Journal of Child and Family Studies (2019) 28:3207–3219

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01497-3

ORIGINAL PAPER

Parent–Adolescent Communication and Social Impacts on Black

American Adolescents’ Academic Well-Being
1
Kelli A. Hill ●
Debra D. Roberts1

Published online: 5 July 2019

© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2019

Abstract
Objective This research sought to bring awareness to positive communication skills and social components that may be
helpful with closing the persistent academic achievement gap between White and Black students in junior high school and
high school. In underserved Black American populations it is often believed that parents have little communication con-
cerning the need for educational attainment; however, there is some research to explain that Black American parents
participate in much communication with their children pertaining to academic well-being.
Methods Questionnaires were distributed to 167 adolescents, ages 11–19 years old, in sixth through twelfth grades. Once
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data were collected, we completed moderated-mediation analyses using the bootstrapping technique in Process.
Results We found support for self-efficacy and social skills as mediators in the relationship between parent–adolescent
communication (PAC) and academic performance. However, the findings were conditional for moderators, grade level and
household make up. Results for self-efficacy and social skills were mixed for junior high school and high school in the
relationship between PAC and academic performance. Furthermore, single parent homes revealed low amounts of self-
efficacy and social skills as expected in the moderated-mediation.
Conclusion Implications for the study suggest more direct PAC in the Black American community surrounding self-efficacy,
social skills and academic performance in order to promote academic success.
Keywords Parent–adolescent communication Academic success Self-efficacy Social skills Social development
● ● ● ●

Success in the United States is often attributed to educa-
tional attainment. Many parents believe this perspective to
be true. However, there are components necessary to assist
the process of academic and occupational success. The
necessary components of self-efficacy and social skills are
integrated in the conversation and belief system of parents,
which are used to teach cautionary tales and to discipline
children without an emphasis on other areas where self-
efficacy and social skills can be used as strategies or
motivators for academic performance. The realization of
these connections could be useful in some societal issues
adolescents are facing in the school system.
The academic achievement gap remains an issue for
students in the United States. Black American students are
* Kelli A. Hill
kahill@howard.edu
1
Howard University, 525 Bryant St. N.W., Washington, DC 20059,
USA
still scoring lower on examinations than their White coun-
terparts (NAEP 2017). However, the change in curriculum
and research on the education of youth is making little
headway in the academic achievement gap. Many
researchers focus on the teaching and cognitive ability of
the student rather than exploring the enforcement, or lack
thereof, of academic achievement found in the home. Par-
ents have a role in the academic achievement of their
children and have a great influence on the outcomes
reported in previous literature.
Parents’ roles include sharing lessons with their children
through communication. In the home, Fulkerson et al.
(2010) have observed the transfer of information from
parents to their children concerning culture, academics, and
daily activities (Fulkerson et al., 2010). Parents make
positive efforts to ensure their children receive sound advice
in the immediate environment of the home through the use
of communication. In a study of parent–adolescent com-
munication (PAC), communication is defined as any mes-
sage transferred in a group of two or more people
(Bienvenue 1969), measured mostly by the assessment of
3208
frequency and quality. Furthermore, studies were conducted
to extend the subject matter of PAC to the home (Fulkerson
et al., 2010).
The transfer of messages from parent to child, in parti-
cular, was presented by Fulkerson et al. (2010) as PAC or a
positive routine of daily conversations that occur between
the parent and their adolescent child in the home. Through
these transfers of communication, researchers explore the
frequency over time for communication (Fulkerson et al.
2010). In a study using a 4-item scale from the Drug Abuse
Resistance Education (DARE) program, researchers found
that parents use the communication to impact their chil-
dren’s development. Furthermore, it was reported that Black
children reported more communication with their parents
than Whites or Latinos (Fulkerson et al. 2010). However,
some studies report a lack of communication between
children and their parents (Barnes and Olson 1985). As a
growing population, Black American and other minority
adolescents should be explored further in research.
Hispanic and non-Hispanic Black children make up over
40% of the United States population (Child Trends 2018),
and minority adolescents make up about 49% of those
children in the United States (Kids Count Data Center
2017). Garcia Coll et al. (1996) acknowledge this growth of
minority adolescents and present the immediate environ-
ment and parents as the center of social development.
However, adolescents are not only recipients of their
experiences. Adolescents interact and impact their
immediate environment through communication with their
parents (Garcia Coll et al. 1996), often presenting a sense of
autonomy.
The need for autonomy requires the belief in one’s
capabilities acquired through self-efficacy. In particular, it is
the perception or belief that oneself is capable of finding
some means or strategies to complete certain expectations
or goals (Bandura 1997, p. 3; Hughes et al. 2011). As a
result, self-efficacy may be able to predict other skills or
cognitive tasks such as social skills.
Social skills are necessary to complete social tasks and to
maintain interpersonal relationships formed during devel-
opment (Gresham et al. 2010). Cavell and Kelley’s (1992)
article on the measurement of social performance gives a
similar definition of social skills as observable behaviors
and social cognitive processes that are used to perform in
specific situations. The situation-specific component of
social skills may be optimal to academic performance in the
context of schooling.
