Road Materials and Pavement Design

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Mechanical and microstructural properties of

pavement quality concrete using both Class-F fly-
ash and copper slag

Abinash Chandra Pal, Mahabir Panda & Prasanta Kumar Bhuyan

To cite this article: Abinash Chandra Pal, Mahabir Panda & Prasanta Kumar Bhuyan
(13 Oct 2023): Mechanical and microstructural properties of pavement quality concrete
using both Class-F fly-ash and copper slag, Road Materials and Pavement Design, DOI:
10.1080/14680629.2023.2266844

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Published online: 13 Oct 2023.

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ROAD MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN
https://doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2023.2266844

Mechanical and microstructural properties of pavement quality

concrete using both Class-F fly-ash and copper slag
Abinash Chandra Pal, Mahabir Panda and Prasanta Kumar Bhuyan
Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Rourkela, India

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

This research deals with the improvement in the mechanical properties of Received 15 November 2022
pavement quality concrete (PQC) when mixed with Class-F Fly-Ash (FA) and Accepted 22 September 2023
Copper Slag (CS) as replacements for ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and KEYWORDS
river sand (RS), respectively. Forty-eight different PQC mixes of M40 and Copper slag; fly-ash;
M50 grades were prepared, in which RS is replaced by CS to the extent of pavement quality concrete;
100%, and OPC is replaced by FA to the extent of 30%, with each replace- compressive strength;
ment done at a certain increment. The combined effects of CS and FA flexural strength; UPV
on fresh and hardened concrete properties such as workability, density,
water absorption, volume of voids, cube compressive strength, split tensile
strength, flexural strength, cylinder compressive strength and ultrasonic
pulse velocity (UPV) are experimentally investigated. All mixes containing
up to 20% FA and up to 100% CS replacements showed increased strength
compared with that of the control mix. The PQC mix containing 20% FA and
60% CS resulted in superior strength properties at a 90-day curing period.
However, PQC mixes with 30% FA showed a decrease in strength properties
with respect to the control mix. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning elec-
tron microscope (SEM) studies were employed for the characterisation of
selected PQC samples. Furthermore, multiple linear regression equations
were established to predict all the strength parameters. The PQC mixes
made with FA and CS provide superior strength, reduce waste disposal
problems and preserve natural resources for future generations, making
such developed mixes sustainable.

1. Introduction
Roads contribute immensely to a country’s employment, health, education and other services. Com-
pared with flexible pavements, rigid pavements are more durable, require less maintenance and
decrease costs by 35% during their service life (Di Mascio et al., 2019). Rigid pavements lower fuel
consumption by 3.2% for passenger vehicles and 4.5% for heavyweight vehicles. The main hydraulic
binders in rigid pavements cause 5–7% CO2 emissions, leading to global warming. United Nations
Environment Programme reported that by using industrial wastes like fly ash (FA) and blast furnace
slag, cement companies will cut CO2 emissions by 40% by 2050. The concrete industry also faces
problems owing to increased urbanisation and limited natural resources (Badkul et al., 2022).
Natural resource conservation, sustainable development and environmental awareness in modern
construction projects are the key priorities in today’s world. Construction materials have a significant
impact on sustainability due to the large amounts of raw materials and energy they demand (Chan-
drappa & Biligiri, 2016; Elizondo-Martínez et al., 2020). These operations require a lot of energy and

CONTACT Abinash Chandra Pal acpnitr1009@gmail.com

© 2023 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group

2 A. C. PAL ET AL.

create greenhouse gases, preventing ‘green materials’, ‘sustainable development’ and ‘eco-efficient
structures’. The use of waste and recycled materials reduces natural resource usage. Using industrial
wastes in construction sectors reduces waste disposal difficulties, pollution and cost of materials. Due
to sustainability concerns, the construction sector is urged to use waste materials such as aggregates
and cementing materials (Alaskar et al., 2021).
Growing industries have needed more waste disposal in recent decades (Afshoon & Sharifi, 2020;
Sharifi et al., 2020). Increasing population and technology contribute to more product demand, which
increases industrial waste by-products. Copper slag (CS) is a by-product of copper extraction; for every
tonne of copper, 2.2–3 tonnes of slag are produced (Khanzadi & Behnood, 2009). China, Japan, Chile,
Russia and India contributed 56% of waste copper slag (WCS) in 2015; other nations produced 44%
(Sharma & Khan, 2018). This would generate 100 million cubic metres of concrete with the desired
performance, durability and strength at 50% natural sand replacement (Lye et al., 2015). Globally,
approximately 30 million tonnes of CS from copper smelting are dumped in nature. Due to the lim-
ited space and high cost of dumping, protecting the green nature from CS waste from dumping is a
key issue for this environment (Khanzadi & Behnood, 2009). A small quantity of CS is used to make
tile, ceiling granules, glass, abrasive tools, highway bases, asphalt pavement, rail ballast, sandblasting,
embankment, filler aggregate, drainage, mortar and concrete aggregate and cement replacement (Shi
et al., 2008).
Waste products from many industries are used to make sustainable concrete. Using industrial waste
in concrete is acknowledged by the construction sector (Ambily et al., 2015). Aggregate takes around
55–80% of concrete volume. Fine aggregate is frequently collected from rivers and coarse aggregate
from natural stone quarries, which causes environmental degradation (Al-Jabri et al., 2009a). There-
fore, CS, as an industrial waste, might be used as concrete ingredients, which can help protect this
natural environment to some extent. Khanzadi and Behnood (2009) found that high-strength con-
crete increased compressive strength by 10–15% and split tensile strength by 10–18%. Lori et al. (2019)
found that 60% CS as coarse aggregate in concrete was the best combination, with a 31% improve-
ment in compressive strength, 18% in split tensile strength and 19% in flexural strength. Sharifi et al.
(2020) found that the 100% substituted self-compacting concrete (SCC) mix increased compressive,
split tensile and flexural strength by 27%, 29% and 26%, respectively, in 28 days. 100% replaced CS
concrete had 36% less drying shrinkage and 6% less water absorption. CS concrete costs 19% less
than the control mix.
Al-Jabri et al. (2009a) observed a 5% increase in concrete density and a 40% decrease in surface
water absorption of CS concrete. dos Anjos et al. (2017) and Wu et al. (2010) recommended 40% CS
replacement as optimum for Portland concrete and high-strength concrete, respectively. Ambily et al.
(2015) observed that ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) with CS as natural sand had a compres-
sive strength of 150 MPa, but 100% substitution lowered compressive strength by 15–25%. Chithra
et al. (2016) examined the mechanical and durability parameters of high-performance concrete (HPC)
with 40% CS as sand replacement and 0.5–3% Nano silica as cement replacement. The blend enhanced
strength and durability at 2% Nano silica. Gupta and Siddique (2019) observed gaps, perforations and
micro-fractures after 50% CS replacement and decreased SCC strength at 30%. Ameri et al. (2020)
used CS as natural RS in steel fibre-reinforced high-strength concrete, and at 60% CS substitution, the
mix had substantially higher strength than the control mix. Rasoul Abdar Esfahani et al. (2020) found
that concrete with 100% CS and 60% GGBS replacements for sand cement, respectively, exceeded the
required strength criteria.
FA is primarily found in power plants as by-product of coal combustion. According to the report
of the Central Electricity Authority (CEA), 226.13 million tons of FA were generated in 2019–2020 in
India. The report says that 187.81 million tons of FA were used in different sectors. The unutilised FA
should be used more effectively to leave no burden on the environment. The following paragraph
describes the utilisation of FA in different types of paving concrete. Kumar et al. (2007) found that con-
crete mix with 60% OPC and 40% FA has greater strength after 90 days. FA reduced drying shrinkage
and abrasion resistance. Kabay et al. (2015) observed that concrete with FA had equivalent strength
 ROAD MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN 3

