NUMBER THEORY REVISION NOTES

DIVISIBILITY

 Let a and b be any two integers where a≠0. If there exists an integer k such that a =
bk then we say that b divides a and we write it as b|a. Here the
symbol | denotes divides.
 So, we have b|a if and only if a=bk for some integer k.
 b|a means b divides a or b is a factor of a or a is a multiple of b.
 Similarly we can write a|b if and only if b=ak for some integer k.
 a|b means a divides b or a is a factor of b or b is a multiple of a.

Divisibility Rule of 1
Every number is divisible by 1. Divisibility rule for 1 doesn’t have any condition. Any number
divided by 1 will give the number itself, irrespective of how large the number is. For example, 3
is divisible by 1 and 3000 is also divisible by 1 completely.

Divisibility Rule of 2
If a number is even or a number whose last digit is an even number i.e. 2,4,6,8 including 0, it is
always completely divisible by 2.

Example: 508 is an even number and is divisible by 2 but 509 is not an even number, hence it is
not divisible by 2. Procedure to check whether 508 is divisible by 2 or not is as follows:

 Consider the number 508

 Just take the last digit 8 and divide it by 2
 If the last digit 8 is divisible by 2 then the number 508 is also divisible by 2.

Divisibility Rules for 3

Divisibility rule for 3 states that a number is completely divisible by 3 if the sum of its digits is
divisible by 3.

Consider a number, 308. To check whether 308 is divisible by 3 or not, take sum of the digits
(i.e. 3+0+8= 11). Now check whether the sum is divisible by 3 or not. If the sum is a multiple of
3, then the original number is also divisible by 3. Here, since 11 is not divisible by 3, 308 is also
not divisible by 3.

Similarly, 516 is divisible by 3 completely as the sum of its digits i.e. 5+1+6=12, is a multiple of 3.
Divisibility Rule of 4
If the last two digits of a number are divisible by 4, then that number is a multiple of 4 and is
divisible by 4 completely.

Example: Take the number 2308. Consider the last two digits i.e. 08. As 08 is divisible by 4, the
original number 2308 is also divisible by 4.

Divisibility Rule of 5
Numbers, which last with digits, 0 or 5 are always divisible by 5.
Example: 10, 10000, 10000005, 595, 396524850, etc.

Divisibility Rule of 6
Numbers which are divisible by both 2 and 3 are divisible by 6. That is, if the last digit of the
given number is even and the sum of its digits is a multiple of 3, then the given number is also a
multiple of 6.

Example: 630, the number is divisible by 2 as the last digit is 0.

The sum of digits is 6+3+0 = 9, which is also divisible by 3.
Hence, 630 is divisible by 6.

Divisibility Rules for 7

The rule of divisibility of 7 is : -
Remove the last digit of the number and double it.
Subtract this from the remaining number
If this digit is either 0 or a multiple of 7, then the number is divisible by 7

Example: Is 1073 divisible by 7?

 From the rule stated remove 3 from the number and double it, which becomes 6.
 Remaining number becomes 107, so 107-6 = 101.
 Repeating the process one more time, we have 1 x 2 = 2.
 Remaining number 10 – 2 = 8.
 As 8 is not divisible by 7, hence the number 1073 is not divisible by 7.

Divisibility Rule of 8
If the last three digits of a number are divisible by 8, then the number is completely divisible by
8.
Example: Take number 24344. Consider the last two digits i.e. 344. As 344 is divisible by 8, the
original number 24344 is also divisible by 8.

Divisibility Rule of 9
The rule for divisibility by 9 is similar to divisibility rule for 3. That is, if the sum of digits of the
number is divisible by 9, then the number itself is divisible by 9.

Example: Consider 78532, as the sum of its digits (7+8+5+3+2) is 25, which is not divisible by 9,
hence 78532 is not divisible by 9.

Divisibility Rule of 10
Divisibility rule for 10 states that any number whose last digit is 0, is divisible by 10.

Example: 10, 20, 30, 1000, 5000, 60000, etc.

Divisibility Rules for 11

If the difference of the sum of alternative digits of a number is divisible by 11, then that number
is divisible by 11 completely.

i.e., Sum of digits in odd places – Sum of digits in even places = 0 or a multiple of 11

In order to check whether a number like 2143 is divisible by 11, below is the following
procedure.

 Group the alternative digits i.e. digits which are in odd places together and digits in even
places together. Here 24 and 13 are two groups.
 Take the sum of the digits of each group i.e. 2+4=6 and 1+3= 4
 Now find the difference of the sums; 6-4=2
 If the difference is divisible by 11, then the original number is also divisible by 11. Here 2
is the difference which is not divisible by 11.
 Therefore, 2143 is not divisible by 11.
A few more conditions are there to test the divisibility of a number by 11. They are explained
here with the help of examples:

If the number of digits of a number is even, then add the first digit and subtract the last digit
from the rest of the number.

Example: 3784
Number of digits = 4

Now, 78 + 3 – 4 = 77 = 7 × 11

Thus, 3784 is divisible by 11.

If the number of digits of a number is odd, then subtract the first and the last digits from the
rest of the number.

Example: 82907

Number of digits = 5

Now, 290 – 8 – 7 = 275 × 11

Thus, 82907 is divisible by 11.

Form the groups of two digits from the right end digit to the left end of the number and add the
resultant groups. If the sum is a multiple of 11, then the number is divisible by 11.

Example: 3774 := 37 + 74 = 111 := 1 + 11 = 12

3774 is not divisible by 11.

253 := 2 + 53 = 55 = 5 × 11

253 is divisible by 11.

