Class notes on Gauss’ Divergence theorem

(For the students of B.Sc. Program Course with Mathematics [3rd Semester] of SKBU)

Sandip K. Maiti

Assistant Professor

Department of Mathematics

Panchakot Mahavidyala

0. Introduction:

In this class note we’ll define the gradient of a scalar function in an alternate way as a surface integral.
Also, we’ll discuss Gauss’ Divergence Theorem, a famous theorem which asserts the connection between a
surface integral and a volume integral. Here, we shall not give a mathematically rigorous proof as this is
beyond the scope of this class note, instead of we’ll deduct some important relations from this theorem, and
apply this theorem to solve some simple and typical problems.

1. Definition: Gradient of a Scalar Function:

Given a scalar function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), the gradient of 𝑓, denoted by ∇𝑓 is defined as

1
∇𝑓 = lim ∬ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 … … . (1.1);
𝑉→0 𝑉 𝑆

Where, 𝑆 is a closed surface, 𝑉 is the volume it encloses; and 𝑛̂ is the unit normal to 𝑆 at the point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
and pointing out from the enclosed volume.

This definition and the definition of gradient given earlier [see Class notes on Gradient of a Scalar Point
Function] are equivalent though in this note we are not going to establish that.

2. Gauss’ Divergence theorem:

Given any vector field 𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗ , ∫ 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐹

⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑉 = ∮ 𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆; where 𝑆 is a closed surface, 𝑉 is the volume it
𝑉 𝑆
encloses; and 𝑛̂ is the unit normal to 𝑆 at the point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) and pointing out from the enclosed volume.

2.1 Gauss’ Divergence theorem in Cartesian co-ordinate System:

⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐹1 𝑖̂ + 𝐹2 𝑗̂ + 𝐹3 𝑘̂ , and also let {𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛} be the direction cosines of the outward drawn unit
1. Let 𝐹
normal 𝑛̂ to a surface 𝑆 that encloses the volume 𝑉, i.e. 𝑛̂ = 𝑙𝑖̂ + 𝑚𝑗̂ + 𝑛𝑘̂ .

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹
Then 𝑑𝑖𝑣 ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 = ∇. ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 = (𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ ) . (𝐹1 𝑖̂ + 𝐹2 𝑗̂ + 𝐹3 𝑘̂ ) = 1 + 2 + 3 .
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑛̂ = (𝐹1 𝑖̂ + 𝐹2 𝑗̂ + 𝐹3 𝑘̂ ). (𝑙𝑖̂ + 𝑚𝑗̂ + 𝑛𝑘̂ ) = 𝑙𝐹1 + 𝑚𝐹2 + 𝑛𝐹3.

Also, 𝐹

Then, the Divergence Theorem can be written in non-vector form as

 𝜕𝐹1 𝜕𝐹2 𝜕𝐹3
∫ (𝑙𝐹1 + 𝑚𝐹2 + 𝑛𝐹3 )𝑑𝑆 = ∫ ( + + ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 … … . (2.1.1)
𝑆 𝑉 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Moreover, let 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 be the respective angles that the unit normal 𝑛̂ makes with the co-ordinate axes.
Then 𝑙 = cos 𝛼, etc.

Let 𝑅𝑦𝑧 be the projection of 𝑆 on 𝑦𝑧-plane where 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 is the projection of an elementary surface
area 𝑑𝑆 in 𝑅𝑦𝑧 .

Then, ∫𝑆 𝑙𝐹1 𝑑𝑆 = ∫𝑆 𝐹1 cos 𝛼 𝑑𝑆 = ∫𝑅 𝐹1 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧. Likewise the other two’s.

𝑦𝑧

Hence, (2.1.1) reduces to

𝜕𝐹1 𝜕𝐹2 𝜕𝐹3

∫ ( + + ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝐹1 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝐹2 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝐹3 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 … … . (2.1.2)
𝑉 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑅𝑦𝑧 𝑅𝑧𝑥 𝑅𝑥𝑦

2.2 Some Important Deductions from Divergence theorem:

1. For any scalar function 𝑓, ∫𝑉 𝛻𝑓 𝑑𝑉 = ∫𝑆 𝑓 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆, assuming 𝑓 has continuous 1st order partial
derivatives on 𝑆 that encloses the volume 𝑉.

⃗⃗⃗ be an arbitrary constant vector. Now, apply Divergence Theorem on (𝑓𝑎

Proof: Let 𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗ ) to have

∫𝑉 𝑑𝑖𝑣 (𝑓𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗ ). 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 …… (1)

⃗⃗⃗ ) 𝑑𝑉 = ∫𝑆 (𝑓𝑎

Now, 𝑑𝑖𝑣 (𝑓𝑎

⃗⃗⃗ ) = 𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑓 = 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑓, since 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗ is a constant vector, 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗ = 0.

Again, (𝑓 𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ ). 𝑛̂ = 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗ . (𝑓 𝑛̂ ).

