caster (+) and if tilted
towards the back it is negative (—) caster. The purpose of caster is to give a trailing effect to
the front wheels. When the wheel trails the line of weight, that is, moves in the same direction
as the vehicle, it is easy to steer a straight course
Fig 4.9 Caster angle Fig 4.10 Camber angle

2. Camber Angle Camber angle is the outward or inward tilt of the wheel at the top. If tilted
outward it is positive (+) camber and if inward it is negative (—) camber. The main purpose
of the camber is to bring the road contact of the wheel more nearly under the point of the load
and to throw the weight on the inner wheel bearings which are larger than the outer
3. King Pin Inclination the king pin is tilted in at the top towards the vehicle in order that the
weight of the load will be thrown towards the tyre centre. The angle between the vehicle line
and the kingpin centre line is known as kingpin inclination angle
Fig 4.11 King Pin Inclination

4. Toe-In the wheels are closer together at the front than they are at the back. The purpose of
toe-in is to offset the camber and prevent excessive tyre wear
Fig 4.11 Toe-In and Toe-out

5. Toe-out is the spreading apart of the front wheels on turns. The purpose of toe-out is to
give correct turning alignment and to prevent excessive tyre wear The steering angles are all
adjustable at the manufacture's specification and the procedure should be followed closely
when checking and setting up front end alignment. Steering angles of some Indian
automobiles are provided
4.13 Wheel alignment
It consists of adjusting the angles of the wheels so that they are perpendicular to the ground
and parallel to each other. The purpose of these adjustments is maximum tire life and a
vehicle that tracks straight and true when driving along a straight and level road.
4.13.1 Wheel alignment purpose
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F6ZZ_U_Fl1Y
The main purpose of wheel alignment is to make the tires roll without Scuffing,
slipping, or dragging under all operating conditions. Pulling or drifting away from a
straight line Wandering on a straight level road .Spokes of the steering wheel off to
one side while driving on a straight and level road

Factor to be consider for wheel alignment

 Caster angle
 Camber angle
 Angle of king pin inclination
 Toe-in
 Toe-out
4.14 Wheel balancing
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v5sXEuf8pBM
Wheel balancing is the operation performed in order to attain uniform traction and to
avoid vibrations in automobiles by addition of balancing weights on the rim in order
to distribute the wheel mass evenly during rotation.
4.15 Methods of wheeling balancing
Static balancing
• Wheel balance off machine with use of balancing stand and arbor
• Counterweights in wheel flange must be correctly positioned in order to balance
Dynamic balancing • Automatically balanced wheel while revolving using ball-
bearing balancing devices on machine
4.16Effects of wheel misbalance
When the tire rotates, asymmetric masses cause the wheel to wobble, which can cause
ride disturbances, usually vertical and lateral vibrations. It can also result in a
wobbling of the steering. Wheels that are not balanced or are out of balance generally
produce a vibration that is uncomfortable to drive in and results in premature wearing
of suspension and steering components, rotating parts and tyres.

Unit V BRAKING SYSTEM
Braking system- purpose- requirements- types, construction and working-internal expanding

drum brake, mechanical brakes-layout, hydraulic brake-principle-layout-advantages and
disadvantages, master cylinder-types-construction and working –conventional –tandem,
wheel cylinder-types-construction and working –single and double piston type, parking
brake-purpose, brake lining materials, disc brakes-types-merits and demerits-construction
and working –fixed-sliding-swinging type.
5.1 Purpose of braking system

In an automobile, if the pressure from accelerator pedal I removed, the vehicle tends
to slow up because of wind resistance, drag of engine and road friction. These forces,
of course, would stop the vehicle but in the present day traffic, this would be quite
impracticable and dangerous. The banking system provides added friction to
overcome motion and to slow up or to stop the vehicle. The momentum or kinetic
energy developed by the vehicle when in motion is converted into heat energy by the
friction of brake shoes and drums which is dissipated into the surrounding air.
5.2Requirements
1. The brakes should stop the vehicle within a reasonable distance. The retardation
shall be smooth and free from jerk.
2. The braking system should be very reliable to promote highest degree of safety on
the road
3. The braking system should not be affected by water, heat, road grit or dust.
4. Pedal effort applied by the driver should not be more so as not to strain the driver.
5. Brake should work equally good in all weathers.
6. The wear and tear of the material of the brake linings should he minimum for its
longer life.
7. All the components and lever of the braking system should be strong enough to
take the mechanical stresses and strains which are encountered during brake actuation.
5.3 Types of braking system
1. Mechanical brakes.
2. Hydraulic brakes.
3. Power brakes.
i. Air brakes
ii. Vacuum brakes
iii. Air-hydraulic brakes
iv. Electric brakes.