to control concrete, while water absorption and voids decreased with durability. Rafieizonooz et al.
(2016) also noted that replacing sand and bottom ash with FA in concrete improves mechanical prop-
erties. Adamu et al. (2018) found that the optimal concrete mix with 10% crumb rubber replacing fine
aggregate, 53.72% FA replacing cement and 1.22% nano-silica as an addition increases mechanical
and durability properties. Lam et al. (2018) observed that 100% EAF slag aggregate and 20% FA in
concrete met pavement strength parameters at a later age. FA replacement reduces strength by 20%.
Pozzolanic reaction prevented EAF slag concrete expansion. Nežerka et al. (2019) reported that FA
works better than silica fume and metakaolin on concrete’s interfacial transition zone (ITZ). FA or sil-
ica fume replaces 10–20% of Portland cement in the concrete mix to improve ITZ around aggregates,
strengthening and durability. Choudhary et al. (2020) observed better mechanical and microstruc-
tural features of high-strength self-compacting concrete containing 10% marble-cutting slurry waste,
15% FA and 5% silica fume. Alaskar et al. (2021) concluded that waste polypropylene fibres and palm
oil fuel ash increased concrete abrasion and skid resistance. Alkali-activated FA and ground granu-
lated blast furnace slag increased pavement quality geopolymer concrete mechanical and durability
properties, according to Badkul et al. (2022). Titiksh and Wanjari (2021) concluded that a unique super
plasticiser increased compressive strength by 15% in 100% FA concrete after 28 days. FA densified
concrete microstructure for durability.
Based on available literature some of which have been highlighted above, it is seen that consider-
able works have been done on utilisation of industrial wastes like FA and CS as individual replacement
of cement and RS respectively, in various types of concrete. However, no study has been done using
FA and CS together for paving quality concrete. PQC behaves differently from ordinary concrete
with respect to its variation in the proportioning of ingredients, aggregate size distribution and mix-
ing/casting procedure. So, detailed investigations on PQC mixes with FA and CS together replacing
cement and RS respectively, need to be made. Furthermore, considering the beneficial effects of using
FA and CS individually in different types of concrete, the present study has been motivated. Therefore,
the main objective of this study is to develop a sustainable PQC mix on the basis of investigation of
the mechanical and microstructural characteristics of PQC mixes utilising FA and CS as replacements
for cement and RS, respectively. Hence, the scope of the present research work includes:

• Material collection and characterisations.

• Design of mixes of M40 and M50 grade PQC by considering different percentages of FA and CS as
replacements of cement and RS, respectively per IRC: 44 (2017).
• Investigation on combined effects of FA and CS replacing cement and RS, on workability, density,
water absorption, volume of voids, compressive strength, flexural strength, split tensile strength,
cylinder compressive strength and ultrasonic pulse velocity of PQC.
• Investigation on microstructural properties of PQC using FA and CS.
• Statistical modelling on predicting strength test results of PQC

2. Experimental description
This experimental study is divided into two sections. The first section includes material characterisa-
tion, design of M40 and M50 grade PQC mixes and assessment of different engineering properties of
the above PQC mixes with and without FA and CS as a substitution of OPC and RS, respectively. The
second section examines the microstructural study of optimal PQC blends using XRD and SEM. The
following sub-sections show the detailed descriptions of this experimental study.

2.1. Characterisation of materials

2.1.1. Binders
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) of 53 grade conforming to IS: 269 (2015) procured locally, and fly ash
(FA) confirming to IS: 3812 (Part-I) 2013 collected from the Rourkela steel plant (RSP), Odisha, India,
4 A. C. PAL ET AL.

Table 1. Physical properties of OPC 53 grade.

Recommended value
Properties Test method Test result IS: 269 (2015)
Appearance – Greenish grey –
Specific Gravity IS:4031 (P-11) 1988 3.14 –
Consistency (%) IS:4031 (P-4) 1988 29 –
Initial Setting Time (minutes) IS:4031 (P-5) 1988 90 Min 30
Final Setting Time (minutes) IS:4031 (P-5) 1988 340 Max 600
Soundness (mm) IS:4031 (P-3) 1988 1 Max 10
Fineness (specific surface) (m2 /kg) IS:4031 (P-2) 1999 310 Min 225
Compressive strength (MPa) IS:4031 (P-6) 1988
3 days 27.08 Min 27
7 days 37.74 Min 37
28 days 54.41 Min 53

Table 2. Physical properties of FA used.

Recommended value
Properties Test method Test result IS: 3812 (Part-I) (2013)
Appearance – Light grey –
Specific gravity IS:1727 1967 2.24 –
Fineness (specific surface) (m2 /kg) IS:1727 1967 330 Min 320
Particles retained on 45-micron IS sieve (%) – 22.93 Max 34
28-day compressive strength (MPa) IS:1727 1967 44.28 Min 43.53
Soundness (%) IS:4031(P-3) 1988 0.32 Max 0.8

Table 3. Chemical compositions of ingredients used (OPC, FA, RS and CS).

Concentration, %

Material/Composition OPC FA RS CS
Al2 O3 5.27 31.93 4.29 7.64
CaO 66.02 4.29 0.49 4.05
Fe2 O3 3.51 5.22 1.54 54.87
K2 O 0.55 0.79 1.27 1.62
MgO 1.16 0.82 0.25 0.57
MnO 0.17 0.12 0.03 0.01
Na2 O 0.02 0.24 2.05 0.42
P2 O5 0.19 0.57 0.01 0.55
SiO2 18.90 51.72 87.61 26.13
SO3 1.10 1.16 0.26 0.11
TiO2 0.34 0.57 0.77 0.2
LOI 2.77 2.57 1.43 3.83

were used for the preparation of the PQC mixes. Different standard tests have been conducted in
the laboratory for the determination of various physical properties of binders as per relevant code
provisions. Tables 1 and 2 represent the physical properties of OPC and FA used, respectively.
The chemical composition of OPC and FA was determined by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy
as presented in Table 3. It can be found that the OPC mainly consists of the oxides of Ca, Al, Si and Fe
and the FA mainly consists of the oxides of Si, Al, Fe and Ca. The summation of chemical components
(SiO2 , Al2 O3, and Fe2 O3 ) for FA was found to be more than 70% which confirmed that the FA is class F
as per IS: 3812 (Part-I) 2013.
To determine the phase composition of OPC and FA, X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis was performed
by Bruker D8 advance device with the following parameters as a set: monochromatic Co kα radia-
tion of 1.79026 Å wavelength in the range of 5°–90° of 2θ range, step size of 0.02° and a scan rate of
10°/min and functioning at 35 kV and 25 mA. Figure 1 (a) and (b) show the XRD image of OPC and FA,
respectively. The main components found in OPC were Alite, Belite and Portalindite while FA mainly
 ROAD MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN 5

Figure 1. XRD of (a) OPC and (b) FA.

Figure 2. SEM image of FA.

consist of Quatrz, Mulite, Andradite and Hematite. Furthermore, the surface morphology of FA used
was examined by using scanning electron microscopy (JEOL 6480LV) as shown in Figure 2.