Hence, (1) gives, ∫𝑉 (𝑎

⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑓) 𝑑𝑉 = ∫𝑆 {𝑎
⃗⃗⃗ . (𝑓 𝑛̂ )}𝑑𝑆

i.e. 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗ . ∫𝑉 ∇𝑓 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗ . ∫𝑆 𝑓 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆, as 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗ is a constant vector.

Since the above holds for any arbitrary constant vector 𝑎

⃗⃗⃗ , we must have ∫𝑉 ∇𝑓 𝑑𝑉 = ∫𝑆 𝑓 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆. ∎

2. For any scalar function 𝑓, ∫𝑉 ∇2 𝑓 𝑑𝑉 = ∫𝑆 |∇𝑓| 𝑑𝑆, assuming 𝑓 to have continuous 1st order partial
derivatives on 𝑆 that encloses the volume 𝑉.

Proof: Applying Gauss’ Divergence theorem on ∇𝑓, we have ∫𝑉 ∇. (∇𝑓) 𝑑𝑉 = ∫𝑆 ∇𝑓. 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 …. (1)

∇𝑓 |∇𝑓|2
Now, ∇. (∇𝑓) = ∇2 𝑓. Also, 𝑛̂ = |∇𝑓| ⇒ ∇𝑓. 𝑛̂ = |∇𝑓|
= |∇𝑓|.

Therefore, from (1) we have, ∫𝑉 ∇2 𝑓 𝑑𝑉 = ∫𝑆 |∇𝑓| 𝑑𝑆 . ∎

Note: the maximum value of the directional derivative of 𝑓 is |∇𝑓|, and it occurs in the direction of 𝑛̂ . Let us denote
𝜕𝑓
the directional derivative of 𝑓 along the direction of 𝑛̂ by . Then the above identity takes the form
𝜕𝑛
𝜕𝑓
∫𝑉 ∇2 𝑓 𝑑𝑉 = ∫𝑆 𝜕𝑛
𝑑𝑆.
 3. For any vector function ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 , ∫𝑉 (𝛻 × ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑛̂ ) 𝑑𝑆, assuming ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 ) 𝑑𝑉 = − ∫𝑆 (𝐹 𝐹 has continuous 1st order
partial derivatives on 𝑆 that encloses the volume 𝑉.

Proof: Let 𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗ × ⃗⃗⃗

⃗⃗⃗ be an arbitrary constant vector. Now apply Divergence Theorem on (𝑎 𝐹 ) to have

⃗⃗⃗ × ⃗⃗⃗
∫𝑉 ∇. (𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗ × ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 ) 𝑑𝑉 = ∫𝑆 (𝑎 𝐹 ). 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 …… (1)

⃗⃗⃗ × ⃗⃗⃗
Now, ∇. (𝑎 𝐹 ) = ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 . (∇ × 𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗ . (∇ × ⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ ) − 𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗ . (∇ × ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 ) = −𝑎 𝐹 ), since 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗ is a constant vector, ∇ × 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗ = 0.

Also, (𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗ ). 𝑛̂ = [𝑎
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑛̂ ] = 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗ 𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑛̂ ).
⃗⃗⃗ . (𝐹

⃗⃗⃗ ) 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗ . (∇ × 𝐹
Hence, (1) gives, − ∫𝑉 𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑛̂ ) 𝑑𝑆
⃗⃗⃗ . (𝐹
𝑆

i.e. 𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗ )𝑑𝑉 = −𝑎

⃗⃗⃗ . ∫𝑉 (∇ × 𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑛̂ ) 𝑑𝑆, as 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗ . ∫𝑆 (𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗ is a constant vector.

⃗⃗⃗ , we must have ∫𝑉 (∇ × ⃗⃗⃗

Since this holds for any arbitrary constant vector 𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑛̂ ) 𝑑𝑆. ∎
𝐹 ) 𝑑𝑉 = − ∫𝑆 (𝐹

4. Green’s Identity:
For any two scalar functions 𝑓 & 𝑔, ∫𝑉 (𝑓 𝛻 2 𝑔 − 𝑔 𝛻 2 𝑓)𝑑𝑉 = ∫𝑆 (𝑓 𝛻𝑔 − 𝑔 𝛻𝑓). 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆, assuming 𝑓 and
𝑔 has continuous 1st order partial derivatives on 𝑆 that encloses the volume 𝑉.

⃗⃗⃗ .
Proof: We set 𝑓 ∇𝑔 − 𝑔 ∇𝑓 = 𝐹

⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ 𝐹
From Divergence Theorem, ∫𝑉 ∇. 𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 …… (1)
𝑆

Now, ∇. ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 = ∇. (𝑓 ∇𝑔 − 𝑔 ∇𝑓) = ∇. (𝑓 ∇𝑔) − ∇. (𝑔 ∇𝑓)

= 𝑓 {∇(∇𝑔)} + (∇𝑓). (∇𝑔) − 𝑔 {∇(∇𝑓)} − (∇𝑔). (∇𝑓)

= 𝑓 ∇2 𝑔 − 𝑔 ∇2 𝑓 ….. (2)

By (2), (1) would imply, ∫𝑉 (𝑓 ∇2 𝑔 − 𝑔 ∇2 𝑓)𝑑𝑉 = ∫𝑆 (𝑓 ∇𝑔 − 𝑔 ∇𝑓). 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆. ∎

3. An Important theorem:

Given a solenoidal vector field ⃗⃗⃗

𝐹 , the following statements are equivalent.

