Concepts of Ethics/Morality ✓Ethics: In value theory, philosophers study morality, politics, and art, among
other topics. For example: What makes wrong actions wrong? How do we identify
Philosophy
• The term "philosophy" means, "love of wisdom." In a broad sense, philosophy is
an activity people undertake when they seek to understand fundamental truths
about themselves, the world in which they live, and their relationships to the
world and to each other. As an academic discipline philosophy is much the same.
Those who study philosophy are perpetually engaged in asking, answering, and
arguing for their answers to life's most basic questions. To make such a pursuit
more systematic academic philosophy is traditionally divided into major areas of
study.
Branches of Philosophy
• Philosophy deals with fundamental questions. But which questions, specifically,
is philosophy about? Here's a standard categorization
✓Logic: Logicians study good and bad arguments and reasoning, and they d they
study formal, symbolic languages intended to express propositions, sentences, or
arguments.
✓Metaphysics. Metaphysicians study what sorts of entities exist, what the world
and its constituents are made of, and how objects or events might cause or
explain each other.
✓Epistemology. Epistemologists study knowledge, evidence, and justified belief.
An epistemologist might study whether we can trust our senses and whether
science is trustworthy.
good people and good lives?
Consequentialism
• Consequentialism is an ethical theory that judges whether or not something is
right by what its consequences are. For instance, most people would agree that
lying is wrong. But if telling a lie would help save a person’s life, consequentialism
says it’s the right thing to do.
• Two examples of consequentialism are utilitarianism and hedonism.
Utilitarianism judges’ consequences by a judge’s consequences by a greatest good
for the greatest number standard. Hedonism, on the other hand, says Something
is good the consequence produces pleasure avoids pain.
• Consequentialism is sometimes criticized because it can be difficult, or even
impossible, to know what the result of an action will be ahead of time. Indeed, no
one can know the future with certainty. Also, in certain situations,
consequentialism can lead to decisions that are objectionable, even though the
consequences are arguably good.
• For example, let’s suppose economists could prove that the world economy
would be stronger, and that most people would be happier, healthier, and
wealthier, if we just enslaved 2% of the population. Although the majority of
people would benefit from this idea, most would never agree to it. However,
when judging the idea solely on its results, as classic consequentialism does, then
“the end justifies the means.”
Deontology
• Deontology is an ethical theory that uses rules to distinguish right from wrong.
Deontology is often associated with philosopher Immanuel Kant. Kant believed
that ethical actions follow universal moral laws, such as “Don’t lie. Don’t steal.
Don’t cheat.”
• Deontology is simple to apply. It just requires that people follow the rules and
do their duty. This approach tends to fit well with our natural intuition about
what is or isn’t ethical.
• Unlike consequentialism, which judges actions by their results, deontology
doesn’t require weighing the costs and benefits of a situation. This avoids
subjectivity and uncertainty because you only have to follow set rules.
• Despite its strengths, rigidly following deontology can produce results that
many people find unacceptable. For example, suppose you’re a software engineer
and learn that a nuclear missile is about to launch that might start a war. You can
hack the network and cancel the launch, but it’s against your professional code of
ethics to break into any software system. Without permission. And, it’s a form of
lying and cheating. Deontology advises not to violate this rule. However, in letting
the missile launch, thousands of people will die.
• So, following the rules makes deontology easy to apply. But it also means
disregarding the possible consequences of our actions when determining what is
right and what is wrong.
Utilitarianism
• Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that determines right from wrong by focusing
on outcomes. It is a form of consequentialism.
• Utilitarianism holds that the most ethical choice is the one that will produce the
greatest good for the greatest number. It is the only moral framework that can be
used to justify military force or war. It is also the most common approach to
moral reasoning used in business because of the way in which it accounts for
costs and benefits.
• However, because we cannot predict the future, it’s difficult to know with
certainty whether the consequences of our actions will be good or bad. This is
one of the limitations of utilitarianism.
• Utilitarianism also has trouble accounting for values such as justice and
individual rights. For example, assume a hospital has four people whose lives
depend upon receiving organ transplants: a heart, lungs, a kidney, and a liver. If a
healthy person wanders into the hospital, his organs could be harvested to save
four lives at the expense of one life. This would arguably produce the greatest
good for the greatest number. But few would consider it an acceptable course of
action, let alone the most ethical one.
• So, although utilitarianism is arguably the most reason-based approach to
determining right and wrong, it has obvious limitations.
INTRODUCTION TO ETHICS
 Most, if not all, human problems stem from moral disorder -- a disorder
evident in all aspects of humanity. A problem which is a result of the
collective effect of moral disorder in the lives, minds and hearts of Individuals.
 Since the disease is moral, it is but proper to give a “moral” remedy. This
includes moral reformation, moral rehabilitation, and transformation of moral
conduct.
 ETHICS
(GK) - ethos, which means custom, habit, behavior or character.
Practical science of the morality of human actions (conduct).
I. Normative Ethics – concerned with basic principles of right and wrong.
II. Applied Ethics – seeks to apply ethical principles to social issues.
4 Theories of Normative Ethics
1. Nicomachean Ethics of Aristotle (the Practice of Virtue)
2. Hume’s Non-Cognitivism
3. Kant’s Deontology (Universal Rules / Duty)
4. Bentham’s Utilitarianism (Common Good)
MORALITY
 Refers to the “quality” of goodness or badness in human acts. This is also
known as the standard of right and wrong.