2.1.2. Aggregates
Crushed granite stone chips of maximum nominal size 19 mm conforming to IRC: 44 2017, collected
from a local crusher unit, were used as coarse aggregate (CA). Different physical properties of CA were
determined as per relevant Indian standard codes provisions and are tabulated in Table 4.
River sand (RS), used as fine aggregate, was collected from the Koel river bed, Rourkela, Odisha,
India. Copper slag (CS) was procured from Hindustan Copper Limited, Ghatshila, Jharkhand, India.
The particle size distribution of RS and CS was performed according to IRC: 44 (2017) as presented
in Figure 3. The other physical and mechanical properties were determined as per the relevant Indian
standard codes as tabulated in Table 5. The chemical compositions of RS and CS were determined
using X-ray fluorescence (XRF), and are presented in Table 3. It can be observed that the RS mainly
comprises oxides of Si, Al and Fe whereas CS mainly comprises oxides of Fe, Si, Al and Ca. The XRD
6 A. C. PAL ET AL.

Table 4. Physical properties of CA.

Test result

Recommended value
(IS: 383 (2016)/ MoRTH
Properties Test methods 19 mm 9.5 mm [2013])
Specific Gravity IS:2386 (P-III) 1963 2.75 2.72 –
Water Absorption (%) IS:2386 (P-III) 1963 0.33 0.6 Max 2
Soundness (%) IS:2386 (P-V) 1963 5.7 5.4 Max 12
Aggregate Crushing Value (%) IS:2386 (P-IV) 1963 16.94 – Max 30
Aggregate Impact Value (%) IS:2386 (P-IV) 1963 15.17 – Max 30
Los Angeles Abrasion Value (%) IS:2386 (P-IV) 1963 24.8 – Max 30
Combined FI and EI (%) MoRTH (2013) 29.01 30.85 Max 40
Bulk Density (kg/m3 ) IS:2386 (P-III) 1963 1364.67 1342.67 –
Compacted Bulk Density (kg/m3 ) IS:2386 (P-III) 1963 1558.67 1573.67 –

Figure 3. Particle size distribution curve of RS, CS, CA (19 mm) and CA (9.5 mm).

images of RS and CS are shown in Figure 4. From XRD analysis it is confirmed that RS mainly consists of
microcline and disodium catena disilicate whereas CS mainly consists of fayalite, magnetite and hatru-
rite. Similarly, the surface morphology/internal structure of CS was found through scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) as presented in Figure 5.

2.1.3. Water (W)

Normal laboratory tap water free from deleterious materials conforming to IS: 10500 (2012) was used
in this research for the preparation of PQC mixes.

2.1.4. Admixture (Ad )

Perma Plast PC 405 was used as a superplasticiser with a specific gravity of 1.08. This is a low0viscosity
and high water-reducing admixture that is based on hyper-plasticising polycarboxylic ether polymers.
It has a straw-coloured appearance and a minimum pH of 5.6. Chlorides and nitrate contents are found
to be nil.
 ROAD MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN 7

Figure 4. XRD of (a) RS and (b) CS.

Figure 5. SEM image of CS.

2.2. Mix design and proportioning

To determine the effect of FA and CS on the performances of PQC mixes, forty-eight numbers of mixes
were prepared for both M40 and M50 grades of PQC. The conventional PQC mixes (designed as per IRC:
44 2017) prepared with cement, RS and coarse aggregate without any replacement was termed control
mix. Other PQC mixes were prepared with different combinations such as 10%, 20%, 30% replacement
of OPC with FA and 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and 100% replacement of RS with CS. Due to the higher
specific gravity of CS compared to RS, the replacement of CS was done by volumetric analysis to get
the required volume of both grades of PQC mixes. The nomenclatures of forty-eight PQC mixes are
presented in Table 6 with respect to different percentages of FA and CS. All the mixes were designed
with surface-saturated dry aggregates as per the above guidelines. The workability of the conventional
mix was maintained constant by keeping the slump 25 ± 10 mm. The detailed mix design proportions
for 1 m3 of M40 and M50 grade PQC are presented in Table 7.
8 A. C. PAL ET AL.

Table 5. Physical properties of RS and CS.

Test result

Recommended value
Properties Test method RS CS (IS: 383 2016)
Appearance – Light grey Black, glassy texture –
Specific Gravity IS:2386 (P-III) 1963 2.58 3.91 –
Water Absorption (%) IS:2386 (P-III) 1963 1 0.34 Max 2
Fineness Modulus – 2.24 3.35 –
Soundness (%) IS:2386 (P-V) 1963 4.8 3.4 Max 10
Bulk Density (kg/m3 ) IS:2386 (P-III) 1963 1464.67 2412.67 –
Compacted Bulk Density (kg/m3 ) IS:2386 (P-III) 1963 1668.67 2671.33 –

Table 6. Mix designations of both M40 and M50-grade PQC mixes.

Replacement of OPC Replacement of OPC

and RS with FA and and RS with FA and
Mix ID (M40) CS (%) Mix ID (M50) CS (%)
4F0c0 0&0 5F0c0 0&0
4F0c2 0 & 20 5F0c2 0 & 20
4F0c4 0 & 40 5F0c4 0 & 40
4F0c6 0 & 60 5F0c6 0 & 60
4F0c8 0 & 80 5F0c8 0 & 80
4F0c10 0 & 100 5F0c10 0 & 100
4F1c0 10 & 0 5F1c0 10 & 0
4F1c2 10 & 20 5F1c2 10 & 20
4F1c4 10 & 40 5F1c4 10 & 40
4F1c6 10 & 60 5F1c6 10 & 60
4F1c8 10 & 80 5F1c8 10 & 80
4F1c10 10 & 100 5F1c10 10 & 100
4F2c0 20 & 0 5F2c0 20 & 0
4F2c2 20 & 20 5F2c2 20 & 20
4F2c4 20 & 40 5F2c4 20 & 40
4F2c6 20 & 60 5F2c6 20 & 60
4F2c8 20 & 80 5F2c8 20 & 80
4F2c10 20 & 100 5F2c10 20 & 100
4F3c0 30 & 0 5F3c0 30 & 0
4F3c2 30 & 20 5F3c2 30 & 20
4F3c4 30 & 40 5F3c4 30 & 40
4F3c6 30 & 60 5F3c6 30 & 60
4F3c8 30 & 80 5F3c8 30 & 80
4F3c10 30 & 100 5F3c10 30 & 100

Table 7. Mix composition for 1 m3 of M40 and M50-grade PQC.

PQC grade OPC (kg) RS (kg) CA (kg) W (kg) Ad (kg)
M40 400 772 1169 144 2.4
M50 420 765 1148 144 3.78

2.3. Casting and curing

For the preparation of concrete specimens of respective PQC mixes, the following procedure was fol-
lowed. The ingredient materials, such as cement, RS/CS and coarse aggregate, were mixed dry for
about 2 min in the laboratory concrete mixer. Separately, the required amount of admixture was uni-
formly mixed with a required quantity of water. The solution of water and admixture was slowly poured
into the dry mix of other ingredients inside the concrete mixer. The concrete mixer was rotated again
for about 3–5 min to produce the PQC of desired consistency. The required quantity of fresh PQC was
transferred into the respective moulds (inside surface applied with Mobil oil of medium density). The
mould with fresh concrete was then placed on the vibrating table, and the specimen was compacted
 ROAD MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN 9

for about 2 min till no settling of fresh concrete was observed. The specimen was removed from the
moulds after 24 h and then placed inside a water tank at 27 ± 2 °C temperature for a curing period of
90 days. At least three specimens for each PQC mix were prepared.