5.4 Construction and working of internal expanding drum brake

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bnc3VnQ8kUY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VIHXJ4qDM7E
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VIHXJ4qDM7E
Fig 5.1 drum brake

It consists of two shoes S1 and S2. The outer surfaces of the shoes are lined with some
friction material, to increase the frictional coefficients and to prevent wearing away of
the metal. Each shoe is pivoted at one end about a fixed fulcrum (O1 & O2) and made
to contact a cam at the other end. When the cam rotates, the shoes are pushed
outwards against the rim of the drum. The friction between the shoes and the drum
produces the braking torque and consequently speed of the drum reduces. Brake shoe
retracting spring which connects. Both the brake shoes at their loose end helps them
in contracting after the brakes are released.
Working
When the brake pedal is pressed down, it. Motion is transmitted to the cam through
various mechanical linkages. The motion of the cam tends to expand out the brake
shoes. This inward motion of the brake shoes will try to slow down the motion of the
rotating brake drum. Because the wheel is fixed to the brake drum, so automatically it
will be held to move further.
When brake pedals released, the pedal will move up because of the tension of the
return spring. A retracting spring draws the shoes away from the drum when the cam
is moved to its initial position and hence the brake shoes are no longer in contact with
the drum. Which is now free to rotate
5.5 Mechanical brakes-layout
5.6 Hydraulic brake-principle
Hydraulic brakes work on the principle of Pascal's law which states that "pressure at a
point in a fluid is equal in all directions in space". According to this law when
pressure is applied on a fluid it travels equally in all directions so that uniform braking
action is applied on all four wheels.

5.7 Hydraulic brake lay-out
Fig 5.2 Hydraulic brake lay-out

5.7.1Advantages
1. Equal braking effort to the four wheals
2. The System is simple in construction.
3. Less rate of wear.
4. The system is self-lubricating.
5. Increased braking effort
5.7.2 Disadvantages
1. Braking system fails if there is any leakage in brake lines
2. The brake shoes are liable to get ruined if the brake fluid leaks out.
5.8 Master cylinder-types

There are two types of master cylinder
i) Single master cylinder
ii) Tandem master cylinder
5.8.1Construction and working of conventional type master cylinder

Fig 5.3 conventional type master cylinder

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3-vIOK0HxJ8
Construction
It consists of two chambers (i) The ―fluid reservoir’’. (Which contains the
fluid to supply the brake system), and (ii) the ―compression chambers‖ (in which
piston operates). The reservoir supplies fluid to the brake system through two ports.
The larger port is called the filler or intake port and is connected to the hollow portion
of the piston (there are a number of holes in the piston onthe small ports. is called the
compensating, low or high pressure seal aide) between the primary and secondary
cops which acts as piston. The smaller port is called the compensating, bypass or
relief port winch connects the reservoir directly with the cylinder and lines when the
piston in the realised position. The reservoir is vented to the atmosphere os that
atmosphere pressure causes the flow through the filler part. The vent in placed in the
filler cap. The ―boot‖ covers the push rod and the end of the cylinder to keep it free
from foreign matters. Towards the brake lines side of the compression chamber, there
is a fluid 'check valve with a rubber cup inside. It serves to retain the residual pressure
in the brake lines even when the brakes are released.
Working
When the brake pedal is pressed piston of the master cylinder moves forward
to force the liquid under pressure into the system. The relief port is sealed out of the
system. The liquid pressure is conducted to the wheel cylinders, where it force the
wheel cylinder pistons outwards. These pistons force the brakes shoes out against the
brake drums and the brakes are applied.
• As soon as the brake pedal is released, the return spring quickly forces the master
cylinder piston back against the piston stop. Since the fluid in the lines returns rather
slowly, a vacuum tends to form in the cylinder in front of the piston. This causes the
primary cup to collapse/deflect to allow the liquid to flow from the reservoir through
the filler port past the piston to fill the vacuum.
• When the pedal is in ―off position‖, the liquid may flows from the reservoir through
the relief port in the matter cylinder, supply fines, and wheel cylinders to make up for
any fluid that may be lost or compensate for shrinkage cooling of the liquid. In this
way, a complete column of liquid is always maintained between the master cylinder
piston and wheel cylinder pistons.
5.9 Construction and working of tandem master cylinder
Fig 5.4 tandem master cylinder

