METALS

AND NON-METALS;

A SUMMARIZED NOTE

BY : AKINYOOYE YUSUF O.
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CONTENTS;
NON METALS
How to use/ Foreword
1. HYDROGEN AND ITS COMPOUNDS
2. OXYGEN AND ITS COMPOUNDS
3. CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS
4. HALOGENS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS
5. SULPHUR AND ITS COMPOUNDS
6. NITROGEN AND ITS COMPOUNDS
NON- TRANSITION METALS
1. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF METALS
2. ALKALI METALS AND IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS
3. ALKALINE EARTH METALS AND IMPORTANT
COMPOUNDS
4. ALUMINIUM AND IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS
TRANSITION METALS
1. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSITION METALS
2. IRON AND IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS
3. COPPER AND IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS
4. SHORT NOTE ON ALLOYS
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HOW TO USE/FOREWORD
This short treatise has been written to save the student the stress of
going through the voluminous chemistry texts in order to study
inorganic chemistry .
This is incredibly important as the textbooks contain both necessary
and unnecessary pieces of information as far as UTME is concerned.
In order to correct this , the material at hand has been fine tuned to
cater for the UTME syllabus (2024 ) and every topic not relevant to this
has been intentionally discarded .
The best methodology in using this material would be to set questions
along as you read and then use these questions as a revision guide after
reading .
Above all , I wish you the very choicest of luck in your forthcoming
exams.
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HYDROGEN AND ITS COMPOUNDS

INTRODUCTION
Hydrogen is the first element on the period table possessing only one electron and one proton
with no neutron at all. It has three isotopes which are;

● Protium; one proton, one electron , no neutron. Most abundant

● Deuterium; one proton, one neutron , one electron. Second most abundant and forms
heavy water D2O (used as a moderator in nuclear reactors ).
● Tritium: one proton, two neutrons ,one electron. Least abundant and radioactive.

PREPARATION

● Action of metals on dilute acids; This works for all metals above H on the activity series

e.g Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2

● Action of metals on water/steam

Metals above H in the activity series generally liberate H2 when reacted with H2O.
Na and K react with cold water, Ca reacts with cold water in bubbles while Mg
downwards react only with steam ( Al and below react only at red heat ) , those below Sn
don't react at all .
The hydroxide is usually produced while Fe produces Fe3O4
E.g Na + H2O NaOH + H2
●
Action of amphoteric metals (Zn, Pb, Al, Si) on Alkalis. E.g 2Al + 2NaOH +2H2O 2NaAlO2 + 3H2
● Action of water on metallic hydrides , this usually leads to the formation of the hydroxide
as well. NaH +H2O -> NaOH + H2
● From Natural gas (methane )
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CH4 + H2O CO + 3H2 (synthesis gas)

CO + H2 + H2O CO2 + 2H2 ( CO2 is removed by absorption with KOH )
● From Coke (Bosch process ) : C + H2O CO + H2 ( This is called water gas )
CO+ H2O +H2 CO2 + 2H2 (CO2 removed by dissolution under pressure )
● By electrolysis of appropriate electrolytes
● By cracking of long chain Hydrocarbons
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
● Colourless , odourless , tasteless and insoluble gas
● Lightest/ least dense gas known
● Flammable gas ( gives a pop sound on ignition )
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
● Burns with pale blue flame ( gives pop sound with a splinter )
● Reduces the oxides of Zn,Fe,Sn,Pb and all metals below it on the reactivity series . It gets
oxidised to water in the process while the oxide is reduced to just the metal .
ZnO + H2 H2O + Zn
● Combines directly with Halogens , sulphur ,N ( under high pressure and temperature and
finely divided iron catalyst)
● Produces Hydrides with electropositive metals , here its oxidation state is -1 and metallic
hydrides are ionic compounds. E.g 2Na + H2 —> 2NaH
● Reduces unsaturated hydrocarbons to the saturated versions ( e.g alkenes to alkanes )
● Reacts with CO to give methanol :
CO + 2H2 CH3OH
USES
1.Important synthetic material in the production of fats , synthetic petrol , ammonia ,E.t.c
2.Used in filling balloons ( Helium is better , since hydrogen is flammable and He isn't
flammable )
3.Used as fuel or as constituent of fuels ( e.g synthesis gas, coal gas , water gas e.t.c )
4.Used in Oxy- hydrogen flames .

IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS : HYDRIDES

● Hydrides of highly electropositive metals are ionic solids with very high melting point
and ability to conduct electricity in the molten state .
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● Hydrides of non-metals are usually covalent ( which may be polar or not depending on
the other non-netal ). They are usually gases although H2O and HF are liquids because
of strong Hydrogen bonding( also found in NH3).
● The hydride of B ( LiBH4) and Al (LiAlH4) are strong covalent Hydrides used for
reduction in organic chemistry.

OXYGEN AND ITS COMPOUNDS

PREPARATION
● Thermal Decomposition of KClO3 Vis : 2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2
● Decomposition of H2O2 via :

2H2O2 2H2O + O2 ( This can be catalysed by using MnO2 , Heating , Alkali and finely divided

● Reaction of acidified KMnO4 and H2O2 :

2KMNO4+ 3H2SO4 + 5H2O2 K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 8H2O + 502
● Na2O2 + H2O 2NaOH + O2
● Decomposition of HgO and PbO2.
● Fractional distillation of liquified air : Oxygen makes up about 21% of the
air , thus making it a rich source and the choice for industrial preparation
of O2.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
● Sparingly soluble in water
● Colourless , odourless and tasteles
● Neutral to moist litmus ( this is common to all gases which don't dissolve to
give acids or bases )
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● Slightly denser than air

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
● Forms ionic oxides with electropositive metals. These oxides are basic or
amphoteric and usually dissolve in water to form Alkalis.
e.g Na + O2 Na2O
If burnt directly in plentiful supply of air ,Sodium forms peroxide (Na2O2) while
K forms a superoxide ( K2O ) .
To obtain the normal oxide , limited Oxygen supply must be used .
● Forms Covalent oxides with non metals This may be neutral or acidic .
Acidic oxides are known as acid anhydrides as they form acids when dissolved in
water .
E.g C+ O2 CO2 : CO2 + H2O H2CO3
● Reacts with compounds in combustion reactions , Hydrocarbons produce
Water and CO2 , sulphides produce SO2 and other oxides while NH3
produces N and H2O.
Test : Oxygens rekindles a glowing splinter ( this is same for N2O but N2O has a
sweet smell (O2 is odourless ) , doesn't react with N2O ( O2 reacts to give reddish
browns fumes of NO2 ) and gives a residue with heated copper ( O2 doesn't give
residue ).
IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS: OXIDES
Oxides are binary compounds of oxygen which have varying chemistry depending
on the nature of the second element in them .
Types of oxides
Basic oxides
These are oxides which are basic in nature and which when dissolved in water
gives alkalis. They are usually the oxides of metals.