THE ROLE OF ETHICS IN LIFE
1. Improves our understanding of ourselves.
2. Improves our understanding of others.
3. Improves our relation with others.
4. Improves our way of life.
MORAL AND NON-MORAL STANDARDS
ONLY HUMAN ACTS HAVE MORAL SIGNIFICANCE
 Human acts are voluntary acts of man with knowledge and consent, acts
proper to man, acts which we are conscious of, and which we have total
control of.
MORAL INDIFFERENCE
 Acts which are neither good nor bad in themselves; they may become bad
depending on the situation. (ex: walking, sleeping. Shouting)
Norm Of Moral Standards
 Actions that may seriously injure others or affect their well-being (ex:
charitable acts, murder, theft)
 Based on Reason and Impartiality
 It has to be preferred above other values (i.e. self-interest)
 Considered as Universal or General Rule/Law
Norm of Non-Moral Standards
 Manners, etiquette, laws, and rules set by parents or others are separate
from moral considerations.
 Grammar, language, arts, and sports
MORAL DILEMMAS
 Moral dilemmas refer to our standard of Judging right or wrong. It pertains to
a situation where we are presented with two or more actions and all options
provide a positive and a negative effect.
 It is a moral dilemma when we cannot choose all the options but we are
instead forced to select only one.
 Moral dilemmas make us feel a sense of guilt or pagkabagabag upon making
choices.
 Our decision is based on conflicting viewpoints or moral standards which is
greatly affected by our past experiences, upbringing, environment,
affiliations, and reasoning.
Example:
Jose is an honor student. During an exam, his best friend Kulas wants to copy his
answers. What would Jose do?
Will he let Kulas copy his answers in order to maintain their friendship? Or will
Jose deny the request of Kulas because if the teacher found out, he will be
shamed and will be dishonored in class?
 The way we handle moral dilemmas is greatly affected by how well-founded
our judgment and principles are. We have to have a firm grasp of our own
reason and beliefs in order to have a sound judgment during these situations.
FOUNDATION OF MORAL REASONING (MORAL DILEMMAS)
 Lawrence Kohlberg proposed that moral reasoning, which for ethical
behavior, develops through stages as a person grows up.
Level 1: Pre-Conventional
The individual judge morality based on the direct consequence of an
action.
Stage One: Obedience and Punishment
Stage Two: Individualism, Instrumentalism, Exchange (Self-interest)
Level 2: Conventional
The individual judge morality by comparing the actions to social rules and
expectations.
Stage Three: Interpersonal Concordance or Conformity (Good boy/girl)
Stage Four: Law and Order
Level 3: Post-Conventional
Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral
reasoning is based on individual rights and justice.
Stage Five: Social Contract and Human Rights (Good boy/girl)
Stage Six: Universal Principles (Principled Conscience)
Example:
A woman was near death because of a unique kind of cancer. There is a
new drug that can save her but it costs 2.2 million pesos. Lito, the husband, went
around asking for help from all their friends and relatives but he only came up
with 1.5M php. Lito went to talk to the pharmaceutical company to ask for a
discount but they declined. Should Lito steal the medicine to save his wife? Why
or why not?
Stage One: Obedience
Lito should not steal the medicine because he will be caught and will go to prison.
Stage Two: Self-Interest
Lito should steal the medicine because he will be happier if he saves his wife;
even if he will go to prison.
Stage Three: Conformity
Lito should steal the medicine because his wife is expecting it.
Stage Four: Law and Order
Lito should not steal the medicine because the law prohibits it.
Stage Five: Human Rights
Lito should steal the medicine because saving his wife is more important than the
law.
Stage Six: Universal Principles (Ethics)
Lito should steal the medicine because saving a life is more fundamental than
respect for property.
(Most people do not reach Level 3 or Stage 6)
MORAL DILEMMAS (DOUBLE EFFECT)
Doctrine of Double Effect
 This doctrine says that if doing something morally good has a morally bad
side-effect, it’s ethically OK to do it providing the bad side-effect wasn’t
intended. This is true even if you foresaw that the bad effect would probably
happen.
The Principle of Double Effect
 It is morally permissible to commit an action even if it brings about a negative
effect provided these four principles are present:
1. The act must be good in itself or morally indifferent.
2. That the good effect (not the evil effect) is intended.
3. The good effect will not be outweighed by the bad effect.
4. There must a grave reason enough to compel the agent to act on it.
Freedom as Foundation of Morality
 Freedom is the power to act, speak, or to think “whatever” one wants to.
 “You are free to choose but not free of the consequences of the choice”
 The exercise of freedom may result to positive and negative results. True
freedom is always connected with the concept of responsibility.
Moral obligation is always related to justice. (Kai Nielsen)
Accountability and Responsibility
 Man is free but there are things that the “agent” ought to follow i.e.
rules, practices and principles. For Nielsen, one must perform what he
has to perform in order to maximize happiness and minimize pain
Freedom then is always connected to the freedom of others. (relative
freedom).
Freedom is responsibility.
 One is free to shape his own destiny, yet he can only be free to do so
without interfering with the destiny of others. Freedom means you will
have to be responsible for all your actions (whatever you do or do not
do).