⃗⃗⃗ = 0.
1. ∇. 𝐹

2. The flux ∮𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗

𝐹 . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 across any closed surface is zero.

3. ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 = ∇ × ⃗⃗⃗
𝑉 , for some vector function ⃗⃗⃗
𝑉.

Proof: we’ll proof this in a cyclic way like (1) ⇒ (2), (2) ⇒ (3) & (3) ⇒ (1).

(1) ⇒ (2): Let ⃗⃗⃗

𝐹 be a solenoidal vector field. Then by definition, ∇. ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 = 0.

Let 𝑉 be the volume enclosed by a closed surface 𝑆, and 𝑛̂ be the outward drawn unit normal to 𝑆.
 Then by Gauss’ Divergence Theorem, we have ∮𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 = ∫𝑉 (∇. ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 ) 𝑑𝑉 = ∫𝑉 0 𝑑𝑉 = 0.

(2) ⇒ (3): Let ∮𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗

𝐹 . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 = 0, where 𝑆 is any closed surface and 𝑛̂ is the outward drawn unit normal
to 𝑆.

By Divergence theorem, ∮𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗

𝐹 . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 = 0 = ∫𝑉 𝑑𝑖𝑣 ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 𝑑𝑉, where 𝑉 is the volume enclosed by 𝑆.

Since the above holds throughout any closed region 𝑉 (𝑉 is arbitrary as 𝑆 is so), we must have 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗ = 0.
Now, we know that the divergence of the curl of any vector is zero. So, here, we can assume 𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗ to be the
curl of a suitable vector, say ⃗⃗⃗
𝑉 , i.e. ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 = ∇ × ⃗⃗⃗
𝑉.

⃗⃗⃗ = ∇ × 𝑉
(3) ⇒ (1): Let 𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗ , for some vector function 𝑉
⃗⃗⃗ . Then ∇. 𝐹
⃗⃗⃗ = ∇. (∇ × 𝑉
⃗⃗⃗ ) = 0. ∎

Exercises:

Exercise 1: (i) Verify Divergence Theorem for ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑗 + 𝑦𝑧𝑘̂ over the unit cube [0,1; 0,1; 0,1].
𝐹 = 3𝑧𝑥𝑖̂ − 2𝑦 2̂

𝐹 = 𝑥 3 𝑖̂ + 𝑥 2 𝑦 𝑗̂ − 𝑥𝑦𝑧𝑘̂ , over the cube [−1,1; −1,1; −1,1].

(ii) Verify Divergence Theorem for ⃗⃗⃗

Solution: (i) The cube is shown in the figure given below.

Since the cube has six faces, we have

⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 = ∫ 𝐹
∫𝑆 𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 + ∫ 𝐹⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 + ∫ 𝐹⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 + ∫ 𝐹⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 + ∫ 𝐹⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 + ∫ 𝐹⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 .. (1)
𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑆3 𝑆 4 𝑆5 𝑆 6

Where, the surface 𝑆1 is the face 𝐴𝐶 ′ 𝑂′ 𝐵 ′ of the given cube;

𝑆2 : 𝑂𝐵𝐴′ 𝐶; 𝑆3 : 𝐵𝐴′ 𝑂′ 𝐶 ′ ; 𝑆4 : 𝑂𝐶𝐵 ′ 𝐴; 𝑆5 : 𝑂′ 𝐴′ 𝐶𝐵 ′ ; 𝑆6 : 𝑂𝐴𝐶 ′ 𝐵.

[Notice that each of the surfaces 𝑆1 & 𝑆2 is parallel to 𝑦𝑧-plane. To each of these surfaces, the unit normal
acts along the direction of 𝑥-axis; in positive direction for 𝑆1 , and in negative direction for 𝑆2 . Now, if we
project 𝑆1 on 𝑦𝑧-plane, the projection will be the surface 𝑆2 (a square of side 1 unit). Needless to say, the
projection of 𝑆2 on 𝑦𝑧-plane is 𝑆2 itself.

Likewise, if we project 𝑆3 or 𝑆4 on 𝑧𝑥-plane, we have the projection 𝑆4 . Also, the projection of either
of 𝑆5 & 𝑆6 on 𝑥𝑦-plane is 𝑆6 .
So, in every occasion, when we project either of the faces of the given cube on the co-ordinate plane
parallel to it, we’ll obtain a square of side unity.]

On the surface 𝑆1 , i.e. on the face 𝐴𝐶 ′ 𝑂′ 𝐵 ′ : 𝑥 = 1 & 𝑛̂ = 𝑖̂.