Although negative effects such as the decline of aca-
demic achievement and performance among Black Amer-
ican adolescents exists in previous literature, researchers
such as Luster and McAdoo (1994) reinforce the need to
examine the positive effects of the school system and the
achievement of Black American adolescents. As a follow up
Journal of Child and Family Studies (2019) 28:3207–3219
to Luster and McAdoo’s (1994) research, this paper seeks to
focus on positive developments of successful academic
performance through the indirect and direct effects of PAC,
self-efficacy, and social skills among Black American
adolescents.
Many homes emphasize the importance of academic
success through communication as the first immediate
contact for adolescents. Even during the turbulent years of
adolescence, researchers find that persistent PAC can
maintain and improve adolescents’ academic performance.
In a study on adolescent behavior and school transitioning,
Masselam et al. (1990) researched students’ academic per-
formance in public schools and alternative schools. After
analyzing the data, researchers found that most parents
whose adolescents were moved to alternative schools
reported less communication with their adolescents and low
academic performance, while parents whose children
remained in public schools reported more communication
with their adolescents and improved academic performance
(Masselam et al. 1990). Therefore researchers confirmed
that persistent and open communication can improve ado-
lescents’ academic performance (Masselam et al. 1990).
Further research involving a more diverse population of
parents examines Black American, Caucasian, Hispanic
American, and Asian American parents’ aspirations for their
adolescents’ academic success. Each group of parents had
the same aspirations for their adolescents according to the
researchers’ findings (Spera et al. 2009). Over half of the
Black American parents wanted their children to have better
educational opportunities than they had, and over 80 per-
cent wanted their children to attend a college or graduate
school. Furthermore, researchers mention adolescents’
academic aspirations and the need for more research con-
cerning adolescent beliefs for improving academic perfor-
mance (Jodl et al. 2001). For this reason, this research turns
to an examination of self-efficacy to give more insight into
the potential role of PAC on the beliefs and capabilities the
adolescent may be trying to convey.
Research on the relationship between self-efficacy and
academic performance has focused on mathematics and
stereotype threat (Schweinle and Mims 2009). Schweinle
and Mims’ (2009) study discusses stereotype threat and
weakened self-efficacy in mathematics based on messages
passed from generation to generation. However, the oppo-
site effect occurred in this particular study. Black American
students resisted the threat of lowered self-efficacy in
mathematics. The authors suggest identifying with a parti-
cular ethnicity or culture increased the likelihood or resi-
lience to stereotype threat and lowered self-efficacy.
Furthermore, Lane and Lane (2001) found a relationship
between self-efficacy and academic performance in their
study on the complexity of academic tasks. In a diverse
sample of subjects, researchers found that self-efficacy
Journal of Child and Family Studies (2019) 28:3207–3219
measures were a stable predictor of academic performance
in an academic setting. The higher the self-efficacy, the
more academic performance improved. Conversely, parti-
cipants who were involved in a complex task illustrated
reduced effects in long-term measures of self-efficacy on
academic performance. Overall, the study found that tasks
performed to increase self-efficacy had a significant effect
on academic performance depending on the complexity of
the task. In addition, the task at hand requires a set amount
of skills, which will be discussed when looking at the
relationship between social skills and academic
performance.
Academic performance implies a situation specific task
needing social skills to be completed (Wentzel 1991).
Wentzel (1991) examines social skills and academic per-
formance through contexts of social responsibility and self-
regulated behavior. Researchers recorded responses of sixth
and seventh graders from working class families. The study
found that each factor of social skills investigated was
significantly correlated to adolescents’ Grade Point
Average (GPA).
The effectiveness of communication in the parent-
adolescent relationship can affect the growth of self-
efficacy or other forms of socialization. In addition, PAC
involves an interpersonal relationship that can assist the
adolescent in problem solving and other social capabilities.
In other words, as adolescents use their communication
skills, their capability to solve problems becomes more
efficient. The confidence and responsibility are components
of self-efficacy needed to complete social tasks. Parents
attempt to communicate and use socialization as tools to
prepare their adolescents for social situations; however, the
socialization often depends on the effectiveness of the
communication and the capability that the adolescent takes
ownership of at the time (Wilson 1978). Some may say that
the connection between a parent and their child is one that
transcends communication to a common understanding,
which is described in Myers’ (2013) theory of Optimal
Psychology. Optimal Psychology or this connection to the
parents prepares the adolescent for higher functioning
through cognitive and emotional changes.
The capability to function at a higher level or the self-
efficacy present within the parent is reflected in the actions
of their adolescent children. Furthermore, parents’ self-
efficacy predicts the parental involvement, monitoring, and
communication associated with social development of
adolescents (Shumow and Lomax 2002). There is still more
research to complete surrounding the impact of PAC and
self-efficacy; however, social skills presented due to PAC
and socialization is another important topic to explore
stemming from autonomy granting and communication
from parents to adolescents, especially when it comes to the
Black American population.
3209
Parents play a significant role in preparing their children
to interact with their environments. As cognition and social
competence increase in adolescence, researchers find that
there is a need for socialization (Hill et al. 2007). Sociali-
zation or preparing adolescents for social interactions is a
process that is often led by the immediate caregivers (Hill
et al. 2007). Those immediate caregivers must communicate
the social skills necessary for socialization.
In a review of Hill et al. (2007), the research states that
discriminatory experiences of Black American parents are
important to share due to Black Americans’ beliefs that their
adolescents may encounter the same discriminatory
experiences as adolescents develop. Black American par-
ents take on the responsibility of communicating their own
experiences because parents believe most schools will not
convey information within their academic curriculum
necessary for their adolescents’ socialization and prepara-
tion of possible instances of discrimination. Tyler et al.