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2OU150Yskhs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pPPP7BYJA0A
A simple master cylinder is mostly used in all small and medium type of vehicles.
However, some vehicles, the tandem master cylinder in used.
―A tandern master cylinder" is the master cylinder with two separate cylinders and
reservoirs in the same master cylinder assembly, one operating front brakes and the
other cylinder operating rear brakes. This master cylinder avoids the possibility of all
the brakes of a vehicle being put out of order by leak or fracture in the pipe line
leading to one wheel cylinder.
It ensures reliability with not much extra cost. In this arrangement separate lines go to
different sections of the brake system, say, the reservoir and the front brakes and it so
arranged that if the brake lines are damaged, the rear brakes will be still effective.
Similarly if rear brake line is defective, at least front brakes will be applied. Fig.
shows a single line diagram of a tandem master cylinder. Two pistons have been shot.
Which are in line with each other. If line A fails, the piston a bottoms against the end
of the cylinder while the piston B continues to develop pressure in the line B applying
brakes to one of wheels. If the line B fails piston B comes up against piston A, thus
building up pressure in line A.
Fig. shows the sectional view of a tandem master cylinder. As shown in diagram, the
master cylinder contains two pistons, the rear being operated directly by the brake
pedal. The space between the pistons is connected to the front brakes while the
connection to rear brakes is made at end opposite to operating link.
5.10 Types of Wheel cylinder.
 Single acting
 Dual acting
5.10.1Single acting Wheel cylinder
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WEWxG2T9xuQ

Fig 5.5 Single acting Wheel cylinder

They are either single acting or dual acting. Single-acting cylinders use a single
piston, meaning that the force is generated in one direction only. Single-acting wheel
cylinders are used on some no servo drum brakes. Each wheel cylinder only has one
piston, so the cylinder bore is closed off at the opposite end. There are two of these
cylinders on each wheel assembly, one for each brake shoe. The wheel cylinder is very
similar to the double-acting cylinder in that it is made of the same materials and has an
aluminium piston, a lip seal, a spring and expander, a dust boot, a pushrod, and a bleeder
screw.
5.10.2 Double acting Wheel cylinder
Fig 5.6 Double acting Wheel cylinder

Dual-acting cylinders use two pistons opposite of each other, meaning that the force
acts in two different directions. Most modern vehicles use double-acting wheel cylinders
because they are simpler to design, install, and bleed. Dual-acting wheel cylinders use a
common cylinder with a piston and lip seal in each end. There is usually a coil spring with
expanders on each end, positioned between the lip seals. The expander helps to hold the
seal lips against the cylinder bore when there is little or no hydraulic pressure.
5.11 Parking brake

Fig 5.7 Parking brake

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QUH1PzTeyJM
Hand brakes are usually the mechanical brake. These brakes operate independently of
the foot brakes. There are used for parking on slopes and during emergency and ere also
called. "Secondary brakes‖ Hand brake is generally located on the side of driver's seat. On
most of the vehicles band brake applies only the rear brakes. Fig shows a schematic
diagram of a typical hand brake. In order to apply the brakes the ratchet is released first by
pressing the ratchet release handle, which causes the pawl to move up, disengaging the
ratchet. Then the brake lever pulled up, while further pulls the cable which in them
operates the rear brakes mechanically through a linkage operating on the piston of the rear
wheel cylinder, which are two halves. Ratchet release handle which had been pressed so
far in released now, so that the pawl moves down the spring action and engages with the
ratchet thus keeping the brakes applied.
5.12 Brake lining materials