Therefore, 𝐹 . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 = ∬𝑆 (3𝑧 𝑖̂ − 2𝑦 2 𝑗̂ + 𝑦𝑧 𝑘̂ ). 𝑖̂ 𝑑𝑆
∬𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗
1 1

= ∬𝑆 3𝑧 𝑑𝑆
1

1 1
= ∫𝑦=0 ∫𝑧=0 3𝑧 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧

1 1 3
= 3 (∫𝑦=0 𝑑𝑦 ) (∫𝑧=0 𝑧 𝑑𝑧) = 2.

On the surface 𝑆2 : 𝑥 = 0, 𝑛̂ = −𝑖̂.

Therefore, ⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 = − ∬ (−2𝑦 2 𝑗̂ + 𝑦𝑧 𝑘̂ ). 𝑖̂ 𝑑𝑆 = 0.

∬𝑆 𝐹
2 𝑆 2

On the surface 𝑆3 : 𝑦 = 1, 𝑛̂ = 𝑗̂.

Therefore, 𝐹 . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 = ∬𝑆 (3𝑥𝑧 𝑖̂ − 2 𝑗̂ + 𝑧 𝑘̂ ). 𝑗̂ 𝑑𝑆
∬𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗
3 3

1 1
= −2 ∫𝑥=0 𝑑𝑥 ∫𝑧=0 𝑑𝑧 = −2.

On the surface 𝑆4 : 𝑦 = 0, 𝑛̂ = −𝑗̂.

Therefore, ⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 = − ∬ (3𝑥𝑧 𝑖̂). 𝑗̂ 𝑑𝑆 = 0.

∬𝑆 𝐹
4 4

On the surface 𝑆5 : 𝑧 = 1, 𝑛̂ = 𝑘̂ .

Therefore, 𝐹 . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 = ∬𝑆 (3𝑥 𝑖̂ − 2𝑦 2 𝑗̂ + 𝑦 𝑘̂ ). 𝑘̂ 𝑑𝑆
∬𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗
5 5

= ∬𝑆 𝑦 𝑑𝑆
5

1 1 1
= (∫𝑥=0 𝑑𝑥 ) (∫𝑦=0 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 ) = .
2

On the surface 𝑆6 : 𝑧 = 0, 𝑛̂ = −𝑘̂ .

Therefore, 𝐹 . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 = − ∬𝑆 (−2𝑦 2 𝑗̂). 𝑘̂ 𝑑𝑆 = 0.

∬𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗
5 5

⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 = 3 + 0 + (−2) + 0 + 1 + 0 = 0.
Hence, (1) gives, ∬𝑆 𝐹
2 2

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
Again, 𝑑𝑖𝑣 ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 = 𝜕𝑥 (3𝑧𝑥) + 𝜕𝑦 (−2𝑦 2 ) + 𝜕𝑧 (𝑦𝑧) = 3𝑧 − 3𝑦.

Let 𝑉 be the volume enclosed by the surface 𝑆.

1 1 1
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ ∫ ∫ 3(𝑧 − 𝑦) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
Then, ∫𝑉 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐹 𝑥=0 𝑦=0 𝑧=0
 1 1 1
= (∫𝑥=0 𝑑𝑥) (∫𝑦=0 {∫𝑧=0 3(𝑧 − 𝑦)𝑑𝑧} 𝑑𝑦 )

1
1 𝑧2
= 3 ∫𝑦=0 [ 2 − 𝑦𝑧] 𝑑𝑦
𝑧=0

1 1
= 3 ∫𝑦=0 (2 − 𝑦) 𝑑𝑦

1
𝑦 𝑦2
= 3[ − ] = 0.
2 2 𝑦=0

⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 = ∫ 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐹
Thus we see that ∫𝑆 𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑉. Hence, Divergence Theorem is verified.∎
𝑉

(ii) Left to the readers.∎

Exercise 2: (i) Use Divergence Theorem to evaluate ∬(𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 𝑖̂ + 𝑧 2 𝑥 𝑗̂ − 𝑥 2 𝑦 𝑘̂ ) . 𝑑𝑆

⃗⃗ over the sphere
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 1 lying in the 1st octant and bounded by the co-ordinate planes.

(ii) Use Divergence theorem to evaluate ∬𝑆 (𝑥 2 𝑖̂ − 𝑦 2 𝑗̂ + 𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝑘̂ ). 𝑑𝑆

⃗⃗ , where 𝑆 is the upper half of the
2 2 2 2
sphere 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 𝑎 bounded by the plane 𝑧 = 0.

⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑧 2 𝑥 𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑥 2 𝑦 𝑘̂ , and 𝑆 be the given surface.

Solution: (i) Let 𝐹

⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑆
By Divergence Theorem, we have ∫𝑆 𝐹 ⃗⃗ = ∫ ∇. 𝐹
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑉 … (1), where 𝑉 is the closed region bounded
𝑉
by 𝑆.