2.4. Testing methods

For the evaluation of different PQC mixes various codes/specifications were followed as described
below. The results of each of the above tests have been represented in this paper as the mean of corre-
sponding test results of three replicate specimens. The results are categorised into three subsections
such as physical properties, mechanical properties and microstructural properties as described below.

2.4.1. Physical properties of PQC

2.4.1.1. Workability. The workability was measured for freshly produced PQC, in terms of slump
value as per IS: 1199 (1959). The slump measured was recorded in terms of millimetres of subsidence
of the concrete specimen during the test.

2.4.1.2. Density, water absorption and volume of voids. The density, water absorption and vol-
ume of voids of PQC mixes were performed on a 100 mm-size concrete cube as per ASTM C642-21.
The following equations are used to evaluate density, water absorption and volume of voids of PQC
specimens:

W1
Density (kN/m3 ) = ×ρ (1)
W3 − W4
W2 − W1
Water absorption (%) = × 100 (2)
W1
W3 − W1
Volume of voids (%) = × 100 (3)
W3 − W4

where W1 = dry mass of cube specimens in N; W2 = submerged mass of cube specimens in

water after 24 h in N; W3 = boiled mass of cube specimens after 5 h boiling in water in N and
W4 = suspended mass of cube specimens in water in N; ρ = density of water in kN/m3

2.4.2. Mechanical properties of PQC

2.4.2.1. Compressive strength. The cube compressive strength test was conducted on 150 mm
concrete cube specimens at a curing period of 7, 28 and 90 days by applying compressive load at
14 N/mm2 /minute in a 200 Ton capacity compression testing machine (CTM) as per IS:516 Part-1/Sec-1
(2021).

2.4.2.2. Flexural strength. The flexural strength test was performed on 100 mm × 100 mm × 500-
mm concrete prism specimens at a curing period of 28 and 90 days by applying two-point loading at
a rate of 0.7 N/mm2 /minute in a 100 kN capacity flexural testing machine as per IS: 516 Part-1/Sec-1
(2021).

2.4.2.3. Split tensile strength. The split tensile strength test was done on a 150 mm diame-
ter × 300 mm height cylinder at a curing period of 28 days by applying the horizontal load between
the two platens of CTM at a rate of 1.2–2.4 N/mm2 /minute till the failure (IS: 516 Part-1/Sec-1 2021).

2.4.2.4. Cylinder compressive strength. The cylinder compressive strength test was done on
150 mm diameter × 300 mm height concrete cylindrical specimens at a curing period of 28 days by
applying the horizontal load between the two platens of CTM at a loading rate of 14 N/mm2 /minute
till the failure of specimen as per ASTM C39/C39M-21.
10 A. C. PAL ET AL.

2.4.2.5. Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV). To assess the quality of PQC, a UPV test was performed
on 150 mm concrete cube specimens after 90 days of water curing using a standard UPV apparatus
following the guidelines mentioned in IS: 516 Part-5/Sec-1 (2021).

2.4.3. Microstructural properties of PQC

2.4.3.1. XRD analysis. The phase composition of PQC mix samples at 28 days and 90 days of cur-
ing was studied by performing the X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. This analysis is carried out on the
90-micron sieved powdered samples taken from hardened concrete samples after performing the
compressive strength test at 28-day and 90-day curings. For this, Bruker D8 advance device was used
with the following parameters as a set: monochromatic Co kα radiation of 1.79026 Å wavelength in
the range of 5°–90° of 2θ range, a step size of 0.02° and a scan rate of 10°/min and functioning at
35 kV and 25 mA. Different phases were detected by using the commercially available software ‘XPERT
HIGHSCORE PLUS 3.0’.

2.4.3.2. SEM analysis. SEM analysis was performed on the platinum-coated surface of the mortar
sample obtained from the inner core of the PQC specimens after performing the compressive strength
test. The specimens were placed over the SEM stub and secondary electronic images were taken.

3. Results and discussions

3.1. Results on physical properties of PQC mixes
3.1.1. Workability
The variation of slump values of both M40 and M50 grade PQC mixes containing varying percentages
of FA and CS is presented in Figure 6 (a) and (b), respectively. It is seen from the figure that, the slump
of PQC mixes containing only CS increased. Slump values for the control mix of M40 and M50 grade
PQC mixes were 20 and 19 mm, respectively. Similar values of slump were observed for the control mix
by Al-Jabri et al. (2009a) and Al-Jabri et al. (2009b). There is a steep increase in slump value up to the
extent of about 60% for M40 and M50 grades of PQC mixes compared to that of the control mix. This
significant improvement in workability with increasing CS is mostly because of its low water absorp-
tion characteristics, smooth glassy texture and greater specific mass than natural RS, which increases
flowability (Al-Jabri et al., 2009a, 2009b and dos Anjos et al., 2017). Most studies demonstrate that the
smoother surface of CS lowers the shear strength of the concrete mixture and increases its fluidity (Al-
Jabri et al., 2011; Bhoi et al., 2018; Gupta & Siddique, 2019; Wu et al., 2010). It should be noted that a
high amount of CS in concrete causes bleeding and segregation, which can have a negative impact
on concrete’s performance. However, the addition of FA in PQC mixes decreased the slump value as
well as the bleeding and segregation potential for PQC mixes of both grades. There is a reduction of
slump value up to at least 40% as compared with the control mix. FA particles’ finer and porous shape
increases inter-particle friction, which obstructs the concrete flow. For a constant w/b ratio, increas-
ing FA reduces concrete workability (Choudhary et al., 2020; Kabay et al., 2015; Rafieizonooz et al.,
2016 and Badkul et al., 2022). Workability does not directly improve the performance of pavement, it
improves the compaction and enhances the homogeneity and bonding of concrete which contribute
to the quality, durability and long-term performance of the concrete pavement. Workability optimises
the construction process, resulting in a well-built, high-performing pavement infrastructure.

3.1.2. Density
The influences of FA and CS on the density of various PQC mixes of both M40 and M50 grades at
28 days are presented in Figure 7 (a) and (b), respectively. The densities of control mixes (4F0c0 and
5F0c0) were 24 and 24.2 kN/m3 , respectively. The densities for control conctere mixes were found to
be 25.68 and 25.5 kN/m3 by Al-Jabri et al. (2009a) and dos Anjos et al. (2017), respectively. This estab-
lishes the results of experiments conducted in this study. The densities of M40 and M50 grade PQC
 ROAD MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN 11

Figure 6. Variation of slump values of PQC mixes.

Figure 7. Variations of the density of PQC mixes.

mixes range from 23.4 to 29.1 kN/m3 and 23.3 to 29.3 kN/m3 , respectively. The PQC mixes (4F0c10 and
5F0c10) containing only 100% CS give the highest density of 29.1 and 29.3 kN/m3 . However, the PQC
mixes (4F3c0 and 5F3c0) containing only 30% FA give the lowest density of 23.4 and 23.3 g/cc, respec-
tively. It can be noticed that the addition of CS in PQC mixes increases the density by up to 21.2%.
It is found that the addition of CS increases the PQC density. Bhoi et al. (2018) also maintained that
CS increased the concrete density. This increase in density is due to the higher specific gravity of CS
(3.91) compared to RS (2.58). On the other hand, the addition of FA reduces the density. This reduction
in density is due to a lower specific gravity of FA (2.24) compared to OPC (3.14). Kabay et al. (2015)
and Adamu et al. (2018) found that the addition of FA reduces the density of concrete. But Choud-
hary et al. (2020) reported that 20% marble cutting slurry waste and 15% FA increased the density of
high-strength self-compacting concrete. Higher-density concrete improves concrete pavement per-
formance by increasing compressive strength, reducing permeability and resisting vehicular wear and
abrasion.