Brake linings are made of friction material and fixed on the brake shoes. These may
be riveted or bonded to the shoe. Sometimes these are moulded as integral part of the brake
shoe. Asbestos has been used as friction material in linings for very long time. Recently, its
use has been restricted and even banned in some countries due health hazards. Asbestos
lining material has been replaced by fully metallic, semi-metallic and non-asbestos lining
materials. Sintered iron has been used as fully metallic lining material and is more suitable
for heavy duty and racing vehicles. These require very high pedal pressure. Also the wearing
out of drums is faster. Semi-metallic lining materials have good anti fade and frictional
characteristics. These are made of iron fibre moulded with adhesives. Non-asbestos lining
materials are synthetic materials. Attempts are being made to improve their life span, friction
characteristics, wear characteristics and heat dissipation.
5.13 The types of disc brake
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FamCjJKclsQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ar5j1mUdFA8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Au_SRabG_64
 A fixed calliper.

 A floating calliper.
 A swinging calliper
5.13.1 A fixed calliper.
Fig 5.8 fixed calliper disc brake

In this the rotor sits between the two frictional shoes of the caliper (let's call it
the outboard shoe and the inboard shoe.) Each side has one or two
pistons(pistons are on both sides). When the brake is applied, the pistons press
the outboard and the inboard shoe against the disc creating the braking action.
The whole caliper setup is fixed to the steering knuckle or anything stationary
on the axle. Hence called Fixed caliper disc brake.
5.13.2 A floating calliper

A floating caliper has piston(s) on one side and slides back and forth on
bushings or pins acting as a clamp. When you apply the brakes, the piston
pushes the brake pad on the inboard side against the rotor. The caliper then
slides on the bushings or pins and squeezes the outboard pad against the rotor.
Fig 5.9 floating calliper disc brake

5.13.3 Swinging Callipers
Fig 5.10 floating calliper disc brake

Instead of a pair of horizontal bolts that allow the caliper to move straight in
and out respective to the car body, a swinging caliper utilizes a single, vertical
pivot bolt located somewhere behind the axle centreline. When the driver
presses the brakes, the brake piston pushes on the inside piston and rotates the
whole caliper inward, when viewed from the top. Because the swinging
caliper's piston angle changes relative to the rotor, this design uses wedge-
shaped pads that are narrower in the rear on the outside and narrower on the
front on the inside.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oUchfOF6EMs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bBwQ-UiveTs
5.13.1 Merits of disc brake

 Disk brake requires less effort (brake torque) to stop the vehicle compare to
drum brake.
 It generates less heat compare to drum brake for the same brake torque.
 Ease of maintenance as disk brake is outside the wheel rim.
 It cools down faster compare to drum brake.
 If worn out brake shoes are not changed at proper time it can cut the
brake drum in drum brake. Disk brake does not have such problem.
 It is less likely to skid compare to drum brake in wet condition.
 It is much safer than drum brake in hard braking condition. Under such
condition drum brake can lock up the rear wheel.
 It has brake pad wear indicator which is not there in drum brake.
5.13.2 Demerits of disc brake

 It is expensive compare to drum brake.
 More skills require to operate disk brake compare to drum brake that’s the
reason why some people are not comfortable with disk brake
 If any air remains in disk brake system, it can cause accident as the brake will
not work effectively.
 Disk brake assembly has more moving parts and much complex than drum
brake.
 It requires lot of effort at maintenance front like brake fluid (bleeding), change
of brake pads etc compare to drum brake

Unit VI SUSPENSION SYSTEM, WHEELS AND TYRES
Suspension System-necessity-types, springs-types, construction and working-rigid axle

suspension with leaf spring-McPherson strut-double wishbone-trailing link, sprung and un
sprung weight-definition, shock absorber-need-construction and working of double acting
shock absorber
Wheels- requirements-types, Constructional details-wire-disc-alloy wheel.
Tyres-function-types-construction-tube-tubeless, carcass-types-construction-cross ply –radial - bias
type, treads pattern – need - types, aspect ratio, and specification
6.1 Necessity of Suspension System

Suspension systems serve a dual purpose contributing to the vehicle's road
holding/handling and braking for good active safety and driving pleasure, and keeping
vehicle occupants comfortable and a ride quality reasonably well isolated from road
noise, bumps, and vibrations.
6.2 Types of Suspension System
 Rigid Suspension System
 Independent Suspension System
6.3 Types of springs:
 Leaf springs
 Coil springs
 Torsion springs
 Air bags springs
 Rubber springs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5CjSi3hHVMo
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GeGQcTvwcrw
6.4 Construction and working of rigid axle suspension
Fig 6.1 rigid axle suspension