(2008) also found that Black American parents instill a
sense of competition in school due to their own experiences.
Although competition was not enforced in the home, it was
a quality necessary in the school setting.
Of further importance is the positive family commu-
nication promoting social competence or skills. Hillaker
et al. (2008) examined the communication among parents
and adolescents in grades six through eight. Items for
positive communication revealed how willing adolescents
were to have open communication with their parents and for
how long. Positive communication increased the likelihood
of developing social competencies. As a result, conversation
promotes a positive orientation to parents’ information; and
adolescents understand parents’ social expectations and
strategies for gaining social skills.
In addition to the study above, Wang et al. (2013) dis-
tributed questionnaires to 913 Bahamian students in grades
six through nine in a longitudinal study from early adoles-
cence to middle adolescence. Ninety-nine percent of the
students were of African descent. Although not specifically
targeting academic performance, open PAC decreased the
likelihood of adolescents participating in risky behaviors.
Closed or problematic PAC increased the likelihood of
adolescent risky behavior. The more direct PAC and mon-
itoring provided to adolescents, the more they avoided risky
behavior, which could have impaired their ability to com-
plete normative schooling. Researchers emphasized the
need to enhance interpersonal skills in communication
between parents and adolescents in further interventions.
PAC is positively correlated to academic performance;
however, research expresses that self-efficacy is needed for
adolescents to be capable of completing situation specific
tasks in school. Parents communicate past experiences to
their adolescents, which in turn may teach the adolescent to
believe in their own capabilities. Jonson-Reid et al. (2005)
3210
explore parents’ roles in advocating self-efficacy and aca-
demic performance among the Black American population.
Another area where researchers find the need for certain
social skills occurs between self-efficacy and schooling.
Green (2003) completed a study of developing self-efficacy
in the classroom. Results demonstrated self-efficacy is a
strong predictor of future expectations or academic perfor-
mance. When adolescents have expectations and believe in
their capabilities, there comes a need for tools and methods
to complete situation specific tasks. In the case of this study,
academic performance is the situation specific task. Green
(2003) presents the use of general self-efficacy and social
self-efficacy in a contributing role towards improved aca-
demic performance.
Although parents are at the center of communication in
the home, other factors may inhibit the transfer of messages
from the parent to the child, which decrease the outcomes of
self-efficacy, social skills and academic performance. Garcia
Coll et al. (1996) discuss inhibiting factors in their inte-
grative model to expose the obstacles minority children
encounter within their environments. One of these obstacles
could be attributed to having a single parent home rather
than a dual parent home. Most Black American adolescents
spend their lives in a single parent home as a result of
divorced parents or parents who never married (Hether-
ington et al. 1998). Children learn by interacting with par-
ents and observing their parents’ own experiences (Fletcher
et al. 2000). However, when the home is comprised of only
one parent there may be some hindrances or negative effects.
Most single mothers take on multiple roles and jobs to
keep up with the changing economy. Single mothers with
multiple responsibilities may have little time for PAC in the
home. In a sample of 79 African American mothers, Taylor
et al. (1997) found that stressful experiences have an
adverse effect on mothers’ supportive behavior. In addition,
stressful experiences can lead to moderate to severe
depression which may transfer to the adolescent’s inter-
nalized and externalized behaviors exhibited in school
rather than positive outcomes such as self-regulation and
social responsibility (Cairney et al. 2003). Feldman (2007)
discusses synchrony and the child’s underlying physiolo-
gical responses stemming from the mother from infancy to
adolescence. Synchrony is defined as the “temporal order of
discrete events into a global system that regulates the
expression of its various components, is a construct used
across multiple fields, such as the study of gene expression,
population growth, and neural networks.” Levels of the
neuroendocrine system actively influence the transfer of
emotions from the parent to the child.
Equivalent effects were seen in Hall et al. (2008) study,
examining mothers’ chronic stressors, self-esteem, negative
thinking, and depressive symptoms with mothers’ assess-
ment of child behavior. Mothers’ mental health and well-
Journal of Child and Family Studies (2019) 28:3207–3219
being had direct and indirect effects on the children’s pro-
blem behaviors. Jones and Mosher (2013), discusses father
involvement in their children’s activities. These researchers
found that there was a high percentage of fathers who sat
down at the table to have conversations with their adoles-
cent or school-aged children; however, percentages were
low for fathers’ abilities to help their children with home-
work. It is evident that at times, parents have conflicts with
mental-wellness and capabilities to assist their children’s
development of self-efficacy. However the effects of
household can change during the course of development as
well as the communication between parents and children;
hence, it is important to examine the specific developmental
stage of adolescents when examining certain outcomes.
Communication with parents can be respectful and
beneficial to the adolescent through transitions from junior
high school and high school contrary to periods of “storm
and stress”. Adolescents show respect towards their parents
and look to their parents for advice. Parents plan to observe
their own expectations in their child’s actions; however,
adolescents may have more resilience if no autonomy is
given (Steinberg 2001). Parent-child interactions provide
cognitive and social competence although the means Black
American parents use do not predict the expected outcome.
There is some justification for Black American parents to
have high amounts of PAC (Spera et al. 2009). The specific
confound here would be changes in the transition from
junior high to high school.