3.1.3. Water absorption

The influences of FA and CS on the water absorption of PQC mixes of both M40 and M50 grades at 28
days, have been depicted in Figure 8 (a) and (b), respectively. The water absorption of the control PQC
mixes (4F0c0 and 5F0c0) is 4.39% and 4.41%, respectively. The water absorption of control concrete is
also 4.35% by dos Anjos et al. (2017). Similar kinds of observations were reported for control concrete
12 A. C. PAL ET AL.

Figure 8. Variations of water absorption of PQC mixes.

by Mithun and Narasimhan (2016). The lowest water absorption values are observed for PQC mixes
(4F2c6 and 5F2c6) containing 20% FA and 60% CS which are respectively 17.8% and 17% lower than
that of the control PQC mixes. It can be observed that the addition of CS up to 60% reduces the water
absorption of PQC mixes. After CS replacement of 60%, the water absorption values increased slightly
but the values were still lower than the control mix. The reduction in water absorption value may be
owing to improved density with CS and greater bonding of aggregate paste matrix, minimising micro-
holes in hardened concrete (Bhoi et al., 2018 and Rajasekar et al., 2019). The addition of FA up to 20%
reduces the water absorption of PQC mixes. However, for 30% FA in PQC mixes, the water absorption
increases but the values were still lower than the control mix. This reduction in water absorption is due
to the reduction of pore volumes in the concrete mix (Choudhary et al., 2020; Lam et al., 2018; Titiksh
& Wanjari, 2021). It is preferable for concrete to have a low water absorption rate since this improves
the concrete pavement’s durability and structural integrity.

3.1.4. Volume of voids

The variations of FA and CS replacement on the volume of voids of PQC mixes of both M40 and M50
grades at 28 days are presented in Figure 9 (a) and (b), respectively. It is observed that the amount of
permeable voids in PQC mixes exhibits a similar trend in water absorption. The volume of voids of the
control PQC mixes (4F0c0 and 5F0c0) are 7.24% and 7.49%, respectively. The volume of voids of control
concrete is also 10% by Mithun and Narasimhan (2016) and dos Anjos et al. (2017). Also, a similar kind
of observation was reported by dos Anjos et al. (2017) for concrete containing CS as a replacement for
fine aggregate. The minimum volume of voids is observed for PQC mixes (4F2c6 and 5F2c6) containing
20% FA and 60% CS which is 38.1% and 38.9% lower than the volume of voids of control PQC mixes,
respectively. It can be observed that the addition of CS up to 60% reduces the volume of voids of
PQC mixes. Beyond 60% replacements, the voids increased slightly but the volume of voids was still
lower in comparison with the control mix. The denser concrete matrix with greater bonding between
aggregate paste minimises micro-pores in concrete (Rajasekar et al., 2019). The addition of FA up to
20% reduces the volume of voids of PQC mixes. However, for 30% FA in PQC mixes, the volume of voids
increased but the values were still lower than the control mix. Similar observations were reported by
Choudhary et al. (2020). It is possible to improve the strength and durability of a concrete pavement
by reducing the volume of voids in the pavement. This helps improve the durability aspect of the
pavement.
 ROAD MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN 13

Figure 9. Variations of the volume of voids of PQC mixes.

3.2. Results on the mechanical properties of PQC mixes

3.2.1. Compressive strength
The influence of FA and CS as a replacement of OPC and RS on the compressive strength of M40 and
M50-grade PQC mixes with 7 days, 28 days and 90 days of curing are presented in Figure 10 (a), (b), (c),
(d), (e) and (f), respectively. The compressive strengths of the M40 grade control PQC mix at 7-days,
28-day and 90-day of curing are 33.78 MPa, 48.44 MPa and 49.33 MPa, respectively. Similarly, the com-
pressive strengths of M50-grade control PQC mix at 7-day, 28-day and 90-day curing are 39.56 MPa,
58.44 MPa and 58.67 MPa, respectively. Similar kinds of observations were reported for control con-
crete (Al-Jabri et al., 2011; Bhoi et al., 2018; Chithra et al., 2016; Gupta & Siddique, 2019; Khanzadi &
Behnood, 2009; Kumar, 2013; Mithun & Narasimhan, 2016 and Sreenivasulu et al., 2020). The compres-
sive strength (at 7 days, 28 days and 90 days of curing) of both grades of PQC mixes containing only
CS increases by 14.5%, 16.5% and 15.8%, respectively with reference to the control mix. It is observed
from the test results that the compressive strength of PQC mixes increased up to 60% replacement
of CS and then decreased. Almost similar observations were made by Bhoi et al. (2018). The reduc-
tion in compressive strength with CS may be due to the increase in free water in the mix due to CS’s
low absorption, which may have led to the formation of pores in the hardened concrete, reducing its
strength (Al-Jabri et al., 2009b, 2011; Ambily et al., 2015; Khanzadi & Behnood, 2009). The 7-day and 28-
day compressive strength for 4F1c0 and 5F1c0 PQC mixes decreases marginally up to about 1% and
2%, respectively. However, for remaining mixes containing different percentages of CS and 10% FA
enhanced the 7-day and 28-day compressive strength up to 11.8% and 15.6%, respectively. However,
the 90-day compressive strength of these PQC mixes increased by up to 17.1%. The 7-day’ compres-
sive strength decreases by 5.3%, 1.3%, 4%, 4.5%, 1.5% and 2.3% for 4F2c0, 4F2c2, 4F2c10, 5F2c0, 5F2c2
and 5F2c10 PQC mixes, respectively. The 28-day compressive strength decreases by 1.8%, 0.9%, 0.9%,
2.7%, 0.38% and 1.9% for 4F2c0, 4F2c2, 4F2c10, 5F2c0, 5F2c2 and 5F2c10 PQC mixes, respectively.
Remaining mixtures containing different percentages of CS and 20% FA enhanced the 7-day and 28-
day compressive strength by up to 7.9% and 14.7%, respectively. However, the 90-day compressive
strength of these PQC mixes increased up to 19.83%. The optimum PQC mixes are 4F2c6 and 5F2c6
because the 90-day compressive strength is 19.8% and 12.9% more than that of control mixes, respec-
tively. According to Sreenivasulu et al., 2020; Ameri et al. (2020) and Gupta and Siddique (2019), with
a constant w/b ratio, compressive strength increased up to 60% substitution of aggregate and then
decreased. A similar kind of observation is made in this study. The improved bond between the angu-
lar CS and cement paste results in increased compressive strength of the concrete mixes (Al-Jabri
et al., 2009a). The CS was more compressible than RS, which partially relieved stress concentration
and resulted in an increase in compressive strength (Gupta & Siddique, 2019; Rajasekar et al., 2019).
14 A. C. PAL ET AL.