In this type of suspension ,the suspension springs is leaf spring are rigidly fixed to front axle
or rear axle .A set of leaf spring is fixed on axle seating by means ―U‖ bolts. The end of leaf
spring set is fixed to chassis member with the help of bracket and shackle.When the vehicle
comes across on pitch road, bumps, or uneven roads, the leaf spring action is on both sides .If
right wheel falls on pitch road, the leaf suspension effect on both side.

6.5 Construction and working of McPherson strut

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-4b39-pbHN4
Fig 6.2 McPherson strut

The most widely used front suspension system in cars comprises of a strut-type spring
and shock absorber combo, which pivots on a ball joint on the single, lower arm.
The steering gear is either connected directly to the lower shock absorber housing, or
to an arm from the front or back of the spindle (in this case when you steer, it
physically twists the strut and shock absorber housing (and consequently the spring)
to turn the wheel
6.6 Construction and working of double wishbone
Fig 6.3 double wishbone

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u6ssbkt7_kw
This is usually used for front suspension for small trucks and for front and rear
suspension for passenger cars. Characteristic for double wishbone: Wheels are
mounted to the body via upper and lower arm. Suspension geometry can be designed
as desired according to the length of the upper and lower arm and their mounting
angles. For example if upper and lower arm are parallel and have equal length, the

tread and the tire-toe ground camber of the tire will change. As a result, it is not
possible to obtain adequate cornering performance. In addition, in the tread will cause
excessive tire wear.To solve this a design is normally employed in which the upper
arm is made shorter than the lower arm so that the tread and the tire-to-ground camber
of the tire fluctuate less.
6.7 Trailing link suspension
Fig 6.4 Trailing link suspension

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CldP_o95zEY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-OkOtdKv62c
In this type of suspension, a helical coil spring is arranged in horizontal position
rather than the vertical position. One end of the spring is fixed with the cross member
of the frame and the other end with one end of the trailing link. The other end of the
trailing link is attached to the shaft which carries the wheel hub. When the wheel
moves up and down, it winds and unwinds the helical spring to absorb the wheel
vibrations due to road irregularities. To check the vibrations of the spring a multi-
plate shock absorber is also provided at the end of the cross member. In some cases of
designs torsion bars are used instead of the helical springs.
6.8 Sprung Weight:
The weight of the vehicle frame, body, engine, transmission and any other load on
these components are supported over the suspension system, therefore, such weights
are called as sprung weight. A vehicle should have greater sprung weight for a better
suspension. Generally its share is about 65-80% of the whole vehicle weight.
6.9 Un-sprung Weight:
Some parts of an auto-vehicle, which are fitted between suspension system and the
road surface, are not supported by the suspension system. Weights of these parts are
known as un-sprung weight. Examples of such weights are the rear axle assembly,
wheels, tyres, brakes and the steering knuckle etc. The fraction of un-sprung weight
should be a minimum possible for comfortable ride.
6.10 Need of shock absorber
Essentially, shock absorbers do two things. Apart from controlling the movement of
springs and suspension, shock absorbers also keep your tyres in contact with the

ground at all times. At rest or in motion, the bottom surface of your tyres is the only
part of your vehicle in contact with the road.
6.11Construction and working of double acting shock absorber

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wSAG6Z4z5rs
Fig 6.5 double acting shock absorber
Compression Cycle:
During the compression stroke or downward movement, some fluid flows through
the piston from chamber B to chamber A and some through the compression valve
into the reserve tube. To control the flow, there are three valving stages each in the
piston and in the compression valve. At the piston, oil flows through the oil ports,
and at slow piston speeds, the first stage bleeds come into play and restrict the
amount of oil flow. This allows a controlled flow of fluid from chamber B to
chamber A.At faster piston speeds, the increase in fluid pressure below the piston in
chamber B causes the discs to open up away from the valve seat.At high speeds, the
limit of the second stage discs phases into the third stage orifice restrictions.
Compression control, then, is the force that results from a higher pressure present in
chamber B, which acts on the bottom of the piston and the piston rod area.
Extension Cycle:
As the piston and rod move upward toward the top of the pressure tube, the volume
of chamber A is reduced and thus is at a higher pressure than chamber B. Because of
this higher pressure, fluid flows down through the piston's 3-stage extension valve
into chamber B.However, the piston rod volume has been withdrawn from chamber
B greatly increasing its volume. Thus the volume of fluid from chamber A is
insufficient to fill chamber B. The pressure in the reserve tube is now greater than
that in chamber B, forcing the compression intake valve to unseat. Fluid then flows
from the reserve tube into chamber B, keeping the pressure tube full.Extension