They react with acids to form salt and water only ; e.g Na2O + 2HCl 2NaCl + H2O

Acidic oxides
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These are oxides which are acidic in nature and which when dissolved in water
gives acids,thus they are usually called acid anhydrides.
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
They are usually the oxides of electronegative non-metals.
They react with bases/alkalis to form salt and water only ; e.g
CO2 + 2NaOH Na2CO3 + H2O
Some are mixed anhydrides i.e they produce multiple acids on dissolution e.g NO2
via :
2NO2 + H2O HNO3 + HNO2
Also they produce two salts on neutralisation:
2NO2 + 2KOH KNO3 + KNO2 + H2O
Amphoteric oxides
These oxides behave both as acids and as bases , thus they react with acids and
also with bases .
They are usually metallic oxides and examples of such include : ZnO, Al2O3 ,
PbO2 , SnO2. E.g
Al2O3 + H2SO4 Al2(SO4)3 + H2O
2NaOH + Al2O3 +H2O 2NaAl(OH)4
Neutral oxides
This oxides are unreactive towards acids as well as bases and these include :
N2O , H2O , CO2 and CO .
Peroxides
In these oxides the peroxide ion (O-O)² — is present wherejn oxygen has an
oxidation state of -1 instead of the usual -2.
They yield H2O2 ( Hydrogen peroxide ) on reaction with dilute acids :

Na2O2 + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + H2O2 peroxides include sodium peroxide Na2O2 , Calcium perox
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Hydrogen peroxide is a pale blue liquid with an antiseptic(hospital) smell which

acts as a good oxidizing agent due to its hydrogen releasing tendencies ;
E.g it reacts with acidified KI solution :
KI + H2O2 + H2SO4 K2SO4 + 2H2O + I2
PbS2 +4 H2O2 PbSO4 + 4H2O
It reacts with very strong oxidising agents like KMnO4 to act as a reducing agent
and becomes oxidized to oxygen :
2KMNO4+ 3H2SO4 + 5H2O2 K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 8H2O + 502
Cl2 + H2O2 2HCl + O2
PbO2 + H2O2 PbO + H2O + O2
● It's used as an antiseptic and a mild bleaching agent for hair , teeth and silk.

OZONE (O3 )
This is the triatomic allotrope of oxygen which forms a later in the atmosphere
which protects humans from UV rays , this is found in the stratosphere.
It's formed in nature by the action of lightning flashes on atmospheric oxygen .
This is also the method of prepping it in the lab , where it's produced by passing a
silent electrical discharge through a gas tube of oxygen :
3O2 2 O3
Ozone is an excellent bleaching agent and a poisonous gas.
It's also used in ventilating underground premises and as a disinfectant.

CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

INTRODUCTION
Carbon is that conpound which may be rightly referred to as the backbone of
every lifeform , the branch of chemistry 🧪 which deals with this is organic
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chemistry. As far as inorganic chemistry is concerned , this aspect would be

interested in the chemistry of carbon and its inorganic compounds like the
carbides and carbonates .
Carbon shows up in various physical forms , this phenomenon is known as
allotropy ( a phenomenon where the same element exists in multiple physical
states/forms where each physical state is known as an allotrope ) .
Carbon has two major crystalline allotropes :
Diamond
This is the hardest natural substance on earth , it's hardness is due to the strong
octahedral crystalline structure in it. Each carbon atom in diamond is SP³
hybridised , thus all four Valence electrons are used in bonding.
The lack of free non-bonding electrons is the reason why diamond doesn't conduct
electricity.
Properties and uses include :
● Colourless and transparent solid with high refractive index (coloured
diamonds are coloured due to the presence of impurities ).
The high refractive index makes it valuable as a jewellery .
● Extremely hard solid , thus used in cutting and drilling instruments as well
as abrasives.
● Resistant to almost all forms of chemical attack
● Artificial diamond can be made by subjecting graphite to a very high
temperature and pressure for a long period of time.
Graphite
This is a soft greyish dark crystalline allotrope of carbon which occurs as
plumbago .
In it , only three of the four Valence electrons are used in bonding, thus the
remaining one is free to conduct electricity .
The above bonding structure gives graphite a layered hexagonal structure which
allows molecules to slide over one another , causing graphite to be slippery ( a
feature which makes it an excellent lubricant .
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Properties and uses include :

● A black opaque solid , making it useful in lead pencils ( made up if graphite
+ clay : hardness of pencil depends on amount of clay inside (more clay =
more hardness )) and as a black pigment in paints
● Slippery structure because of the layered hexagonal structure which permits
sliding motion ; making it useful as a non-volatile lubricant
● Presence of mobile electron: making it useful as a good conductor of
electricity , also as an electrode in electrolytic processes .
● More chemically viable than diamonds and thus reacts with strong oxidising
agents .
● Used as a moderator in atomic reactors.
● Produced from the Acheson process where coke is subjected to anaerobic
conditions for a fairly long period .
● Other less known crystalline allotropes of carbon are : Lonsdaleite and
Fullerene.
AMORPHOUS ALLOTROPES OF CARBON
These aren't real allotropes of carbon as they contain a great amount of
impurities, they include :
● Soot
This is also known as carbon black and is obtained by the burning of carbon
compounds in limited supply of oxygen.
When the fuel are oils , lampblack is formed which is a slightly greasy black solid .
Both are used in the manufacture of such products as: Rubber tyre , Shoe polish ,
printer's ink , typewriting ribbon, black pigment in paints and carbon paper .
● Charcoal
These refers to the allotrope of carbon formed from the burning of organic
materials like wood, animal parts , sugar .
The type of charcoal formed is dependent directly on the material which forms it ,
thus there are various types of charcoal which include:
Animal charcoal : These is formed from the burning of animal parts like the
bones , blood e.t.c This type of charcoal is used majorly as a decolorizing agent
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for brown sugar and petroleum jelly . It contains impurities of Calcium phosphate.
It's also used for adsorption of gases.
Sugar Charcoal: This is the purest form of amorphous carbon and is obtained
from the burning of sugar/ its dehydration by H2SO4
Wood Charcoal : This is the most common Charcoal type and is obtained from the
burning of wood. It's usually impure with such impurities as Sulphur . It's used for
making gas masks (for adsorption of liquifiable gases except O2 and CO ). It's
also a major fuel in cooking in underdeveloped parts of the world e.g Nigeria .
Wood Charcoal treated with steam is known as activated charcoal and is used in
purifying water by removing impurities, odor , colour and taste .
● Coal