During the transition from junior high to high school,
views of the parent and child continue to develop; and
misunderstandings arise. In a study of 95 African American
middle-class families with children ages 11–14 years old,
parents believed that maintaining firmness facilitated
socialization and the context of social order believed to be a
reflection of the parents’ socialization (Smetana and Chuang
2001). Black American parents may have been firm in early
adolescence; however, the need for autonomy and resilience
become more important goals for the adolescent in later
periods of adolescence. In order to set this into context, we
review the theoretical frameworks of Urie Bronfenbrenner
(1977) and Bandura (1986).
Bronfenbrenner (1977, 1986) introduces five systems in
his ecological theory of human development. We intend to
discuss three major systems within our model. The systems
function due in part of accommodation through the life span
between the human organism and changing environment in
which the organism lives. The microsystem is the immediate
setting where there is a relationship between the organism and
the environment containing certain activities and roles. The
roles include mother, father, sibling, or other family in the
household. In the mesosystem, the communication from
parent to child regarding school and academic performance
may begin, creating the educational aspirations and
Journal of Child and Family Studies (2019) 28:3207–3219
expectations the parent and child possess. The macrosystem
does not affect the life of a particular person and is not
connected to a specific context. It expresses prototypes
existing in culture and subculture that act as a pattern for
structures and activities. A specific factor observed through
culture is the emphasis Black Americans put on the acquisi-
tion of values and creation of social skills, indirectly, and the
direct expectation for their children to perform well in school.
Bandura’s (1986) Social Cognitive Theory describes
these misleading beliefs people often have concerning
expectations and reactions during the course of develop-
ment. The behavioral, cognitive, and personal factors
interact with the environment to determine outcomes. Fur-
thermore, researchers provide an understanding of self-
efficacy origins. Cognitive and personal factors actively
shape the self-efficacy of adolescents to create social skills
helpful to adolescents’ development (Bandura 1986). Ban-
dura’s Social Cognitive Theory (1986) within the context of
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory of Human Develop-
ment (1977), provides a more concrete motive or incentive
for the organism or child to act on its environment in a
particular manner, given a certain situation. The organism
believes in their own capabilities; therefore, the organism
can be an active agent in the environment.
In order to focus on the multiple-mediation encompassing
nested variables and social cognitive bases, we set out to first
examine self-efficacy as a mediator in the relationship
between PAC and academic performance. Then, we exam-
ined social skills as a mediator in the relationship between
PAC and academic performance. We expected support for
both mediation analyses. Once these hypotheses were exam-
ined we conducted a multiple-mediation analysis, focusing on
the relationship between PAC and academic performance
mediated by self-efficacy and social skills. We expected both
self-efficacy and social skills to serve as mediators in the
relationship between PAC and academic performance.
In addition, the current literature suggests a significant
difference between junior high school and high school
students when examining the relationship between PAC and
academic performance. Therefore, we expected to find dif-
ferences for these school levels when examining the med-
iating role of self-efficacy and social skills in the
relationship between PAC and academic performance.
Other literature suggests that single mothers may have less
communication with their adolescents regarding academic
performance due to a lack of parent self-efficacy (Steinberg
2005). For this reason, we expected to find a difference
between single and dual parent homes in this relationship.
Hence, we predicted that there would be several different
direct and indirect effects of the relationship between PAC
and academic performance.
3211
Methods
Participants
Subjects consisted of 167 Black American students ages
11–19 years old from youth organizations and schools in
the Washington DC Metropolitan area. There were 80 stu-
dents in junior high school and 87 students in high school.
Most students attended public schools while others attended
public charter schools or private schools. Ninety-three
males and 74 females participated in the study. Several of
the students lived in areas with average incomes below the
poverty line. Power analyses using G-Power determined the
sample was adequate for the following procedure.
Procedures
Once IRB approval was granted and consent from organi-
zation/program supervisors was obtained, flyers and consent
forms were sent home with students to give to their parents
describing a study examining the effects of parent and
adolescent communication. Afterwards parents signed and
returned the consent forms to the program supervisors who
then shared them with the researchers; appointments were
set up to perform the study in classrooms or other organi-
zation meeting areas during specified times. Students were
notified of their participation by parents, teachers or direc-
tors. Assent forms were given to students to review and sign
at the time of the study.
During the data collection sessions, trained members of
the Cultural Socialization Laboratory (CSL) administered
self-report questionnaires to the students. There were at
least two trained researchers present at the study site at all
times to read statements and assist students with any
questions or concerns they may have had during the session.
In addition, teachers or program directors were present to
assist researchers. The number of students for each session
did not surpass 15 students per meeting area or classroom
space. After the questionnaires were completed, students
were debriefed. Students were identified by study desig-
nated numbers only to ensure the confidentiality of the
participants.
Measures
Demographic questions were included in the survey to
gather background information about the students. These
demographics included students’ grade level, age, gender,
ethnicity, number of adults in the household, number of
children under the age of 18 in the household, and the
highest grade level completed by parents/guardians.
3212
Parent–adolescent communication
Researchers used two scales to assess communication
between the parent and adolescent participants. The
Parent–Adolescent Communication Scale (PACS) (Barnes
and Olson 1985) was used to determine the extent of
openness or freedom to exchange ideas, information, and
concerns between the generations; the trust or honesty
experienced; and the emotional tone (positive or negative)
of the interactions between family members. Subscales
consisted of PAC measures including ten items comprising
one subscale (open) measuring positive aspects and ten
items comprising the second subscale (problem) measuring
negative aspects. The reliability for the mean scale was
fairly high (α = 0.84).