control is a force present as a result of the higher pressure in chamber A, acting on

the topside of the piston area.
6.12 Requirements of Wheels

 It must be strong enough with stand the weight of the vehicle and take up all driving
torques
 Light enough to enable the tyre to follow the counter of the road and reduce the un
sprung weight
 It must be able to resist all the cornering stresses
 It must be balance easily statically and dynamically in combination with the tyre
6.13 Types of Wheels
1. Disc wheel 2. Wire or spoke wheel 3. Split wheel 4.alloy wheel
5. Heavy vehicle wheels
6.13.1 Constructional details of wire wheel
Fig 6.6 wire wheel

It consists of separate hub which is attached to the rim by large number of spokes,
they arranged at different angle. It is light in weight
6.13.2 Constructional details of Disc wheel
Fig 6.7 Disc wheel

These wheels are used in light and heavy motor vehicles. The disc is made up of
pressed steels. The disc may be riveted or welded to the disc. The have narrow slot
near the rim for better cooling of brake drum. The disc have small holes through
which wheel assembly can be mounted.
6.13.2 Constructional details of allied wheel
Fig 6.8 allied wheel

Most standard wheels are made of steel. Some vehicles are fitted with alloy wheels that are
made of magnesium or aluminium the rim holds the tyre. Well of the wheel allows the tyre to
be removed and refitted Centre section is welded to the rim
6.13 Functions of tyres
1. It carries weight of the vehicle
2. It absorbs the road shocks
3. It minimise the vibration
4. It provides the good contacts with the road surface
6.14Types of tyres
6.14.1. Tube tyre:
Tube tyre is the traditional tyre. It encloses a tube in which air is forced to a high
pressure as a cushioning medium. The outer position of the tyre which rolls on the
road is made of synthetic rubber and is called tread. On the inner edges, beads are
formed by reinforcing with steel wires. The beads act as strong shoulders, for bearing
against the wheel rim. Rayon cords are formed into a number of piles. Where the
beads and cords give strength to the tyre, the threads provide resistance against
slipping and thicker surface at the outer periphery.
6.14.2 Tubeless Tyre:

Tubeless tyre does not enclose the tube. The air under pressure is filled in the tyre
itself. The inner construction of this tyre is almost the same as that of the tube tyre. A
non-return valve is fitted to the rim through which the air is forced inside the tyre.
Fig 6.6 Tube tyre and Tubeless Tyre

6.15.Construction of cross ply
Fig 6.7 cross ply Tyre

Two types of tyre construction are common cross-ply and radial ply. The cross-ply
tyre is the older form. It is also called a bias-ply or conventional tyre. It is constructed
of 2 or more plies or layers of textile casing cords, positioned diagonally from bead to
bead. The rubber-encased cords run at an angle of between 30 and 38 degrees to the
centreline, with each cord wrapped around the beads. A latticed criss-crossed
structure is formed, with alternate layers crossing over each other and laid with the
cord angles in opposite directions.
This provides a strong, stable casing, with relatively stiff sidewalls. However during
cornering, stiff sidewalls can distort the tread and partially lifting it off the road
surface. This reduces the friction between the road and the tyre. Stiff sidewalls can
also make tyres run at a high temperature. This is because, as the tyre rotates, the
cords in the plies flex over each other, causing friction and heat. A tyre that overheats
can wear prematurely.
6.16 Radial Ply Tyres

Radial ply tyres have much more flexible sidewalls due to their construction. They
use 2 or more layers of casing plies, with the cord loops running radially from bead to
bead.
Fig 6.8 Radial Ply Tyres