This is formed from the continuous decomposition of carbon compounds in anaerobic situations

Coal is mined in commercial quantities in Enugu ( the coal city ) and it's used
majorly as a fuel .
● Coke
Obtained from the destructive distillation of coal ( a process of heating coal to
very high temperatures in the absence of oxygen which forms coke, ammoniacal
liquor, coal tar and coal gas) .
Ammoniacal liquor is a solution of ammonia in water , Coal tar is a mixture of
aromatic compounds e.g Benzene , Toluene , Naphthalene e.t.c. , coal gas is a
mixture containing 50% H2 , 30% CH4 and 10% CO .
It's the most chemically viable form of carbon and is used majorly as a reducing
agent in the extraction of metals e.g
Fe2O3 + 3C 2Fe + 3CO
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
● Apart from diamond , most allotropes of carbon are dark or grey-dark in
colour .
● Density, melting and boiling point depends on allotrope of interest .
● All allotropes are insoluble in water .
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CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
● Burns in oxygen to give CO2 : If the oxygen is not plentiful CO may be
produced , while soot is produced in very anaerobic conditions.
● Combines directly with such elements as S, H2 , Ca e.t.c
● Reacts with oxidizing agents and gets reduced to CO2 in the process .
E.g C + 4HNO3 2H2O + 4NO2 + CO2
C + 2H2SO4 2H2O + 2SO2 + CO2
● Destructive distillation of wood gives wood Charcoal, pyroligneous acid
(mainly ethanoic acid , methanol , propanone and the likes ) , wood tar and
wood gas .
IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS: OXIDES , CARBIDES, HYDROGEN
CARBONATES AND CARBONATES
OXIDES
These are mainly 2 , CO2 and CO.
CO2 is produced by :
● Action of carbonates on acids
●
Breakdown of trioxicarbonate (IV) salts ( except those of Na and K ) e.g CaCO3 CaO + C
●
Breakdown of all Hydrogentrioxocarbonates e.g 2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2

CO2 is a colourless , odourless gas with a sharp refreshing taste , it's soluble in
water and solidifies to form dry ice .
It reacts :
● With water to give H2CO3
● Alkalis to give salt and water
● Carbon to get reduced to CO :
CO2 + C 2CO
● Reacts with burning magnesium to aid its combustion (even though
magnesium extinguishes burning substances ) .
C02 + 2Mg 2MgO + C
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● CO2 is used as a fire extinguisher because it doesn't support combustion

and thus forms a layer /envelope around the burning substance causing it to
stop burning.
CO is a colourless , odourless , tasteless gas which is fined from the incomplete
combustion of Hydrocarbons.
It's prepped by :
● Action of C on CO2 (Already mentioned )
● Dehydration of organic acids e.g Methanoic acid and Ethanedioic acid
using H2SO4.
HCOOH CO + H2O
C2H2O4 CO + CO2 + H2O
Important features include :
● It's a poisonous gas with great affinity for haemoglobin forming carbamino-
haemoglobin. This reduces the ability of the blood to carry O2 and thus kills
if it's at a high concentration.
● Insoluble in water but soluble in a solution of ammoniacal CuCl2.
● Used as a reducing agent and is itself converted to CO2 . E.g
Fe2O3 + CO Fe + CO2
● Burns in O2 to give CO2
● It's a component of fuel gases
e.g producer gas: Contains CO and N2 , has low heating power due to the
presence of a huge amount of N2 about 67 % which is non combustible while CO
which is combustible makes up about 33% of it . It's widely used due to its
cheapness.
Water gas : CO and H2 , has a high heating power due to the presence of two
combustible gases in 1:1
Both water and producer gas can be produced by the gassification of coke
( passing steam and air through coke ).
Coal gas : Contains 50% H2 ,30% CH4, 10% CO and impurities .
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Synthesis gas : CO and H2 formed by passing CH4 over air and contains more H2
than water gas.
Trioxicarbonates(IV)
H2CO3 is a volatile , weak and dibasic acid which gives rise to trioxicarbonates
IV and Hydrogentrioxocarbonates (IV) which are acid salts.
Soluble trioxicarbonates are produced from 1.the reaction of an alkali with CO2
e.g
2NaOH + CO2 —> Na2CO3 + H2O
2. Reaction of H2CO3 with an appropriate base .
Insoluble carbonates are formed from double decomposition reactions .
Aluminium carbonate doesn't exist , double decomposition reaction leads to the
production of Al(OH)3 instead.
Hydrogentrioxocarbonates (IV) are formed from incomplete neutralisation
reaction wherein the base is in excess.
General features of trioxicarbonates IV
● Only the trioxicarbonates of Na,K and NH4 are soluble in water .
● All carbonates apart from those of Na and K decompose on heating to
liberate CO2 and the oxide .
Ag and those below it in the activity series produce the metal , O2 and CO2.
Ammonium carbonate gives NH3,CO2 and H2O .
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
2Ag2CO3 4Ag + 2CO2 + O2
(NH4)2CO3 2NH3 + H2O + CO2
● They all react with acids to give CO2 , water and salt .