In order to gain more accuracy and detail about the
household make-up and social aspects of communication,
the Parent–Adolescent Communication Scale from Bien-
venue (1969) was also included. The scale measures various
social-emotional components relating to our proposed
mediator variables, self-efficacy and social skills. Some
questions referred to the male or female guardian; therefore,
an additional response was added to the 5-point Likert scale
for students who did not have a male or female guardian.
The reliability was moderately high (α = 0.62) for this
particular measure.
Self-efficacy
The Self-Efficacy Scale used to assess self-efficacy in this
context focuses on the social and generalized aspects of
adolescents’ personal views of their perceived social cap-
abilities (Green 2003; Sherer et al. 1982). The generalized
self-efficacy subscale allowed analysis of self-efficacy in the
context of PAC and academic performance while the social
self-efficacy subscale was used to analyze social skills
within this particular context. There are 30 items in the self-
efficacy scale with responses given on a 5-point Likert
scale. Responses demonstrated how much participants
agreed or disagreed with the items in the scale. In addition,
subscales assessed three areas including: willingness to
initiate behavior, willingness to expend effort in completing
the behavior, and persistence in the face of adversity.
Responses produced a baseline to figure out what students
believe they are capable of doing in a classroom setting. The
reliability was faired relatively high (α = 0.75).
Social skills
Social skills are reported based on the frequency of the
observed behavior and indices of self-regulation and social
responsibility. There were two separate measures for social
skills. The Social Skills Inventory System (SSIS) was used
Journal of Child and Family Studies (2019) 28:3207–3219
to measure general areas of positive social skills (Gresham
et al. 2010). The “How Often” subscale of the SSIS is
integral in focusing on the positive aspects of social skills
rather than the problem behaviors subscale in the original
SSIS, which focuses on negative behaviors. In this subscale,
questions ask how often an event occurs for the adolescent,
such as how often the adolescent “expresses feelings when
wronged” or “stands up for herself/himself when treated
unfairly.” Adolescents gave responses based on a 4-point
Likert scale. Scores were highly reliable (α = 0.89).
Freund and Baltes’ (2002) Selection, Optimization, and
Compensation (SOC) Questionnaire was also included to
assess social skills. This measure has been used in different
countries and can be useful for measuring the self-
regulation or social skills of Black adolescents in an aca-
demic context. Questions focus on a target response, “A” or
“B,” to decipher the autonomy and decision making process
of participating adolescents.
Academic performance
Academic Performance was assessed by using the students’
accounts of their overall grades. Students completed a
Likert Scale. Subject grades were also included to give
more reliability to the students’ responses. Students reported
their grades in Math, Science, History/Social Studies,
English/Literature, Art, Music, Physical Education, and
Computer Science (assuming the student was enrolled in the
class) using another 4-point Likert scale.
Design
We analyzed the data using the bootstrapping technique in
Process (Preacher and Hayes 2008). The use of the indirect
path to report significance can prevent the effects of a non-
normal distribution and avoid confounds of additional fac-
tors on the direct path (path c) found in the mediation.
Therefore, this technique was utilized to test the modera-
tions and mediations.
Results
Descriptive Analyses
Descriptive analyses included students’ grade level, age,
gender, ethnicity, number of adults in the household, number
of children under the age of 18 in the household, and the
highest grade level completed by parents/guardians. Demo-
graphic variables were chosen based on previous literature
and possible factors known to affect the Black American
community. After eyeballing the data, there were some
noticeable trends in the descriptive analyses (see Table 1).
Journal of Child and Family Studies (2019) 28:3207–3219
Table 1 Descriptives and correlation
1 2 3 4 Mean St. Dev.
PAC 101.51 16.84
Academic 0.058 16.23 1.94
performance
Self-efficacy 0.196* 0.284** 103.01 12.12
Social skills 0.338** 0.302** 0.259** 148.71 18.51
*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level
Scores for parent–adolescent communication (PAC)
were fairly average (M = 101.51, SD = 16.84), based on the
potential range of scores for participants. Although not
significantly different, PAC scores tended to remain stable
from junior high school (M = 101.23, SD = 15.51) to high
school (M = 101.82, SD = 18.36). A different trend was
apparent for single and dual parent homes. Single parent
homes may have slightly higher communication (M =
102.26, SD = 14.71) than dual parent homes (M = 101.40,
SD = 17.31). Students reported fairly high scores for aca-
demic performance (M = 16.23, SD = 1.94). Students’
reporting of academic performance scores remained stable
between junior high school (M = 16.15, SD = 2.11) and
high school (M = 16.29, SD = 1.79).
Trends were noticed for indirect variables as well. Self-
efficacy scores for students were average (M = 103.01, SD
= 12.12). Students’ reports of self-efficacy scores for
single-parent homes (M = 102.07, SD = 12.73) tended to
be lower than those students in dual-parent homes (M =
103.20, SD = 12.03). Social skills scores were very high
(M = 148.71, SD = 18.51). Although the focus is not the
direct effect of PAC, self-efficacy or social skills, we can
see certain trends illustrated by grade level (see Fig. 1). The
most noticeable trend is apparent during ninth grade which
is a transitional grade for most students.