The sidewalls are more flexible because the casing cords do not cross over each other.
However, a belt of 2 or more bracing layers must be placed under the tread. The cords
of the bracing layers may be of fabric, or of steel and are placed at 12, to 15 degrees
to the circumference line. This forms triangles where the belt cords cross over the
radial cords. The stiff bracing layer links the cord loops together to give fore and aft
stability, when accelerating, or braking and it prevents any movement of the cords
during cornering. The cord plies flex and deform only in the area above the road
contact patch. There are no heavy plies to distort and flexing of the thin casing
generates little heat, which is easily dispersed. A radial ply tyre runs cooler than a
comparable cross-ply tyre and this increase tread life. A radial tyre has less rolling
resistance as it moves over the road surface.
6.17 Need of treads pattern
It helps in maintaining smooth steering movement, it avoids skidding and provides
proper road grip and stiffness.
6.17.1 Types of thread pattern
a) Symmetric Tyre Tread Pattern
b) Asymmetric Tyre Tread Pattern
c) Unidirectional Tyre Tread Pattern
d) Special type
Fig 6.9 Types of thread pattern

6.18 Aspect ratio
The ratio between the tyre section height and tyre section width is called as aspect
ratio. This is expressed in percentage. Now a day’s tyre are made with lower aspect

ratios. The advantages are better performance at high speed, lesser wear, low slip
angle, better load carrying capacities.
Fig 6.10 Aspect ratio
6.19 Specifications of tyres
Fig 6.11 Specifications of tyres


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DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION E-CONTENT

15AT32T - AUTOMOBILE TRANSMISSION & CONTROL

Note: This is only Basic Information for students. Please

Unit 1 Chassis Frame

Frames- purpose- loads acting – types –construction-ladder type-x type-integral, sections

1.1 Meaning of Chassis or Introduction

Fig 1.1 Chassis Frame.

1.3 Loads acting on frames

1.4 Types of frames.

Fig 1.2 Ladder type

Fig 1.3 X- type.

Note: This is only Basic Information for students. Please

1.4.2 Integral frame.

Fig 1.4 Integral frame.

Fig 1.5 Sections of frames

Fig 1.6 Need- sub frames.

Note: This is only Basic Information for students. Please

Unit-2 CLUTCH AND GEAR BOX

Gear box-necessity- Classification-construction and working - constant mesh-synchromesh

Note: This is only Basic Information for students. Please

2.4 Principle of friction clutch

Fig 2.1 friction clutch

Fig 2.2 single plate clutch

3) The operating members consist of a foot pedal, linkage, release or throw-out

Fig 2.3 Multiplate plate clutch

Note: This is only Basic Information for students. Please

Fig 2.4 Centrifugal clutch

Note: This is only Basic Information for students. Please

Fig 2.5 Clutch operating mechanisms

2.10 Hydraulic operation

Fig 2.6 Hydraulic operation

Note: This is only Basic Information for students. Please

Fig 2.7 constant mesh gear box

Note: This is only Basic Information for students. Please

Fig 2.8 Synchromesh gear box

The basic requirements of synchromesh device are:

Note: This is only Basic Information for students. Please

Fig 2.9 Synchroniser

Note: This is only Basic Information for students. Please

2.16 Gear selector mechanisms

2.17 Construction and working of floor mounted mechanism

Fig 2.10 Floor mounted mechanism

Note: This is only Basic Information for students. Please

Note: This is only Basic Information for students. Please

Propeller shaft-function-construction, universal joints & slip joints- function- types-

3.1 Function of propeller shaft:

Note: This is only Basic Information for students. Please

Fig 3.1 Propeller shaft

Fig 3.1 Cross Type Universal Joint

Note: This is only Basic Information for students. Please

Fig 3.2 Ball and Trunnion Joint

Fig 3.3 Constant Velocity Universal Joint

3.4 Function of Slip joint in the propeller shaft

3.5 Final drive

Fig 3.4 Final drive

Note: This is only Basic Information for students. Please

3.6.2 Construction & working of Differential

Fig 3.4 Differential

Note: This is only Basic Information for students. Please

to be avoided, some mechanism must be incorporated in the rear axle, which

Fig 3.6 Hotchkiss Drive

Note: This is only Basic Information for students. Please

3.8.2 Torque tube drive

Fig 3.7 Torque tube drive