Prem et al. (2018); Mithun and Narasimhan (2016) also observed that the compressive strength of con-
crete made with CS is higher than control concrete. The formation of imprecise C–S–H gel and higher
percentages of voids resulted in a decrease in compressive strength at an early age of PQC with FA
but at 90 days the fine spread of C–S–H gel and formation of dense C–S–H gel due to the consump-
tion of Portlandite by pozzolanic action of FA up to 20% resulted in higher compressive strength of
FA-CS PQC. A similar concept was also reported (Adamu et al., 2018; Kumar et al., 2007; Rafieizonooz
et al., 2016 and Lam et al., 2018). Almost the same observations were made by Kumar et al. (2007) and
Mohammed et al. (2018). However, the addition of 30% FA in both grades of PQC mixes with varying
percentages of CS, the 7-day, 28-day and 90-day compressive strength values decrease up to 17.1%,
21.1% and 17.1%, respectively compared with control mixes. This decrease in compressive strength is
due to the agglomeration of FA particles because more water is required to hydrate properly, causing
poor bonding and an increase in voids in PQC mixes (Adamu et al., 2018). The compressive strength of
concrete is a crucial property that directly affects the performance of pavements. In general, in many
codes and specifications, it is reported that the compressive strength of concrete specimens is directly
related to the flexural strength and modulus of elasticity, which directly affects the resistance to dis-
tress due to loading at various regions of pavement, and hence the compressive strength results may
be considered as performance indicators of concrete pavement. Therefore, under given conditions of
a typical pavement, increased compressive strength values in the case of PQC mixes with the use of
FA and CS, may lead to stronger and more economical concrete pavements.

3.2.2. Flexural strength

The results of flexural strength tests of M40 and M50 grade PQC mixes containing varying percent-
ages of FA and CS, at 28 days and 90 days, are presented in Figure 11 (a), (b), (c) and (d), respectively.
The figures show that the flexural behaviour of PQC mixes is similar to the compressive strength
behaviour. The flexural strengths of the M40 grade control PQC mix at 28 days and 90 days of cur-
ing are 5.6 and 5.8 MPa, respectively. Similarly, the flexural strengths of M50 grade control PQC mix
at 28 days and 90 days of curing are 6 and 6.4 MPa, respectively. Similar kinds of flexural strength
results for control concrete are seen in other findings (Al-Jabri et al., 2011; Bhoi et al., 2018; Kumar,
2013; and Mithun & Narasimhan, 2016). The 28 days and 90 days flexural strength values of PQC mixes
containing only CS increased up to 50% and 44.8% compared with the control mix, respectively. The
angular shape of the CS aggregate (which densifies the structure) significantly increases the flexural
strength of CS concrete. The lower water absorption value and lower abrasion value of CS aggregate
also contribute to the increased flexural strength of concrete (Lori et al., 2019). The 28-day flexural
strength decreased by 3.6% and 3.3% for 4F1c0 and 5F1c0 PQC mixes, respectively. Remaining mix-
tures containing different percentages of CS and 10% FA enhanced 28-day flexural strength by up to
40%. However, 90-day flexural strength of these PQC mixes increased up to 51.7%. The 28-day flexural
strength decreases by 14.3%, 3.6%, 3.6%, 13.3%, 3.3% and 6.7% for 4F2c0, 4F2c2, 4F2c10, 5F2c0, 5F2c2
and 5F2c10 PQC mixes, respectively. Remaining mixtures containing different percentages of CS and
20% FA enhanced the 28-day flexural strength by up to 26.7%. However, the 90-day flexural strength
of these PQC mixes increased up to 58.6%. The optimum PQC mixes are 4F2c6 and 5F2c6 because the
90-day flexural strength is 58.6% and 50% more than that of control mixes, respectively. According to
previous research, the flexural strength of CS concrete improved up to 50–60% substitution of natu-
ral aggregates with CS and then decreased due to an increase in free surface water content (Al-Jabri
et al., 2009b, 2011; Ameri et al., 2020; Bhoi et al., 2018). Similar kinds of observations are found in this
study. Prem et al. (2018) and Mithun and Narasimhan (2016) also concluded that the flexural strength
of concrete made with CS is higher than control concrete. Delay in hydration and slow pozzolanic
activity of FA may cause lower flexural strength of PQC at early ages. At 90 days, the fine spreading of
C–S–H gel and development of additional C–S–H gel owing to FA’s pozzolanic activity increased the
flexural strength of PQC mixes up to 20% OPC replacement (Rafieizonooz et al., 2016). Similar kinds
of observations were made by Kumar et al. (2007); and Mohammed et al. (2018). But the addition of
 ROAD MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN 15

Figure 10. Variation of compressive strength of PQC mixes.

30% FA in both grade PQC mixes with varying percentages of CS, contributed to a decrease in the 28-
day and 90-day flexural strength up to 28.6% and 27.6% to that of control mixes, respectively due to
an increase in voids in PQC mixes. It is well-known that concrete’s flexural strength affects pavement
performance. Repeated loading cycles can cause pavement damage by fatigue effects. Higher flex-
ural strength makes the concrete pavement more fatigue-resistant, preventing cracks and structural
damage. This ultimately improves the longevity of the concrete pavement with reference to repetitive
traffic loading.
16 A. C. PAL ET AL.

Figure 11. Variation of flexural strength of PQC mixes.

3.2.3. Split tensile strength

The influence of both FA and CS on the split tensile strength of M40 and M50 grade PQC mixes at 28
days and 90 days of curing period is presented in Figure 12 (a), (b), (c) and (d), respectively. The 28-
day split tensile strength values of 4F0c0 and 5F0c0 are 4.88 MPa and 5.87 MPa whereas the 90-day
strength is 4.95 and 5.94 MPa, respectively. Similar kinds of split tensile strength results were reported
by Khanzadi and Behnood (2009), Al-Jabri et al. (2011); Bhoi et al. (2018) and Gupta and Siddique
(2019) for control concrete. The 28-day and 90-day split tensile strength of PQC mixes containing
only CS increases up to 15.9% and 17.2% than that of the control mix, respectively. Similar kinds of
observations were made by Bhoi et al. (2018) for concrete containing up to 60% CS. The 28-day split
tensile strength decreases by 1.4% and 2.4% for 4F1c0 and 5F1c0 PQC mixes, respectively. Remain-
ing mixtures containing different percentages of CS and 10% FA enhanced the 28-day strength by up
to 13.1%. However, the 90-day strength of these PQC mixes increased up to 17.2%. The 28-day split
tensile strength decreases by 4.3%, 2.9%, 1.4%, 3.6%, 2.4% and 1.2% for 4F2c0, 4F2c2, 4F2c10, 5F2c0,
5F2c2 and 5F2c10 PQC mixes, respectively. Remaining mixtures containing different percentages of CS
and 20% FA improved the 28-day strength up to 10.3%. However, the 90-day strength of these PQC
mixes increased up to 20%. The optimum PQC mixes are 4F2c6 and 5F2c6 because the 90-day split
tensile strength is 20% and 16.7% more than that of control mixes, respectively. But the addition of
30% FA in both grade PQC mixes with varying percentages of CS, resulted in a decrease in split tensile
strength on 28days and 90-days decreases up to 21.7% and 17.2% to that of control mixes, respectively
due to an increase in voids in PQC mixes. The higher tensile strength resulting in the developed PQC
mixes helps resistthe crack initiation and propagation in the pavement due to repetitive heavy loads,
 ROAD MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN 17

Figure 12. Variation of split tensile strength of PQC mixes.

aggravated with increased temperature difference (daily variation). Hence this added benefit of higher
tensile strength built into the PQC leads to better durability aspects of the concrete pavements.