Testing the hypotheses
Correlation analyses displayed relationships among most of
the variables of interest. However, PAC was not correlated
with academic performance (see Table 1). Current research
using the Process Script focuses on the indirect paths (path
ab) to avoid factors that may confound the results of the direct
path (path c) (Preacher and Hayes 2008). The use of the
indirect path to report significance can prevent the effects of a
non-normal distribution and avoid confounds of additional
factors on the direct path (path c) found in the mediation.
Therefore, this technique, more commonly known as the
bootstrapping technique, was utilized to test the mediations.
We predicted self-efficacy would be a mediator in the
relationship between PAC and academic performance.
Results for this hypothesis were partially supported. Based
3213
on our analyses, the overall mediation for this hypothesis
was significantly different from zero, 95% CI
[0.0025–0.0164], p = 0.002. Controlling for self-efficacy,
PAC was not a significant predictor of academic perfor-
mance, β = −0.00, p = 0.915. Self-efficacy was a sig-
nificant predictor of academic performance, controlling for
PAC, β = 0.05, p < 0.001. Next, we analyzed social skills as
a mediator in the relationship between PAC and academic
performance. The overall mediation was significantly dif-
ferent from zero, 95% CI [0.0054–0.0339], p = 0.001.
Results for this hypothesis were partially supported. Con-
trolling for social skills, PAC was not a significant predictor
of academic performance, β = −0.01, p = 0.507. In addi-
tion, social skills was a significant predictor of academic
performance, when controlling for PAC, β = 0.03, p <
0.001. Mediation analyses of both self-efficacy and social
skills together mediating the relationship between PAC and
academic performance was not significantly different from
zero, 95% CI [−0.0002–0.0049], p < 0.001. Results for the
mediation were partially supported. Controlling for self-
efficacy and social skills, PAC was not a significant pre-
dictor of academic performance, β = −0.01, p = 0.2661.
Self-efficacy was a significant predictor of academic per-
formance when controlling for PAC and social skills,
β = 0.04, p = 0.002. Furthermore, controlling for PAC and
self-efficacy, social skills was a significant predictor of
academic performance, β = 0.03, p = 0.002. Moderators
were examined next to observe whether or not differences
existed for the demographic variables of interest, household
and grade level.
We examined if household was a moderator of the rela-
tionship between PAC and self-efficacy. The moderated-
mediation was partially supported (See Table 2)., the overall
model for household as a moderator of the relationship
between PAC and self-efficacy within the overall mediation
model (see Fig. 1) revealed that household was not sig-
nificant. Controlling for PAC, household was not a sig-
nificant predictor of self-efficacy, β = −3.92, p = 0.829.
Furthermore, PAC was not a significant predictor of
self-efficacy when accounting for household, β = 0.06,
p = 0.848 (Fig. 2).
Conditional indirect effects illustrated differences in
household (see Table 2). For dual-parent homes only, self-
efficacy as a mediator in the relationship between PAC and
academic performance was significantly different from zero,
95% CI [0.0002–0.0166]. In addition, for dual-parent
homes, social skills as a mediator in the relationship
between PAC and academic performance was significantly
different from zero, 95% CI [0.0056–0.0296]. There were
no significant results for single parent homes (see Table 2).
In addition to household, we hypothesized that students’
grade levels would have some effect on the
mediation model.
3214 Journal of Child and Family Studies (2019) 28:3207–3219

Fig. 1 Trends by variable for grade level. The graphs above illustrate the trends in each variable separated by the participants’ grade level. Junior
High School and High School participants are separated by the colors blue and green as depicted to describe the transition from 8th to 9th grades

Table 2 Household and grade

Self-efficacy Social skills
level as a moderators
β (SE) CI β (SE) CI

Household
Single 0.005 (0.007) [−0.0036, 0.0252] 0.012 (0.010) [−0.0044, 0.0346]
Dual 0.007 (0.003) [0.0020, 0.0166] 0.013 (0.007) [0.0056, 0.0296]
Grade level
Junior high 0.008 (0.006) [0.0007, 0.0252] 0.011 (0.011) [0.0021, 0.0383]
High school 0.005 (0.004) [0.0001, 0.0164] 0.013 (0.010) [−0.0047, 0.0335]
10,000 bootstrap samples

Bootstrapping analyses were completed for grade level supported. The overall model was significant, F (7, 130) =
as a moderator in the relationship between PAC and aca- 3.51, p = 0.002. However, grade level was not a significant
demic performance (see Table 2). Results for the predictor of academic performance, controlling for PAC,
moderated-mediation including grade level were partially self-efficacy, and social skills, β = 0.73, p = 0.839 (Fig. 3).
Journal of Child and Family Studies (2019) 28:3207–3219
Fig. 2 Household as a moderator
in the relationship between PAC
Household
and self-efficacy. Illustration of
the moderated-mediation with
household status as a mediator
between PAC and self-efficacy -3.92
Parent—Adolescent
Communication (X)
Fig. 3 Grade level as a
moderator in the relationship
between PAC and academic
performance. Illustration of the
moderated-mediation with grade
level as a moderator in the
relationship between PAC and
academic performance
Parent—Adolescent
Communication (X)
Analyses for conditional indirect effects of grade level
indicated significant results for single mediations including
self-efficacy and social skills alone as mediators in the
relationship between PAC and academic performance (see
Table 2). For junior high school students and high school
students, self-efficacy as a mediator was significantly dif-
ferent from zero, 95% CI [0.0007–0.0252] and 95% CI
[0.0001–0.0164], respectively, in the relationship between
PAC and academic performance. Observing social skills as
a single mediator, for junior high school students, results for
social skills were significantly different from zero, 95% CI
[0.0021–0.0383].