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
Now, ∇. ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 = 𝜕𝑥 (𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧) + 𝜕𝑦 (𝑧 2 𝑥) + 𝜕𝑧 (−𝑥 2 𝑦) = 𝑦 2 𝑧.

⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑆
Therefore, (1) gives, ∫𝑆 𝐹 ⃗⃗ = ∫ 𝑦 2𝑧 𝑑𝑉 …. (2)
𝑉

Let us apply the transformation 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜑 , 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜑, 𝑧 = 𝑟 cos 𝜑.

𝜕(𝑥,𝑦,𝑧)
The Jacobian of this transformation is 𝐽 = 𝜕(𝑟,𝜃,𝜑) = −𝑟 2 sin 𝜑.

Let the above transformation maps 𝑉 onto 𝑉 ′ in (𝑟𝜃𝜑)-space. Then in (𝑟𝜃𝜑)-space, 𝑉 ′ is the rectangle
𝜋 𝜋
[0,1; 0, ; 0, ].
2 2

Hence, from (2) we have ∫𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ = ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑧 𝑑𝑉

𝐹 . 𝑑𝑆 𝑉

= ∫𝑉′ 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜑. 𝑟 cos 𝜑. |𝐽| 𝑑𝑉′

= ∫𝑉′ 𝑟 3 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜑 cos 𝜑 . 𝑟 2 sin 𝜑 𝑑𝑉′

𝜋 𝜋
1
= (∫𝑟=0 𝑟 5 𝑑𝑟) (∫𝜃=0
2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃) (∫𝜑=0
2 sin2 𝜑 cos 𝜑 𝑑𝜑)

𝜋 𝜋
1
𝑟6 1 2 1
=[ ] 2
[− cos 𝜃]𝜃=0 [ sin3 𝜑] = .∎
6 𝑟=0 3 𝜑=0 18
 (ii) Left to the readers.∎

Exercise 3: (i) Use Gauss’ theorem to evaluate ∫𝑆 (𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂ ). 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆, where 𝑆 the closed surface
consisting of the cylinder 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1, bounded by the planes 𝑧 = 0 & 𝑧 = 1.

(ii) Use Gauss’ theorem to evaluate ∫𝑆 (𝑥 2 𝑖̂ + 𝑦 2 𝑗̂ − 𝑧𝑘̂ ). 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆, where 𝑆 the closed surface
consisting of the cylinder 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 , bounded by the planes 𝑧 = 𝑏 & 𝑧 = 𝑐 (𝑏 < 𝑐).

𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐹 = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂ . Then, ∇. ⃗⃗⃗
Solution: Let ⃗⃗⃗ 𝐹 = + + = 3.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Let 𝑉 be the closed region bounded by the given surface 𝑆. Then, by Gauss’ Theorem, we have

⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 = ∫ (∇. 𝐹
∫𝑆 𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗ ) 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ 3 𝑑𝑉 ……. (1).
𝑉 𝑉

Let us switch to cylindrical polar co-ordinate system by applying the transformation

𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃, 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃, 𝑧 = 𝑧.
𝜕(𝑥,𝑦,𝑧)
The Jacobian of this transformation is 𝐽 = 𝜕(𝑟,𝜃,𝑧) = 𝑟.

Let in (𝑟𝜃𝑧)-space, 𝑉 ′ is the region into which 𝑉 is mapped by the above transformation. Then in (𝑟𝜃𝑧)-
space, 𝑉 ′ is the rectangle [0,1; 0,2𝜋; 0,1].

1 2𝜋 1
Hence, (1) gives, ∫𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 = ∫𝑉 3 𝑑𝑉 = 3 ∫𝑉′ |𝐽| 𝑑𝑉 ′ = 3 (∫𝑟=0 𝑟 𝑑𝑟) (∫𝜃=0 𝑑𝜃 ) (∫𝑧=0 𝑑𝑧) = 3𝜋. ∎

(ii) Left to the readers.∎

Exercise 4: (i) Use Gauss’ theorem to evaluate ∫𝑆 (𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂ ). 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆, where 𝑆 the closed surface
consisting of the cone 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑧 2 , bounded by the plane 𝑧 = 1.

(ii) Use Gauss’ theorem to evaluate ∫𝑆 (𝑥 2 𝑖̂ + 𝑦 2 𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂ ). 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆, where 𝑆 the closed surface consisting of
the cone 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑦 2 = 𝑐𝑧 2 , bounded by the plane 𝑧 = 𝑘.

Solution: (i) By Gauss’ Divergence theorem, we have

∫𝑆 (𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂ ). 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 = ∫𝑉 ∇. (𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂ ) 𝑑𝑉 … (1), where 𝑉 is the volume bounded by 𝑆.

[Note that throughout 𝑉, 𝑧 changes from √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 to 1; 𝑦 changes from −√1 − 𝑥 2 to √1 − 𝑥 2 ; and finally
𝑥 runs from −1 to 1. But here, we avoid the integration in Cartesian-coordinate system as this would be a
messy/hard integration problem; Cartesian coordinates give messy integrals when working with spheres
and cones.]