3.2.4. Cylinder compressive strength

The effects of the use of both FA and CS on the cylinder compressive strength of M40 and M50-
grade PQC mixes at the 28-day and 90-day curing period are presented in Figures 13 (a), (b), (c) and
(d), respectively. The 28-day cylinder compressive strength of 4F0c0 and 5F0c0 mixes is 39.05 and
46.98 MPa whereas the 90-day strength is 36.92 and 47.54 MPa, respectively. Almost the same obser-
vations were made by Sreenivasulu et al. (2020). The 28-day and 90-day cylinder compressive strength
of PQC mixes containing CS only increases up to 10.2% and 10.7% than that of the control mix, respec-
tively. The 28-day cylinder compressive strength decreases by 1.4% and 1.2% for 4F1c0 and 5F1c0 PQC
mixes, respectively. For remaining mixes containing different percentages of CS and 10% FA the 28-
day strength increases up to 8.7%. However, the 90-day strength of these PQC mixes increases up to
11.91%. The 28-day cylinder compressive strength decreases by 4.3%, 1.4%, 1.4%, 3.6%, 2.4% and 1.2%
for 4F2c0, 4F2c2, 4F2c10, 5F2c0, 5F2c2 and 5F2c10 PQC mixes, respectively. For remaining mixes con-
taining different percentages of CS and 20% FA the 28-day strength increases up to 7.3%. However,
the 90-day strength of these PQC mixes increases up to 14.3%. The optimum PQC mixes are 4F2c6 and
5F2c6 because the 90-day cylinder compressive strength is 14.3% more than that of control mixes in
each case. But, with the addition of 30% FA in both grade PQC mixes having varying percentages of CS,
the 28-day and 90-day cylinder compressive strength decreases up to 11.6% and 11.4% as compared
18 A. C. PAL ET AL.

Figure 13. Variation of cylinder compressive strength of PQC mixes.

with control mixes, respectively, mainly due to an increase in the voids in PQC mixes. Higher cylinder
compressive strength indicates a stronger concrete mix that can withstand heavier traffic loads which
makes the concrete pavement stronger and more durable.

3.2.5. Ultrasonic pulse velocity

The pulse velocity results of M40 and M50 grade PQC mixes at 28 days obtained from the UPV test
are presented in Figure 14 (a) and (b), respectively. From this figure, it is observed that for the UPV
value for M40 and M50 grade PQC mixes varies between 4.26 and 4.98 Km/s and 4.25 to 4.95 Km/s,
respectively. Similar kinds of observations were made by Sreenivasulu et al. (2020) for geopolymer
concrete using CS as fine aggregate with the remark that CS particles densified the microstructure
of geopolymer concrete. The qualities of all PQC mixes with 20% FA are excellent as per IS 516 Part-
5/Sec-1: (2018). However, the quality of all PQC mixes with 30% FA are good. It is found from Figure 15
that UPV decreases by 4.3–8.4% for M40 PQC mixes containing 30% FA, and decreases by 5.6–9.2%
for M50 PQC mixes containing 30% FA in comparison to the same control PQC. The highest UPV value
is 4.98 and 4.95 Km/s for the 4F2c6 and 5F2c6 mixes, respectively. Higher values of pulse velocities
obtained in this study indicated that the quality of FA-CS PQC mixes was excellent in terms of density,
homogeneity and uniformity. Almost the same values of UPV results were reported by Mohammed
et al. (2018). However, for 30% FA replacement the quality of PQC mixes is good as per IS 516 Part-
5/Sec-1: (2018). The use of UPV testing assists in evaluating the quality and uniformity of the concrete
that is used in the construction of pavements. Through UPV measurement, it is possible to indirectly
assess/estimate the quality/strength of concrete.
 ROAD MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN 19

Figure 14. UPV variation of different PQC mixes.

3.2.6. Impact of improved PQC properties on pavement design aspects

The impacts of improved physical and mechanical properties of PQC mixes have been described
under each property. The following paragraph indicates the impact on the design aspects of concrete
pavement.
As per IRC: 58 (2015), the design of concrete pavement is influenced by the compressive strength
(concrete grade), flexural strength and modulus of elasticity of concrete. In this research, higher com-
pressive and flexural strengths for the PQC mixes developed with FA and CS replacing cement and
RS, respectively, by designated percentages, are observed in comparison with control mixes. The
compressive strength of concrete is directly related to its modulus of elasticity. Hence, for higher
compressive strength, the modulus of elasticity of the developed PQC mixes is higher. For a given
repeated loading of traffic/wheel load, the design thickness is directly related to the modulus of elas-
ticity and flexural strength of the given PQC (from the consideration of stresses due to both loading
and temperature variations). In other words, if these strength properties, as reported earlier, are higher
in magnitude the design thickness of the concrete reduces, with the same types of underlying layers
and traffic conditions. This implies that with the use of FA and CS in PQC mixes as per the results pre-
sented before, the thickness of the concrete slab reduces, which substantially decreases the cost of
the concrete pavement for the same foundation layers and traffic conditions. This would directly ben-
efit the executing agencies because of the reduced cost of construction and reduced impact on the
environment.

3.3. Results on the microstructural properties of PQC mixes

3.3.1. XRD analysis
To determine the phase composition of hardened PQC mixes of both M40 and M50 grades using FA
and CS, X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis was performed as per the procedure already mentioned before.
Figures 15–18 present the XRD pattern of some selected PQC mixes of M40 and M50 grades, with vary-
ing percentages of FA and CS at 28 days and 90 days of curing. The XRD patterns show that the PQC
has a crystalline structure at all replacement levels. The XRD patterns of both M40 and M50 grade
PQC mixes contained similar multiphase peaks. The peaks presented in PQC mixes were Quartz, Port-
landite, Anorthite, Calcium Silicate Hydrate, Gismondine and Brownmillerite. The main peak of all the
XRD graphs is Quartz. Table 8 shows the compounds formed in the PQC mixes at 28-day and 90-day
curing periods. The XRD peaks obtained in this study are almost similar to those reported by Gupta
and Siddique (2019).
20 A. C. PAL ET AL.

Figure 15. XRD of M40-grade PQC mixes at a curing period of 28 days.

Figure 16. XRD of M40-grade PQC mixes at a curing period of 90 days.

 ROAD MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN 21

Figure 17. XRD of M50-grade PQC mixes at a curing period of 28 days.

Figure 18. XRD of M50-grade PQC mixes at a curing period of 90 days.

22 A. C. PAL ET AL.

Table 8. Results obtained from XRD analysis.

Sl. no. Compound name Chemical formula Crystal system
1 Quartz SiO2 Hexagonal
2 Portlandite Ca(OH)2 Hexagonal
3 Anorthite Ca(Al2 Si2 O8 ) Triclinic
4 CSH Ca2 (SiO4 )(H2 O) Orthorhombic
5 Gismondine CaAl2 Si2 O8 ·4(H2 O) Monoclinic
6 Brownmillerite Ca2 (Fe2 O5 ) Orthorhombic