Discussion
This study sought to examine the direct and indirect rela-
tionships among PAC, self-efficacy, social skills and aca-
demic achievement among Black American families with
adolescents in junior high and high school. One main
objective was to present new findings concerning commu-
nication in Black American households. In addition, we
wanted to take notice of social components, self-efficacy
3215
Self-Efficacy (M1) Social Skills (M2)
.03
.04
.40
.06
-.01
Academic Performance
(Y)
Self-Efficacy (M1) Social Skills (M2)
.21 .03
.27
.06
-.02
Academic Performance
(Y)
.73
Grade Level
and social skills, often neglected in the formation of ado-
lescents’ academic well-being. Overall, findings for the
current study did reveal some exciting results for research
surrounding the Black American community.
Black parents have a firm role in the socialization of their
adolescents in social and academic contexts. Some studies
have discussed low communication involving Black
American parents and their children’s academic perfor-
mance while other studies have refuted the same notion
(Fulkerson et al. 2010; Barnes and Olsen 1985). Black
parents have high amounts of communication with their
children and often, both parents and their children have the
same aspirations for educational attainment (Spera et al.
2009). Although previous literature suggests that PAC is
positively related to students’ academic performance, this
finding was not supported in our study.
The literature also suggests parents who have a high
sense of self-efficacy tend to transfer their own feelings of
self-efficacy to their children (Myers 2013). Our findings
partially supported the hypothesis that grade level would
moderate the relationship between PAC and academic
performance. Particularly, adolescents in junior high school
are more impacted by the encouragement of self-efficacy. It
3216
seems as though the more autonomous the adolescent
became towards high school, the less they needed parents’
encouragement to succeed in school. Transitions in ado-
lescence often illustrate increases in autonomy and decision
making, which might also explain why PAC was such a
strong implication of social skills in junior high school and
high school.
Social skills, self-regulation and social responsibility,
contribute much to the process of decision-making and the
ability adolescents acquire through development. During
adolescence, Black adolescents in particular, require par-
ents’ socialization for the acquisition of social skills and
creation of values (Wilson 1978). Parents’ simple portrayal
of social interaction serves as a model for adolescents to
imitate. The guidance of PAC, as a tool for socialization,
can somewhat build the social skills necessary to increase
academic performance.
Nonetheless, statistical confirmation for our hypotheses
suggests that the number of parents or adults in the home
can be somewhat of a hindrance to the communication
surrounding self-efficacy, social skills, and academic per-
formance. Adolescents who have more than one parent or
adult in the home are more likely than those who have
single parents to develop social and academic well-being.
Researchers describe the influence parents’ mental states
have on the mental well-being of their adolescents (Hall
et al. 2008). Single parents or dual parents who have a low
sense of self-efficacy may not be able to convey what self-
efficacy is to their adolescents or perhaps, the adolescent
does not feel capable of doing certain tasks because parents
do not exhibit self-efficacy. In addition, single parents who
have a heavy workload can often prohibit continual PAC
needed to build the adolescents’ self-efficacy. Most single
parents do not have the time to sit at the table and have daily
conversations with their adolescents in the home; and
unfortunately, the development of adolescents’ self-efficacy
could be impacted. Furthermore, adolescents can lose their
confidence in being able to perform well in school.
The hypothesis which stated that self-efficacy would
mediate the relationship between PAC and academic per-
formance, was supported. Self-efficacy indirectly impacted
adolescents’ academic performance with PAC as a pre-
dictor. Adolescents fulfill the aspirations of their parents to
do well academically through self-efficacy they acquire
during the course of development (Myers 2013). Con-
fidence and autonomy modeled and encouraged by Black
parents may be a driving force for Black adolescents’ aca-
demic success.
Findings of the study, were also supported regarding
social skills as a mediator in the relationship between PAC
and academic performance in the Black community. Social
skills communicated and learned from parents can, in turn,
aide adolescents in completing academic tasks (Jonson-Reid
Journal of Child and Family Studies (2019) 28:3207–3219
et al. 2005). Adolescents actively reference learned socials
skills, self-regulation and social responsibility, to achieve
academic success.
Overall, our study emphasizes the Black American
community’s persistent need to communicate with their
adolescents and to socialize their adolescents for success.
However, some parents may benefit from more direct
communication concerning tools such as self-efficacy and
social skills. Further research is required to examine this
approach. Although some disadvantages remain persistent
such as single parent homes, Black parents have and
acknowledge the responsibility to educate their children
based on skills and tools most likely to lead them to success
at any academic level.
Findings demonstrate social mechanisms which are
useful for decreasing the academic achievement gap and
creating avenues for overall success. PAC was implicated as
an active agent for early adolescence through the use of self-
efficacy and social skills to improve academic performance.
Skills such as self-regulation and social responsibility can
be helpful in promoting academic success; however, the
parents need to be more direct with instructions and details
given during the socialization process.