We switch to cylindrical polar co-ordinate system by applying the transformation

𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 , 𝑧 = 𝑧.

𝜕(𝑥,𝑦,𝑧)
The Jacobian of this transformation is 𝐽 = = 𝑟.
𝜕(𝑟,𝜃,𝑧)

Let in (𝑟𝜃𝑧)-space, 𝑉 ′ is the region into which 𝑉 is mapped by the above transformation. Then in (𝑟𝜃𝑧)-
space, 𝑧 ranges from 𝑟 to 1; 𝑟 ranges from 0 to 1 while 𝜃 runs from 0 to 2𝜋 throughout 𝑉 ′ .
 Hence, (1) gives, ∫𝑆 (𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂ ). 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 = ∫𝑉 ∇. (𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂ ) 𝑑𝑉

= ∫𝑉′ 3 |𝐽| 𝑑𝑉′

= 3 ∫𝑉′ 𝑟 𝑑𝑉′

2𝜋 1 1
= 3 (∫𝜃=0 𝑑𝜃 ) (∫𝑟=0 𝑟 {∫𝑧=𝑟 𝑑𝑧} 𝑑𝑟)

1
= 6𝜋 ∫𝑟=0 𝑟(1 − 𝑟) 𝑑𝑟

1
𝑟2 𝑟3
= 6𝜋 [ 2 − 3 ] = 𝜋. ∎
𝑟=0

(ii) Left to the readers.∎

Exercise 5: (i) Use Gauss’ Divergence theorem to evaluate ∫𝑆 (𝑥 2 𝑖̂ + 𝑧𝑥𝑗̂ − 𝑧𝑦𝑘̂ ). 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 ; where 𝑆 is the closed
surface consisting of four planes 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = 0 & 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 1.

(ii) Use Gauss’ Divergence theorem to evaluate ∫𝑆 (𝑥 2 𝑖̂ + 𝑥𝑦𝑗̂ − 𝑧𝑦𝑘̂ ). 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 ; where 𝑆 is the closed
surface consisting of four planes 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = 0 & 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 1.

Solution: (i) By Divergence Theorem, ∫𝑆 (𝑥 2 𝑖̂ + 𝑧𝑥𝑗̂ − 𝑧𝑦𝑘̂ ). 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 = ∫𝑉 ∇. (𝑥 2 𝑖̂ + 𝑧𝑥𝑗̂ − 𝑧𝑦𝑘̂ ) 𝑑𝑉

= ∫𝑉 (2𝑥 − 𝑦) 𝑑𝑉 …… (1); where 𝑉 is the

volume enclosed by 𝑆.

Let us apply Dirichlet's transformation 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 𝑢, 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑣, 𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣𝑤;

i.e. 𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣𝑤, 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑣(1 − 𝑤), 𝑧 = 𝑢(1 − 𝑣).

𝜕(𝑥,𝑦,𝑧)
The Jacobian of this transformation is 𝐽 = 𝜕(𝑢,𝑣,𝑤) = −𝑢2 𝑣.

Let the above transformation maps 𝑉 onto 𝑉 ′ in (𝑢𝑣𝑤)-space. Then, in (𝑢𝑣𝑤)-space 𝑉 ′ is the unit cube
[0, 1; 0, 1; 0, 1].

Then, from (1) we have ∫𝑆 (𝑥 2 𝑖̂ + 𝑧𝑥𝑗̂ − 𝑧𝑦𝑘̂ ). 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 = ∫𝑉 (2𝑥 − 𝑦) 𝑑𝑉

= ∫𝑉′ {2𝑢𝑣𝑤 − 𝑢𝑣(1 − 𝑤)} |𝐽| 𝑑𝑉′

= ∫𝑉′ 𝑢𝑣(3𝑤 − 1) 𝑢2 𝑣 𝑑𝑉′

1 1 1
= (∫𝑢=0 𝑢3 𝑑𝑢) (∫𝑣=0 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑣) (∫𝑤=0(3𝑤 − 1)𝑑𝑤)

1 1 3 1
= 4 . 3 . (2 − 1) = 24 . ∎

(ii) Left to the readers.∎

Exercise 6: Show that ∫𝑆 (𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 ⃗⃗⃗𝐹 ). 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 = 0, where 𝑆 is a closed surface, 𝑛̂ is the outward drawn unit normal
⃗⃗⃗ is any given vector such that its rectangular components have continuous first and
vector to 𝑆, and 𝐹
second order partial derivatives within and on 𝑆.