General features of Hydrogentrioxicarbonates (IV) include :

● They are all soluble in water since they are all acid salts
● They all decompose on heating to give the carbonate , water and CO2 .
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● NaHCO3 is used as baking powder and also used in soda-acid fire

extinguishers where it liberates CO2 .
HALOGENS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS
INTRODUCTION
These are the members of the seventh group on the periodic table and are highly
reputed the strong oxidising power. Fluorine is a pale yellow gas , chlorine is a
greenish yellow gas , bromine is dark-red/ brown and iodine is a purple/dark solid
.They all exist in the diatomic state .
Each member displaces those beneath it from their salts , e.g F can displace Cl
from NaCl.
Chlorine is the most important member of this family and thus most of our
discussion would centre around it .
PREPARATION
Chlorine can be prepped thus :
● Heating MnO2 with HCl thus : MnO2 + 2HCl MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2
● Reacting KMNO4 with HCl , this doesn't require heating :
2KMnO4+ 16HCl 2KCl + 2MnCl2+8H2O + 5Cl2
● It can also be produced electrolytically through the electrolysis of brine.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
● Greenish yellow gas with unpleasant choking smell and poisonous nature .
● Soluble in water
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
● Combines directly with metals to form ionic chlorides : Zn+ Cl2 ZnCl2 .
For metals which form multiple chlorides , the higher oxidation state is favoured ,
this is due to the strong oxidising behaviour of Cl2 : e.g Fe forms FeCl3 and not
FeCl2
● Combines directly with non-metals except NONC (Noble gases , Oxygen ,
Nitrogen and carbon ) to form the chlorides.
●
Reacts with NH3 to give N2 and HCl which later forms NH4Cl. 2NH3 + 3Cl2 N2 + 6HCl
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HCl+ NH3 NH4Cl

● Reacts with H2S thus : H2S + Cl2 2HCl + S
●
Reacts with water to form chlorine water , this later breaks down to give O2 : Cl2 + H2O

2HOCl 2HCl + O2
● Bleaches dyes and pigments by oxidizing them , this is possible because if its
ability to form HOCl.
The HOCl releases O which bleaches the dye by oxidizing it and becomes HCl in
the process , thus the clothes must be thoroughly rinsed afterwards. Chlorine
cannot bleach pigments containing Carbon e.g printer's ink.
●
It's an excellent oxidizing agent and thus it reacts with common reducing agents thus : 2F
● H2SO3 + H2O + Cl2 H2SO4 + 2HCl
●
Reacts with alkalis in two ways depending on the concentration and temperature: With ho

With cold dilute Alkali solution , the reaction goes thus : NaOH + Cl2 NaOCl + NaCl + H2O .

● Chlorine bleaches moist litmus paper after turning it red

● Chlorine turns starch iodide paper purple/blue ( this is because it displaces
iodine from it ).
Uses
● Cl is used as a germicide , and as a strong bleaching agent ( too strong for
animal fibres like silk and wool )
● Used in producing other bleaching agents like Sodium hypochlorite ( found
in hypo ,jik and the likes ) ,bleaching powder e.t.c
IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS: HALIDES
HYDROGEN CHLORIDE
This is the chloride of hydrogen and can be prepped by the action of H2SO4 on
chlorides ( displacement of volatile acids ) .
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E.g 2KCl + H2SO4 K2SO4+ 2HCl

It can also be prepped by the direct combination of hydrogen and chlorine .
Physical properties include :
● It's extremely soluble in water to form Hydrochloric acid ( This is why it's
used in the fountain experiment , other gases used in the fountain
experiment include NH3 and SO2) . This is also why it forms misty fumes in
air after dissolving in water vapour .
● Soluble in non-polar solvents like CCl4 e.t.c
● Has a sharp irritating smell .
● Doesn't support combustion and therefore extinguishes a burning splinter
Chemical properties
● Combines directly with metals and ammonia to form their chlorides .

NH3 + HCl NH4Cl ( This is used to test for the presence of HCl , a glass rod dipped in ammonia

Fe + HCl FeCl2 + H2 ( If a metal forms multiple chlorides , the lower oxidation state is formed

● When boiled it ensures it's concentration is about 20.24 % HCl , it does this
by either losing HCl (if conc ) or water (if dilute ). This is called a constant
boiling mixture or azeotropic mixture .
CHLORIDES
These are binary compounds of chlorine and other metals or ammonia .
● They may be formed by neutralisation reaction or double decomposition.
● They are all soluble in water , except PbCl2 which is only soluble in hot
water and insoluble in cold water .
● They are all stable to heating
● They all react with H2SO4 to liberate HCl.
Short note on F, Br and I
Fluorine is the most electronegative and most reactive element in existence. It
reacts with all elements ( noble gases included ) except Neon , Oxygen , Helium,
Nitrogen and Argon (NOHNA).
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It can only be produced electrolytically.

It forms HF which is a liquid at room temperature because of the presence of
Hydrogen bonding.
it's a weak acid unlike HCl, HBr and HI.
Bromine and iodine are either obtained from their salts ( which occurs in the
seas ) or chemically as is done for chlorine .
Uses
● Tin fluoride is used in toothpastes and sodium fluoride is added to drinking
water to prevent tooth decay .
● Iodine prevents goitre , this is why KI is added to table salt (iodized salt ).
Short note on silver halides
● They are used in testing for halides , AgCl is white , AgBr is pale yellow and
AgI is yellow .
● AgCl is soluble in aqueous NH3 , AgI is slightly soluble while AgI is
insoluble .
● They all decompose when exposed to light , this is why they are used in
photography .
SULPHUR AND ITS COMPOUNDS
INTRODUCTION
Sulphur is a yellow solid Element which is found heavily in underground deposits
in various countries. It's extracted from this underground deposits by a process
known as frasch process .
PREPARATION
Frasch process involves three concentric tubes used to extract sulphur from
underground deposits, the three tubes perform different functions.
The outermost tube introduces superheated water into the deposit in order to melt
the sulphur , the innermost tube introduces air under pressure in order to force the
sulphur up , the sulphur travels up through the middle tube . (WSA)
Sulphur also exhibits allotropy , with two major allloteopes being Rhombic and
monoclinic sulphur .
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Rhombic sulphur : This is the common allotrope of sulphur as this is how sulphur
exists below 96°C . It's bright yellow and exists as S8 crystals ( a loose
arrangement of 8 sulphur atoms).
Monoclinic sulphur: This is the stable allotrope of sulphur above 96°C , it's
amber/straw coloured . The crystals are needle shaped and it's less dense than
Rhombic sulphur. It reverts to Rhombic sulphur below 96°C , this is therefore
called the transition temperature of sulphur .
● The sulphur produced in chemical reactions is AMORPHOUS SULPHUR.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
● Density depends on alllotrope
● Insoluble in water but soluble Carbon (IV) sulphide and Toluene .
● Poor conductor of heat and electricity
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
●
Combines directly with metals to form ionic sulphides . It also combines directly with var

S + O2 SO2 ( some SO3 is also produced).

● Reacts with oxidising acids to produce SO2 or H2SO4 .
E.g S + H2SO4 SO2 + H2O
S+HNO3 H2SO4+ NO2 + H2O
● Reacts with hot conc alkalis to produce sulphides and trioxosulphates (IV)
E.g 6NaOH + 3S 2Na2S + Na2SO3 + 3H2O
IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS: OXIDES, SULPHIDES, SULPHATES
SULPHIDES
HYDROGEN SULPHIDE : This is the sulphide of hydrogen with a characteristic
rotten egg smell .
It dissolves in water to give a weakly acidic solution.