3.3.2. SEM analysis

The microstructure of FA-based CS-PQC was analysed using a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM).
However, only those images in which the major changes in the morphology were observed as shown
in this paper. The variations in the microstructure of some selected PQC mixes of both M40 and M50
grades characterised using SEM are shown in Figure 19 which shows the microscopic images of 4F0c0,
4F2c6, 4F2c10, 4F3c10, 5F0c0, 5F2c6, 5F2c10 and 5F3c10 PQC mixes at a curing period of 28 days
whereas Figure 20 shows microscopic images of the same PQC mixes at a curing period of 90 days.
It is observed from Figures 19 and 20 that C–S–H gel is present in the control mixes of both grades
PQC which is responsible for the compressive strength of these mixes. The SEM image of PQC mixes
i.e. 4F2c6 and 5F2c6 at both 28-day and 90-day curing periods shows the formation of denser CSH gel
than the control mix. The accumulation of C–S–H layers makes the PQC matrix denser. The microstruc-
ture becomes denser for the PQC mix with 20% FA and 60% CS at the 90-days curing period rather
than at 28 days, thereby increasing the strength of the PQC matrix. CS is heavier and coarser than RS,
resulting in a thick binder-CS paste matrix of PQC. This increases aggregate and binder paste bonding,
increasing strength. The filling influence of CS seems to be responsible for PQC’s denser microstruc-
ture and greater strength. A similar observation was also found by (Rajasekar et al., 2019; Siddique
et al., 2020). Sreenivasulu et al. (2020) concluded that replacing CS in geopolymer concrete decreases
fracture width and densifies geopolymer concrete microstructure. It can be noted that PQC contain-
ing 20% FA and 100% CS has voids and needles-like structures (ettringites) resulted in a reduction of
strength than PQC containing 20% FA and 60% CS. However, due to the presence of CSH gel, these
mixes have better strength properties than the control mix. Also, Gupta and Siddique (2019) reported
that at higher replacement of CS, the free surface water presence at the mix due to its lower water
absorption was the main cause of strength reduction. But, for 30% replacement with FA and 100%
replacement with CS, a decrease in strength was observed. The presence of un-hydrated FA due to
lack of water, results in more voids and micro-cracks in the PQC mixes. Also, needles-like structures
(ettringite crystals) along with voids were observed in PQC mixes with 30% FA and 100% CS, which is
the main cause of strength reduction.

4. Statistical models for the prediction of strength properties

This section attempts to establish statistical models related to compressive strength, flexural strength,
split tensile strength and cylinder compressive strength of PQC specimens as a function of some
basic parameters as mentioned below, using available experimental test results. Such models may be
utilised for quality control purposes and immediate strength prediction. A multiple linear regression
model appeared to best fit the experimental data. Accordingly, the general form of the considered
model is expressed as follows:

y = a + bx1 + cx2 + dx3 + ex4 + f x5 (4)

where y represents the output parameter such as compressive strength (in MPa), flexural strength (in
MPa), split tensile strength (in MPa) and cylinder compressive strength (in MPa) of PQC mixes. x 1 , x 2 ,
x 3 , x 4 and x 5 represent the input parameters such as slump value (in mm), density (in kN/m3 ), water
absorption (in %), volume of voids (in %) and UPV (in Km/s) value of PQC mixes, respectively.
 ROAD MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN 23

Figure 19. SEM images of PQC mixes (a) 4F0c0 (b) 4F2c6 (c) 4F2c10 (d) 4F3c10 (e) 5F0c0 (f) 5F2c6 (g) 5F2c10 (h) 5F3c10 at the
28-day curing period.
24 A. C. PAL ET AL.

Figure 20. SEM images of PQC mixes (a) 4F0c0 (b) 4F2c6 (c) 4F2c10 (d) 4F3c10 (e) 5F0c0 (f) 5F2c6 (g) 5F2c10 (h) 5F3c10 at the
90-day curing period.
 ROAD MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN 25

Table 9. Coefficients for the proposed statistical model.

x1 x2 x3 x4 x5
y a B c d e f R2 value
Compressive strength (7d) −201.02 −1.14 3.71 28.36 −5.58 17.88 0.81
Compressive strength (28d) −300.87 −1.36 5.01 45.50 −9.53 27.07 0.89
Compressive strength (90d) −304.81 −1.85 5.72 34.08 −6.89 32.86 0.85
Flexural strength (28d) −14.31 0.10 1.13 3.44 −1.16 1.79 0.96
Flexural strength (90d) −22.16 0.01 0.16 2.41 −1.05 4.52 0.97
Split-tensile strength (28d) −32.35 −0.19 6.10 4.13 −0.87 2.98 0.87
Split-tensile strength (90d) −38.96 −0.23 6.56 4.36 −0.84 4.13 0.86
Cylinder Compressive strength (28d) −267.91 −1.59 47.43 35.13 −6.61 24.76 0.85
Cylinder Compressive strength (90d) −304.26 −1.89 55.83 35.32 −6.66 29.33 0.87

The related coefficients and R2 values associated with each model are presented in Table 9. The
table shows that the strength properties have a direct relation with the slump value, density, water
absorption, volume of voids or UPV value of PQC mixes. The correlations may be used as quality control
tools for PQC subjected to different exposure conditions. The coefficient of determination (R2 ) for all
models is ≥ 0.80. These models can estimate the strength parameters of PQC mixes well with any one
of the input parameters mentioned above.

5. Practical applications of PQC

PQC utilising FA and CS is suitable for M40 and M50-grade concrete mixes used for high-performance
pavement applications. Both PQC mixes are ideal for situations where the pavement needs to with-
stand substantial stresses, including repetitive traffic loads, braking forces and environmental factors.
The practical applications of M40 and M50-grade concrete in pavement construction include high-
ways, expressways, airport runways, industrial and commercial parking lots, port and container yards,
high-traffic urban roads, etc.
The tested physical and mechanical properties as discussed earlier, improve the performance of
concrete pavement which are mentioned below. In this study, the slump values of mostly PQC mixes
using FA and CS are 25 ± 10 mm which satisfies the moderate degree of workability and fluidity
where concrete is easily handled, placed and consolidated. Optimum density, minimum water absorp-
tion and reduced void volume improve the concrete pavement performance by enhancing strength
characteristics such as compressive strength, flexural strength, spilt tensile strength and cylinder
compressive strength, indirectly indicating improvement of load-bearing capacity, durability, crack
resistance and resilience to dynamic loading. In short, as waste materials such as FA and CS were used
extensively, this study leads to a sustainable and economic solution for the development of paving
quality concrete which may preserve natural resources and reduce waste disposal concerns for future
generations.

6. Conclusions
This paper presents the experimental investigations on mechanical and microstructural properties of
PQC using FA and CS for the construction of rigid (concrete) pavement. The major conclusions drawn
are as follows:

• The workability and density of PQC mixes increase with an increase in CS content but a decrease
with the addition of FA at a particular w/c ratio.
• The strength properties of PQC with high-volume CS increase with the addition of 20% FA content
and then decrease for 30% FA content. The PQC mixes incorporating 20% FA and 60% CS result in
maximum strength compared with that of the control mix.
26 A. C. PAL ET AL.

• The water absorption and void content (volume) of PQC mixes decrease up to 60% CS replacement
and increase thereafter. However, the addition of FA up to 20% decreases the WA and void content
and then increases.
• The PQC mix containing 100% CS and 20% FA is the most satisfactory one as it results in the highest
improvements, satisfying the requirements stipulated for M40 and M50 grade PQC mixes as per IRC:
44 (2017).
• XRD and SEM analysis of materials from PQC specimens corroborate the results obtained from
compressive, flexural, split tensile and cylinder compressive strength tests of developed PQC
specimens.
• Multiple linear regression statistical models were formed with regression coefficients more than
0.8, to predict all strength parameters at different curing periods.

Although many improved test results have been reported in this study, research needs to be carried
out to evaluate the durability properties, abrasion resistance, skid resistance and fatigue performance
of these mixes using FA and CS for concrete paving applications.

Acknowledgements
The assistance and support provided by the staff of the Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology,
Rourkela, India are sincerely appreciated.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

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