𝐹 = 𝐹1 𝑖̂ + 𝐹2 𝑗̂ + 𝐹3 𝑘̂ .
Solution: Let ⃗⃗⃗

𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝐹3 𝜕𝐹2
Then, 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 = | 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
| = ∑(
𝜕𝑦
− 𝜕𝑧
) 𝑖̂.
𝐹1 𝐹2 𝐹3

𝜕 𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹2 𝜕 𝜕𝐹1 𝜕𝐹3 𝜕 𝜕𝐹2 𝜕𝐹1

Therefore, 𝑑𝑖𝑣 (𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹̂ ) = 𝜕𝑥 ( 𝜕𝑦3 − 𝜕𝑧
)+
𝜕𝑦
(
𝜕𝑧
− 𝜕𝑥
)+
𝜕𝑧
(
𝜕𝑥
− 𝜕𝑦
)

𝜕2𝐹 𝜕2𝐹 𝜕2𝐹 𝜕2𝐹 𝜕2𝐹 𝜕2𝐹

= 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦3 − 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑧2 + 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑧1 − 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥3 + 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑥2 − 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑦1

= 0, Since 𝐹1 , 𝐹2 , 𝐹3 have continuous first and second order partial derivatives

𝜕 2 𝐹3 𝜕2𝐹
within and on 𝑆, we have 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦
= 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥3 , etc.

Now, if 𝑉 be the closed region bounded by 𝑆, then by applying Gauss’ Divergence theorem on 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹,
we have

∫𝑆 (𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 ). 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 = ∫𝑉 (𝑑𝑖𝑣 (𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹̂ )) 𝑑𝑉 = ∫𝑉 0 𝑑𝑉 = 0. ∎

⃗⃗⃗ be normal to the surface 𝑆 bounding the region 𝑉 in which 𝐹

Exercise 7: If the vector field 𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗ has continuous first
derivatives, then prove that ∫ ∇ × 𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑉 = 0
⃗⃗ .
𝑉

⃗⃗⃗
𝐹
Solution: As the vector field ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 be normal to the surface 𝑆, the outward drawn unit normal to 𝑆 is given by 𝑛̂ = |𝐹⃗⃗⃗ |.

⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐹1 𝑖̂ + 𝐹2 𝑗̂ + 𝐹3 𝑘̂ .
Let 𝐹

𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝐹3 𝜕𝐹2
⃗⃗⃗ = |
Then, 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹 | = ∑( − ) 𝑖̂.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐹1 𝐹2 𝐹3

𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹2 𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹2
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ {∑ ( 3 −
Therefore, ∫𝑉 ∇ × 𝐹 ) 𝑖̂} 𝑑𝑉 = ∑ 𝑖̂ ∫𝑉 ( 3 − ) 𝑑𝑉 …… (1)
𝑉 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝐹3 𝜕𝐹2
Now, ∫𝑉 ( − ) 𝑑𝑉 = ∫𝑉 ∇. (0𝑖̂ + 𝐹3 𝑗̂ − 𝐹2 𝑘̂ ) 𝑑𝑉
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

= ∫𝑆 (0𝑖̂ + 𝐹3 𝑗̂ − 𝐹2 𝑘̂ ). 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆, by Divergence Theorem.

⃗⃗⃗
𝐹
= ∫𝑆 (0𝑖̂ + 𝐹3 𝑗̂ − 𝐹2 𝑘̂ ). |𝐹⃗⃗⃗ | 𝑑𝑆

1 1
= ∫𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗ |
(0𝑖̂ + 𝐹3 𝑗̂ − 𝐹2 𝑘̂ ). (𝐹1 𝑖̂ + 𝐹2 𝑗̂ + 𝐹3 𝑘̂ ) 𝑑𝑆 = ∫𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗ |
(𝐹3 𝐹2 − 𝐹2 𝐹3 )𝑑𝑆 = 0.
|𝐹 |𝐹
 𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹3 𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹1
Likewise, ∫𝑉 ( 𝜕𝑧1 − 𝜕𝑥
) 𝑑𝑉 = ∫𝑉 ( 2 −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
) 𝑑𝑉 = 0.

⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑉 = 0𝑖̂ + 0𝑗̂ + 0𝑘̂ .∎

Hence, (1) gives, ∫𝑉 ∇ × 𝐹

⃗⃗⃗ having continuous first derivatives within and on a closed surface 𝑆,

Note: It can be proved that for a vector field 𝐹
∫𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 × 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 = ∫𝑉 ∇ × ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 𝑑𝑉 , where 𝑉 is the region bounded by 𝑆 and 𝑛̂ is the outward drawn unit normal to 𝑆. This
⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 = ∫ ∇. 𝐹
result looks like Divergence Theorem: ∫𝑆 𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑉.
𝑉

⃗⃗ = 0
Exercise 8: For any closed surface 𝑆, prove that ∫𝑆 𝑆 ⃗⃗ .

Solution: Let 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗ be an arbitrary constant vector.

Applying Divergence Theorem on 𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗ we have ∫𝑆 𝑎

⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 = ∫𝑉 ∇. 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑉 … . (1), where 𝑛̂ is the outward
drawn unit normal to 𝑆, and 𝑉 is the region bounded by 𝑆.

Since 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗ is a constant vector, ∇. 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗ = 0.

Therefore, (1) gives, ∫𝑆 𝑎

⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 = 0

⇒𝑎
⃗⃗⃗ . ∫𝑆 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 = 0, as 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗ is a constant vector, it comes out from the integration sign.