Self-regulation is necessary to make informed decisions
about future goals, and social responsibility informs ado-
lescents about expectations and social norms in their com-
munities (Hughes et al. 2011). Theories such as
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory of Human Develop-
ment and Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory provide a
contextual framework for socialization which is helpful to
describe the varying levels within the Black community.
Messages of discrimination and prejudice in varying con-
texts have coincided with teachings of social skills such as
self-regulation and self-efficacy for many young Black
adolescents (Thomas et al., 2014). However, the findings of
this study call for more direct communication of self-
efficacy and social skills from parents, not through negative
messages of discrimination, but positive messages of cap-
ability and self-regulation in order to provide tools that may
be necessary to improve Black adolescents’ academic
performance.
The acquisition of more direct PAC surrounding self-
efficacy should not only increase adolescents’ perception of
competence in academic settings, but should also provide
the tools necessary to make more informed decisions. More
specifically, through direct communication of self-
regulation and social responsibility, adolescents should
have the tools to make informed and more focused deci-
sions based on the social expectations of the Black com-
munity, which in turn should decrease negative thinking
patterns and increase academic performance.
Furthermore, we want to note that success is not simply
doing well in school but also being able to interact in the
Journal of Child and Family Studies (2019) 28:3207–3219
community with confidence and awareness. There are too
many stories of adolescents getting into trouble because of
the risky decisions they have made (Wang et al. 2013).
There are too many students who excel academically, but
do not have the confidence and planning skills to acquire
the careers they have dreamt about since early childhood.
Limitations and Future Directions
Although the study at hand had many benefits there were a
few drawbacks. Limitations involved low numbers for
single parents and constant observation of comprehension
barriers. We describe the possible limitations for these two
elements beginning with a concern for comprehension skills
among youth.
Many students living in areas where the income is below
the poverty level often face many barriers for comprehen-
sion and learning. In addition, many parents in these areas
may be single parents who work many jobs to provide for
their families. The burden is placed on their adolescents
who have the responsibility of taking care of younger sib-
lings while parents work despite required school attendance
(Burton et al. 1996). Furthermore, many schools in these
areas may receive less funds from private or government
agencies for advanced technology or other helpful resources
(Saporito and Sohoni 2007). Comprehension skills for these
students tend to be low and lacking a certain ability for
completing complex tasks such as questionnaires.
Coinciding with comprehension problem, reporting
subject areas might have been a little comprehensive as well
for some students who did not use the given terms for
content-specific courses (e.g., Math, English, Science, or
Social Studies) but instead used terms for content-diverse
courses (e.g., physics, biology, chemistry, history, or lit-
erature) at the time. For instance, different terms used for
courses could interfere with content specific reporting.
Students have even felt a certain discomfort reporting true
scores, which may have led to over-reporting or under-
reporting grades for Math, English, Science, or Social
Studies (Slater and Power 1987).
In order to reduce the error in comprehensive barriers, our
team read questionnaires out loud and answered questions
during the course of the study. In addition, students’ reports
of overall grades were included in the analyses. However,
some of the content error may persist in the results.
Nonetheless, we would suggest creating open-ended tests
of academic performance for future studies. Math problems
or questions of verbal reasoning may be a more accurate
measure of academic performance. Furthermore, research-
ers should consider using more plain language even if it
requires the creation of new tests for the variables in the
present study.
3217
One final limitation involved the reporting of adults in
the household to define single parents. The number of single
parent homes was very low compared to the sample size.
The question used regarding how many adults lived in the
household may have been misleading to some of the par-
ticipants, resulting in low numbers for the moderation.
Adults may consist of older siblings, extended family, or
family friends who also live in the household. Further
measures should discuss the roles of the adults in the
household, who are often delegated certain parental roles to
assist single parents with the role of PAC and socialization
of Black adolescents.
The Black American community requires socialization
and clearly communicated expectations for adolescents’
academic success. In addition, direct encouragement for the
acquisition of skills and abilities is necessary to instill
confidence and autonomy in Black American youth. There
is so much potential present in these younger generations
waiting to be exposed. As a community, Black Americans
have to focus on the household and the messages being
conveyed on a daily basis. Trends in the academic
achievement gap persist with very little emphasis on the
PAC and social components found to increase performance.
Findings of this study, hopefully, will impact further
research, and spark the interest of academic and childhood
development institutions to create programs and policies to
assist the process of socialization in not only Black Amer-
ican households, but also households for all people of color.
Authors’ Contributions K.H. Review of literature, summary of
hypotheses, methodology creation and execution, initiating plan of
analysis, discussion of hypotheses, limitation and future directions.
D.R. Revisions and edits to the manuscript sections (Introduction,
Methodology, Results, and Discussion), write up for the manuscript,
and input for tables and graphs.
Funding This study was funded by the Walter and Theodora Daniel
Endowed Educational Research Fund, Howard University,
Washington DC.
Compliance with Ethical Standards
Conflict of Interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of
interest.
Ethical Approval All procedures performed in studies involving
human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of
the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964
Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical
standards.
Informed Consent Informed consent was obtained from all individual
participants included in the study. Participants signed consent forms
after reading the following statement: “I have read the above
description of the research project and anything I did not understand
was explained to me by the researchers and my questions were
3218
answered to my satisfaction. I agree to participate in the above-
referenced project.”
Publisher’s note: Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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