Prepped by the action of acids on metallic sulphides : FeS + H2SO4 FeSO4 + H2S
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● As an acid it undergoes neutralisation reactions with alkali.

●
Used to precipitate metals from their salts as their sulphides . This is used as an analytica

Pb(NO3)2 + H2S PbS (black) + 2HNO3 ( This is used to test for H2S and lead (II) ethanoate (C

● Burns in air to give H2O and SO2.

2H2S + 3O2 2H2O + 2SO2
● It's a strong reducing agent , therefore it reacts strongly with oxidising
agents( e.g KMnO4, K2Cr2O7, Halogens and FeCl3) usually liberating
Sulphur as a yellow deposit in the process .
E.g 2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 + 5H2S K2SO4+ 2MnSO4 + 8H2O + 5S
K2Cr2O7 + 4H2SO4 + 3H2S K2SO4+ Cr2(SO4)3 + 7H2O + 3S
H2S + Cl2 2HCl + S
2FeCl3 + H2S 2FeCl2 + 2HCl +S
2H2S + SO2 2H2O + 3S
Metallic sulphides
These are either formed by neutralisation reactions involving H2S, by double
decomposition or by direct combination of the constituents .
Sulphides have the following noteworthy features :
● Only the sulphides of Na, K and NH4 are soluble in water , all others are
insoluble .
● Sulphides of metals above tin on the reactivity series are soluble in HCl
solution , while Tin sulphide and those below it are insoluble.
● They are all stable to heating
● Their colours are important : MnS is pink , ZnS is white ,SnS2 and CdS are
yellow , As2S is orange yellow , Sb2S3 is Redfish orange while all the other
sulphides are black.
OXIDES OF SULPHUR
Sulphur has two major oxides , SO2 and SO3.
 21

SO2
● Poisonous gas which smells like burning matches.
● Extremely soluble in water .
● Prepared by burning sulphur in air (mentioned earlier ) or reacting
Na2SO3 with an acid .
Na2SO3+ 2HCl 2NaCl + H2O + SO2

● It's the acid anhydride of H2SO3 dissolving in water to give the acid .
SO2 + H2O H2SO3
● Reacts with alkalis to produce the trioxosulphates ( IV) salt .
SO2 + 2NaOH Na2SO3+ H2O
● As a strong reducing agent , it reacts with oxidising agents while also
getting oxidized to SO3 or H2SO4.
2KMnO4 + 5SO2 + 2H2O K2SO4+ 2MnSO4 + 2H2SO4
K2CR2O7+ 3SO2 + H2SO4 K2SO4+ Cr2(SO4)3 + H2O
FeCl3 + SO2 + H2O H2SO4+ FeCl2 + HCl
● Bleaches dyes by reduction. This is due to its ability to form H2SO3 in
solution.This bleaching is temporary as the atmospheric oxygen reoxidizes
the dye eventually. It's mildness makes it useful for bleaching silk ,wool and
the likes for which chlorine would be too strong .
●
Acts as an oxidizing agent in the presence of H2S ( a stronger reducing agent ) . SO2 + 2H

SO3
● Formed from the oxidation of SO2 ( in the presence of V2O5 catalyst).
SO2 +O2 SO3
● Solid needle shaped crystals at room temperature.
● Dissolves in water to form H2SO4 ( This reaction is highly exothermic and
is therefore not used for the preparation of H2SO4)
 22

Reacts with H2SO4 to form an oily liquid known as oleum . H2SO4 + SO3 H2S2O7

Short note on trioxosulphates (IV )

● Trioxosulphate (VI) acid is unstable at room temperature, decomposing to
give SO2.
● As a result of this , it smells strongly of SO2
● It becomes oxidized to H2SO4 on exposure to the atmosphere.
● It's a weak acid which is responsible for the bleaching action of SO2 .
● Trioxosulphate VI salts are insoluble (except those of Na,K,Ca and NH4)
and they are stable to heating .
● Trioxosulphate VI salts react with acids to liberate SO2:
Na2SO3+ 2HCl 2NaCl + H2O + SO2
● They get converted to the tetraoxosulphate IV on exposure to air .
TETRAOXOSULPHATE VI acid and salts
● TETRAOXOSULPHATE VI acid also known as sulphuric acid is the king of
chemicals .
● H2SO4 used to be produced by the lead chamber process , however it's now
produced using the contact process which goes thus :
S+O2 SO2
2SO2+O2 2SO3 (catalysed by V2O5)
SO3 + H2SO4 H2S2O7 (oleum)
H2S2O7+H2O 2H2SO4
The SO3 isn't dissolved directly in water because the reaction is too exothermic
● Conc H2SO4 is a very dense acid , this density is why it's able to displace
most other acids from the solution of their salts .
● The concentrated acid is Hygroscopic, diluting itself when left in the
atmosphere.
● Strongly exhibits acidic behaviour when dilute (liberates CO2 with
carbonates , liberates H2 with metals , neutralisation reaction e.t.c)
 23

●
The concentrated acid behaves more like an oxidizing agent . It reacts with metals to pro

●
It oxidizes non-metals to give their oxides . C+ 2H2SO4 CO2 + H2O + 2SO2
● Liberates Sulphur with H2S
● It also acts as a dehydrating reagent particularly in most organic reactions .
Tetraoxosulphate vi salts
● All soluble except those of Pb, Ca, Ba and Hg.
● They are fairly stable to heating but under intense conditions some members
give the oxide and SO2/SO3.
●

NITROGEN AND ITS COMPOUNDS

INTRODUCTION
This is the most popular compound of group v on the periodic table ,it makes up
about 78% of the atmosphere.
PREPARATION
● Majorly it's prepared in commercial quantities by the fractional distillation
of liquified air.
● Decomposition of some ammonium salts such as ammonium dioxonitrate
(III) and ammonium chromate.
NH4NO2 N2 + 2H2O
(NH4)2Cr2O7 N2 + Cr2O3 + 4H20
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
● Colourless , odourless, tasteless gas
● Doesn't support combustion, this is why it acts as a diluent in air
(preventing sporadic combustion of objects )
● Sparingly soluble in water
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
 24

● Forms metallic nitrides with metals ,the nitride usually produces ammonia
and the hydroxide when reacted with water.
3Mg + N2 Mg3N2
Mg3N2 +6H2O 3Mg(OH)2 + 2NH3
● Combines directly with elements like H2 , O2 and others to form various
binary compounds .

IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS:OXIDES, AMMONIA AND AMMONIUM

SALTS , NITRATES
Oxides
NO2 Nitrogen IV oxide : A reddish brown oxide of nitrogen.
● It's the product of the decomposition of trioxonitrates V, including the acid
HNO3 . It's the reason for the yellowish/brownish colour of HNO3 .
● It's also produced by the action of pure HNO3 on certain metals like Cu.
Cu + HNO3 Cu(NO3)2 + H2O + NO2
● It's extremely soluble in water
● Exists as N2O4 at low temperature, this is pale yellow and it decomposes to
NO2 on warning.
● It's a mixed acid anhydride dissolving in water to give HNO3 and HNO2.
● Being a mixed anhydride , it also reacts with Alkalis to produce two
different salts , the dioxonitrate III and trioxonitrate V (already mentioned
while discussing oxides ).
NO Nitrogen(II)Oxide : This is a very unstable oxide of Nitrogen which rapidly
combines with atmospheric oxygen to become NO2 .

It's obtained by the action of conc HNO3 on certain metals : e.g action of 50% HNO3 on Cu. C

If pure HNO3 is used , NO2 would be obtained instead .

● Insoluble in water and Neutral to litmus
● Smell is unknown since it rapidly combines with atmospheric oxygen to form
NO2 on exposure .
 25

● Gives a brown ring with acidified FeSO4

N20, Dinitrogen(I) oxide / Nitrogen (I) oxide
● Prepped by the decomposition of NH4NO3 . Usually the salt isn't
decomposed directly , instead a metallic trioxonitrate V is reacted with an
ammonium salt. This is because of the highly explosive and exothermic
nature of the reaction .
NaNO3 + NH4Cl KCl + NH4NO3
NH4NO3 N2O + 2H2O
● Fairly soluble in water and Neutral to litmus (NO2 is the only non -neutral
oxide of Nitrogen )
● Causes hysterical laughter when inhaled thus named laughing gas .
● Used as an anaesthetic together with oxygen and CO2.
● Rekindles a glowing splinter just like O2 , (the differences have been
highlighted under oxygen ).
●
Reduced to N2 by heated metals like Fe and Cu . Cu + N2O CuO + N2 CuO is seen as a

TRIOXONITRATES V
TRIOXONITRATE V acid HNO3 : Usually prepared by the Ostwald process or
displacement from trioxonitrate V salts .
Ostwald process:
4 NH3 + O2 4NO + 6H2O
2NO +O2 2NO2
4NO2 + 2H2O + O2 4HNO3
Displacement reaction occurs when nitrate salts are reacted with H2SO4 :
NaNO3 + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + HNO3
● It's an extremely soluble acid which behaves like a typical acid when in
dilute solution .
● It reacts with Alkali to produce salt and water
● Only gives hydrogen with metals at very low concentrations.
 26

● The concentrated acid is a very strong oxidising agent reacting with metals
to produce NO2 and NO depending on the concentration. E.g with pure
HNO3
Cu + HNO3 Cu(NO3)2 + H2O + NO2
Action of 50% HNO3 on Cu gives
Cu + HNO3 Cu(NO3)2 + H2O + NO
Pb,Hg, Ag behave exactly like silver .
● Mg , Fe and Zn react with the dilute acid to form the Nitrate , water and
Ammonium nitrate.
4Mg + 10HNO3 4Zn(NO3)2 + 3H2O + NH4NO3
● Cr, Al and Fe are passive to the acid die to a thinayer of oxide , thus they
are used in transporting the acid. CAlF is a good mnemonic for this .
● Decomposes to give NO2 slowly at room temperature, this is why it has a
slightly brown colour .
TRIOXONITRATE V SALTS
● They are all soluble in water
● They all decompose on heating to give various products , the decomposition
goes as follows :

NaNO3 and KNO3 decompose to give the dioxonitrate III and oxygen . 2KNO3 2KNO2 + O2

Those between Ca and Cu give the oxide and NO2 and O2.
Ca(NO3)2 CaO +2NO2 + O2
Those below Cu on the series decompose to give the metal , NO2 and O2.
2AgNO3 2Ag + 2NO2 + O2
● They liberate HNO3 on reaction with H2SO4. This is one of the main
methods for prepping HNO3.
● All Nitrates give the brown ring test with H2SO4 and FeSO4.
Ammonia and Ammonium salts
Ammonia NH3
 27

This is the only known gaseous base and can be formed by three major methods :
●
N2+3H2 2NH3 ( Finely divided iron is used as catalyst and the reaction requires intense

●
Action of Ammonium salts on Alkalis e.g NaOH + NH4Cl NaCl + NH3 + H2O
●
Decomposition of Ammonium salts : Most ammonium salts decompose to give ammonia a
● Ammonia can only be dried by CaO as it reacts with most other drying
agents .
● Ammonia is extremely soluble in water to form a weakly basic solution
known as Ammonium hydroxide although this is more appropriately known
as Aqueous Ammonia .
● It's an excellent precipitating agent thus making it useful as an analytical
reagent for metals .e.g
With Cu²+ + NH3 [Cu(NH3)4]²+ (Blue ppt)
● Burns in oxygen to give H2O and N2 thus . 4NH3 +3O2 6H2O + 2N2
When a platinum catalyst is present however, the products are NO and H2O.
4NH3 + 5O2 4NO + 6H2O
● It is a weak reducing agent which is oxidized by CuO and other oxidizing
agents to N2 .
3CuO + 2NH3 3Cu + 3H2O + N2
With Cl2 : 3Cl2 + 8NH3 6NH4Cl +N2
In excess Chlorine : NCl3 an oily and explosive liquid is formed .
NH3 + 3Cl2 NCl3 + 3Cl2 NCl3 + 3HCl.
● Reacts with CO2 to produce urea .
2NH3 +CO2 (NH2)2CO (Urea ) +H2O

● It's majorly used in the production of Nitrogen fertilizers.