⇒𝑎 ⃗⃗ = 0.
⃗⃗⃗ . ∫𝑠 𝑑𝑆

Since the above holds for any arbitrary constant vector 𝑎 ⃗⃗ = 0

⃗⃗⃗ , we must have ∫𝑠 𝑑𝑆 ⃗⃗ . ∎

⃗⃗ = 0.
Exercise 9: Show that ∫𝑆 (∇𝑢 × ∇𝑣). 𝑑𝑆

⃗⃗ = ∫ ∇. (∇𝑢 × ∇𝑣) 𝑑𝑉 …… (1)

Solution: By Divergence Theorem, ∫𝑆 (∇𝑢 × ∇𝑣). 𝑑𝑆 𝑉

Now, ∇. (∇𝑢 × ∇𝑣) = ∇𝑣. (∇ × (∇𝑢)) − ∇𝑢. (∇ × (∇𝑣)) = 0, as ∇ × (∇𝑢) = ∇ × (∇𝑣) = ⃗0⃗ .

⃗⃗ = ∫ ∇. (∇𝑢 × ∇𝑣) 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ 0 𝑑𝑉 = 0. ∎
Hence, (1) gives, ∫𝑆 (∇𝑢 × ∇𝑣). 𝑑𝑆 𝑉 𝑉

⃗⃗⃗ & ∇2 𝑓 = 0, show that ∫ 𝐹

Exercise 10: If ∇𝑓 = 𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗ 2 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ 𝑓𝐹
⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆, where 𝑆 is a closed surface enclosing the
𝑉 𝑆
region 𝑉.

Solution: We have, by Divergence Theorem,

⃗⃗⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 = ∫ ∇. (𝑓𝐹
∫𝑆 𝑓𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗ ) 𝑑𝑉
𝑉

= ∫𝑉 (𝑓 ∇. ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 + ∇𝑓. ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 ) 𝑑𝑉

= ∫𝑉 (𝑓 ∇. (∇𝑓) + ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 . ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 ) 𝑑𝑉, as ∇𝑓 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹.

⃗⃗⃗ 2 𝑑𝑉, as ∇. (∇𝑓) = ∇2 𝑓 = 0. ∎

= ∫𝑉 𝐹
Exercise 11: Use Divergence theorem to show that ∫𝑉 ∇ × ⃗⃗𝑏⃗ 𝑑𝑉 = ∫𝑆 𝑛̂ × ⃗⃗𝑏⃗ 𝑑𝑆.

⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗⃗ ) to have

Solution: Let 𝑐⃗⃗ be an arbitrary constant vector. Apply Divergence Theorem on (𝑏

⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗⃗ ). 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 = ∫ ∇. (𝑏
∫𝑆 (𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗⃗ ) 𝑑𝑉 …….. (1)
𝑉

⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗⃗ ). 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝑆 = ∫ 𝑐⃗⃗ . (𝑛̂ × ⃗⃗𝑏⃗ ) 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑐⃗⃗ . ∫ 𝑛̂ × ⃗⃗𝑏⃗ 𝑑𝑆 … . (2), as 𝑐⃗⃗ is a constant vector, it
Now, ∫𝑆 (𝑏 𝑆 𝑆
comes out from the integration sign.

⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗⃗ ) 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ (𝑐⃗⃗ . {∇ × 𝑏

Also, ∫𝑉 ∇. (𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗ }– 𝑏
⃗⃗⃗ . {∇ × 𝑐⃗⃗ }) 𝑑𝑉
𝑉

= ∫𝑉 𝑐⃗⃗ . {∇ × ⃗⃗𝑏⃗ } 𝑑𝑉, as 𝑐⃗⃗ is a constant vector, ∇ × 𝑐⃗⃗ = ⃗0⃗ .

= 𝑐⃗⃗ . ∫𝑉 ∇ × ⃗⃗𝑏⃗ 𝑑𝑉 … . . (3), as 𝑐⃗⃗ is a constant vector, it comes out from the
integration sign.

⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑐⃗⃗ . ∫ 𝑛̂ × 𝑏
By (2) & (3), (1) would imply, 𝑐⃗⃗ . ∫𝑉 ∇ × 𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑆.
𝑆

Since the above holds for any constant vector 𝑐⃗⃗ , we must have ∫𝑉 ∇ × ⃗⃗𝑏⃗ 𝑑𝑉 = ∫𝑆 𝑛̂ × ⃗⃗𝑏⃗ 𝑑𝑆.∎

References:

1. Chakravorty, J.G. & Ghosh, P.R.; Vector Analysis, U.N. Dhur & Sons Pvt. Ltd., 6e, 1997.

2. Khan, R.M.; Analytical Geometry of Two and Three Dimensions & Vector Analysis, Books & Allied (P)
Ltd., 4e (Revised) 2002.

3. Website: usrs.math.msu.edu

Mob: 9851800631

Email ID: pq.deep@gmail.com