Ammonium salts
 28

● NH4+ is tested for by reaction with NaOH . Production of a gas with

pungent smell and which turns moist litmus paper blue.
● They are all soluble in water and give Ammonia on reaction with Alkali .
● They are all thermally unstable to produce various products as follows :
NH4Cl NH3 + HCl
NH4NO3 2H2O +N2O
NH4NO2 2H2O +N2

(NH4)2SO4 NH3 + H2SO4 ( This is the only ammonium salt which gives a liquid residue on De

(NH4)2CO3 2NH3 + H2O +CO2

● (NH4)2CO3 is used as smelling salt to prevent dizziness and fainting ( The
Ammonia produced on decomposition stimulates the brain and thus is
responsible for this )
● NH4Cl is used in batteries and as solder flux .
● Most other ammonium salts are used as fertilisers.
NON-TRANSITION METALS
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF METALS
In the chemical sense a metal is any element which ionizes by electron loss while
a non-metal is any element which ionizes by electron gain . Based on this and
apart from it ,metals have the following characteristics:
● They are excellent reducing agents
● They are usually ductile , malleable and sonorous (usually the higher metals
)
● They usually form ionic compounds with electronegative elements .
Sodium and its compounds
Extraction
Sodium is obtained by electrolysis of NaCl in a down's cell. The anode is Graphite
, Cathode is steel and the electrolyte is molten NaCl to which CaCl2 has been
added (to lower the melting point ). This can be summarised as NaGS (Electrolyte
(NaCl), anode (Graphite ) and Cathode (Steel)).
 29

● It becomes progressively oxidized to Na2CO3 if left directly in the

atmosphere via the following process :
4Na + O2 2Na2O
Na2O + H2O 2NaOH
2NaOH + CO2 Na2CO3+ H2O
● It combines directly with almost elements except Nitrogen , Boron and
Carbon (NBC)
●
Reacts with NH3 to form sodamide and hydrogen : 2Na + 2NH3 2NaNH2 + H2

Important compounds
NaOH : Prepared by the electrolysis of brine , since the leftover solution contains
Na+ and OH— ions.
● It's deliquescent and used for precipitating other metals in analytical
chemistry 🧪.
● It attacks glass and causes etching { sticking of glass stoppers to glass
apparatus)
Na2CO3
● Called washing soda as the decahydrate Na2CO3•10H2O or soda ash in the
anhydrous state .
● Prepared industrially by the solvay process which uses NaCl and CaCO3 to
produce NaHCO3 and Na2CO3, the only waste is CaCl2.
●
Also prepared from the action of NaCl on CaCO3. 2NaCl + CaCO3 Na2CO3 + CaCl2
● Behaves chemically like a typical trioxicarbonate
● It's used in the production of glass , detergents and for softening water .
● NaHCO3 is known as baking soda and is also produced industrially from
the solvay process . It's used in baking and in fire extinguishers .
Calcium and its compounds
Extraction
 30

Extracted from electrolysis of CaCl2 to which CaF2 has been added to lower the
boiling point . Anode is Graphite and Iron is Cathode . CaGI may be a good
memory tip .
Important compounds
Ca(OH)2 : Slaked like formed from the dissolution of CaO (quicklime ) in
water ,the process Is called slaking.
● Slightly soluble in water to give a weakly alkaline solution
● Softens temporarily hard water
CaCO3
● Insoluble white solid , dissolves slowly in water containing CO2 to give
Ca(HCO3)2 thus causing temporary hardness of water .
● Occurs naturally as limestone , chalk and marble .
● Blackboard chalk is CaSO4 and not CaCO3.
● Used in production of cement.
Mortar and cement
Mortar is one part Slaked lime and three parts of sand and hardens by the loss of
water , this is why mortar can't be used for underwater construction.
Cement is produced from a complex chemical reaction between limestone and clay
to produce a mixture of Calcium silicate and Calcium aluminate.
Cement + sand + stones = Concrete .(Reinforced concrete = Concrete on metal
structures )
Unlike mortar , cement can be used for underwater construction.
Aluminium and its compounds
Extraction
Extracted from bauxite (Al2O3) its ore by purification first , then electrolysis .
Purification :
Al2O3+2NaOH + 3H2O 2NaAl(OH)4 ( Impurities majorly Fe2O3 don't react , th

NaAl(OH)4 Al(OH)3 + NaOH

Al(OH)3 Al2O3+ 3H2O
 31

Electrolysis of alumina (Al2O3)

It's dissolved in molten cryolite Na3AlF6 , the anode is Graphite and Graphite.
Since oxygen is liberated at the anode , it burns of the anode slowly and thus it has
to be replaced at intervals .
The electrolysis of Alumina is expensive because :
● Reaction mixture has to be kept at a high temperature 950°C
● The anode is continuously burnt and therefore has to be replaced.
characteristics
● On burning in air , both the Oxide and Nitride are formed .
● Amphoteric behaviour , reacting with both acids and bases . Thus it's not
cleaned with NaOH.
●
Displaces iron from Fe2O3, this is made use of in the thermit process used in welding iron

● Aluminium is used in cooking utensils and in various alloys because of its

combined attributes of lightness , cheapness and toughness .
● Al(OH)3 is used as mordant as it helps dye stick to clothes.
● AlCl3 is a covalent compound which forms dimers .
● Aluminium sulphate is used in producing Alums which are used for
purification.
● LiAlH4 is a strong reducing agent used majorly in organic chemistry.
Tin
This is a very economically important metal extracted from cassiterite or tin stone
which is chemically SnO2 . It's found abundantly in Plateau state of Nigeria .
Extraction
● It's concentrated by crushing and washing it with water
● It's reacted with coke which acts as a reducing agent to reduce it to tin .
SnO2 + C Sn + CO2
● It's refined by gentle heating on a sloping surface which causes impurities to
get converted to their oxides.
 32

● Has three allotropes , grey tin , white tin and Rhombic tin. White tin is the
stable allotrope at room temperature.
● Behaves in an amphoteric manner , reacting with both acids and alkalis to
liberate hydrogen .
● Reacts slowly with non-metals particularly after heating , thus it's stable
and doesn't corrode under normal conditions.
Uses
● Used majorly in coating iron and steel to prevent corrosion as well as
canning foods and drinks .
● Used in producing various alloys as well as sheet glass .
TRANSITION METALS
These is the general name given to all the metals on the periodic table which have
an incompletely filled D- orbital .
They're referred to as transition metals because they form a transitory block
between metals and non metals in the periodic table.
Electronic configuration : Their electronic configuration is a little different from
what is usually known , particularly that of a Cu and Cr . For instance their
electronic configurations are :
Cu : [Ar]4S¹3d¹⁰ , this is slightly different from the expected configuration of
[Ar]4S²3d⁹. However , it's because partial and total stability are alway favoured .
Cr : .[Ar]4S¹3d⁵ as opposed to the expected value of [Ar]4S²3d⁴. The reason is the
same as that of copper above.
GENERAL FEATURES OF TRANSITION METALS
● Formation of complexes : Transition metals are notorious for forming
complexes , these are chemical arrangements where small molecules called
ligands are arranged around a central atom by coordinate bonding . E.g
[Cu(NH3)4]²+ ( Tetraamine copper (II) ion ) , [Fe(CN)6]³-
Hexacyanoferrate III ions .
The number of ligands determines the shape of the complexes .
2 ligands = linear
4 ligands = Square planar
 33

6 ligands = Octahedral
● Formation of coloured ions : Transition of electrons within the available D -
orbital causes them to have colours in their ions , only those without a
partially filled D- orbital are colourless e.g Sc²+ and Zn²+.

● A somewhat long mnemonic is : (STVCM²Fe²CoNiCuZn) have the colours (

CPuGV²PiYGPiGBC)
Another strategy would be that since students already most probably know
the colours of the Iron ions , Mn , Cu , Zn and Sc. They Need just learn that
V³+ and Ni are green , Cr³+ and Mn ³+ are violet , Co²+ and Mn²+ is pink
● Use in catalysis: They are usually excellent catalysts. E.g Finely divided
iron is used in Haber process .
● Multiple oxidation states :Most transition metals have various oxidation
states.
● They also showcase a lot of normal metallic behaviours : High melting and
boiling point , Ductile , Good conductors of Heat and electricity.
● Some members are paramagnetic and others are diamagnetic. ( Those with
unpaired electrons show paramagnetism(weakly attracted by magnetic
fields ) and those with paired electrons show diamagnetism ( no magnetic
interaction )
Some members show Ferromagnetism (very strong attraction by magnetic fields )
which cannot be explained solely by the action of paired and unpaired electrons .
E.g Fe , Ni , Co.
Iron and its compounds
 34

Extraction
Ores include Fe3O4 (magnetite ) and Fe2O3 (Haematite) ,FeS2 ( Iron pyrites) .
Ore is roasted in air to produce Fe2O3 , it's mixed with Coke and limestone .
The blast furnace is the site of this reaction and hot air is introduced into the
furnance through openings known as Tuyeres
The major reactions happening are as follows :
At the top ; Fe2O3+ 3CO 2Fe + 3CO2
At the middle : CaO + SiO2 CaSiO3 (slag)
CO2 + C 2CO
At the bottom : CaCO3 CaO + CO2
C + O2 CO2
The major Impurity here is SiO2 which is removed by CaO as CaSiO3 , this is
known as Slag and it floats above the produced molten iron .
TYPES OF IRON AND USES
PIG IRON : Gotten directly from the blast furnance and contains a lot of
impurities (5%).
● Hard and brittle
● Cannot be welded or forged
● Has little to no uses
CAST IRON : Produced from pig iron which has been remelted with some scrap
irons to further remove the leftover impurities
● Hard and brittle
● Cannot be welded or forged
● Used in cookers, stoves , radiators , lampposts, railings and base of Bunsen
burners.
WROUGHT IRON ; Purest form of iron (>0.1% ) carbon . Formed by heating
cast iron with Fe2O3. Removes most of the impurities present.
● Soft and malleable .
● Can be welded and Forged
 35

● Used in making Nails , chains , horseshoes , agricultural instruments and

the core of electromagnets .
Steel: This is an alloy of iron and Carbon wuth the amount of carbon varying
depending on the type of steel . Stainless steel also contains Ni and sometimes Cr .
● Steel has a much higher hardness than iron
● Steel also has a much higher tensile strength than iron .
● It also retains its magnetism better than iron and therefore it's used in
making permanent magnets while iron is used in temporary magnets and
electromagnets.
Test : Fe²+ and Fe³+ give green and reddish brown ppt respectively with NaOH
and Ammonia solution.
Fe³+ gives blood red colouration with potassium thiocyanate while Fe²+ doesn't
react at all .
With potassium Hexacyanoferrate III Fe²+ gives deep blue while Fe³+ gives
brown ppt and with potassium Hexacyanoferrate II Fe²+ gives white / light blue
while Fe³+ gives deep blue ppt.

Copper and its compounds

Extraction
Copper is extracted mainly from Copper pyrites which is Chemically CuFeS2.
This is first concentrated by Froth floatation and then roasted in air to produce
Cu2S , FeO and SO2.
2CuFeS2+4O2 Cu2S + 2FeO + 3SO2
SiO2 is added in order to remove the FeO in the reaction mixture as iron sillicate
which is removed as slag..
FeO + SiO2 FeSiO3
The remaining CuS is now roasted in air to produce Cu and SO2 .
CuS + O2 Cu + SO2
The copper so produced may be refined electrolytically to attain higher levels of
purity .
 36

● Used in making wires due to its cheapness , ductility and excellent electrical
conductivity.
● It's used in jewellery and metal works due to its attractive appearance.
Important compounds
CUSO4
● Called blue vitriol and prepped by the action of dilute H2SO4 on CuO or
CuCO3 .
CuCO3+ H2SO4 CuSO4 + H2O +CO2
● Can also be prepped by the action of Cu on concentrated H2SO4.
Cu+ H2SO4 CuSO4 + H2O +SO2
● The salt crystallizes out of solution as a pentahydrate CuSO4.5H2O.
● Used as a fungicide and as preservative
● Used for dyeing and in electrolysis.
SHORT NOTE ON ALLOYS
Introduction : This is produced by the dissolution of one or more metals in
another. This is usually done to increase the metallic properties such as resistance
to corrosion , lightness ,strength e.t.c
Common Alloys and Uses
Steel : Fe and C . For structural constructions ( bridges l, e.t.c ) , ships , cars and
machinery.
Stainless steel: Fe, Cr, Ni For cutleries and tools .
Brass : Cu, Zn . For medals , coins and sculpture .
Bronze : Cu, Sn . For medals , watches , nuts and bolts and ornaments.
Type-metal: Pb, Sb (antimony ) , Sn . For printing
Daralumin: Al , Cu ,Mg , Mn . Lighter and stronger than Al. Thus used for
Aircraft, ships , cars and machinery.
Soft-solder : Pb, Sn . For welding and plumbing .
Permalloy : Fe,Ni . For making electromagnets.
 37

Alnico : Fe , Al ,Ni , Co . For making permanent magnets.