Subtract the last digit of the number from the rest of the number. If the resultant value is a
multiple of 11, then the original number will be divisible by 11.

Example: 9647

9647 := 964 – 7 = 957

957 := 95 – 7 = 88 = 8 × 11

Thus, 9647 is divisible by 11.

Divisibility Rule of 12
If the number is divisible by both 3 and 4, then the number is divisible by 12 exactly.

Example: 5864

Sum of the digits = 5 + 8 + 6 + 4 = 23 (not a multiple of 3)

Last two digits = 64 (divisible by 4)

The given number 5864 is divisible by 4 but not by 3; hence, it is not divisible by 12.

Divisibility Rules for 13

For any given number, to check if it is divisible by 13, we have to add four times of the last digit
of the number to the remaining number and repeat the process until you get a two-digit
number. Now check if that two-digit number is divisible by 13 or not. If it is divisible, then the
given number is divisible by 13.

For example: 2795 → 279 + (5 x 4)

→ 279 + (20)

→ 299

→ 29 + (9 x 4)

→ 29 + 36

→65

Number 65 is divisible by 13, 13 x 5 = 65.

Properties of divisibility:

1) For any two integers a and b, a|b and b|a => a=±b.
2) Transitive property: If a|b and b|c then a|c.
3) If a|b and a|c then i) a|(b+c) ii) a|(b-c) iii) a|bc.
4) If a|b and x is any integer then a|bx
5) If a|b and c|d then ac|bd
6) If ac|bc then a|b.

Division algorithm:

In a normal division, it is known that the dividend can be written as the sum of the remainder
and the product of divisor and quotient. The same thing is defined as division algorithm and is
mathematically defined as follows.
“For any two integers a and b, there exists integers q and r such that a=bq+r, where 0≤r<b.”

GREATEST COMMON DIVISOR

The greatest common divisor (GCD) of two or more numbers is the greatest common factor
number that divides them, exactly. It is also called the highest common factor (HCF). For
example, the greatest common factor of 15 and 10 is 5, since both the numbers can be divided
by 5.

15/5 = 3

10/5 = 2

If a and b are two numbers then the greatest common divisor of both the numbers is denoted
by gcd(a, b).

 For positive integers a, gcd(a, a) = a.

 Every common divisor of a and b is a divisor of gcd(a, b).
 gcd(a, b), where a and b are not both zero, may be defined alternatively and
equivalently as the smallest positive integer d which can be written in the
form d = a⋅p + b⋅q, where p and q are integers. This expression is called Bézout's
identity. Numbers p and q like this can be computed with the extended
Euclidean algorithm.
 If a divides the product b⋅c, and gcd(a, b) = d, then a/d divides c.
 If m is a positive integer, then gcd(m⋅a, m⋅b) = m⋅gcd(a, b).
 If m is any integer, then gcd(a + m⋅b, b) = gcd(a, b). Equivalently, gcd(a mod b,b)
= gcd(a,b).
 If m is a positive common divisor of a and b, then gcd(a/m, b/m) = gcd(a, b)/m.
 The GCD is a commutative function: gcd(a, b) = gcd(b, a).
 The GCD is an associative function: gcd(a, gcd(b, c)) = gcd(gcd(a, b), c).
Thus gcd(a, b, c, ...) can be used to denote the GCD of multiple arguments.
 The GCD is a multiplicative function in the following sense: if a1 and a2 are
relatively prime, then gcd(a1⋅a2, b) = gcd(a1, b)⋅gcd(a2, b).
 gcd(a, b) is closely related to the least common multiple lcm(a, b): we have
gcd(a, b)⋅lcm(a, b) = |a⋅b|.
 This formula is often used to compute least common multiples: one first
computes the GCD with Euclid's algorithm and then divides the product of the
given numbers by their GCD.
 The following versions of distributivity hold true:
 gcd(a, lcm(b, c)) = lcm(gcd(a, b), gcd(a, c))
 lcm(a, gcd(b, c)) = gcd(lcm(a, b), lcm(a, c)).
 Gcd (na − 1, nb − 1) = n* gcd(a,b) − 1.

Prime Numbers:- A prime number is a positive integer having exactly two factors, i.e. 1 and the
number itself. If p is a prime, then its only factors are necessarily 1 and p itself
Some of the properties of prime numbers are listed below:

 Every number greater than 1 can be divided by at least one prime number.
  Every even positive integer greater than 2 can be expressed as the sum of two primes.
 Except 2, all other prime numbers are odd. In other words, we can say that 2 is the only
even prime number.
 Two prime numbers are always coprime to each other.
 Each composite number can be factored into prime factors and individually all of these
are unique in nature.
Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic

It states that every integer greater than 1 is either a prime number or can be expressed in the
form of primes. In other words, all the natural numbers can be expressed in the form of the
product of its prime factors
α1 α2 α3 α
n=p 1 p2 p 3 ⋯ p n

where p1 , p2 , p3 , ⋯ p n are prime numbers∧α 1 , α 2 , ⋯ α n areintegers

CONGURENCE

If a and b are two integers and n is positive integer , then a is said to be congruent modulo n, if
n divides (a-b)

It is denoted by a ≡ b ( modn )

Properties

 Reflexivity: a ≡ a (mod m)
 Symmetry: a ≡ b (mod m) if b ≡ a (mod m).
 Transitivity: If a ≡ b (mod m) and b ≡ c (mod m), then a ≡ c (mod m)
If a1 ≡ b1 (mod m) and a2 ≡ b2 (mod m), or if a ≡ b (mod m), then:[1]

 a + k ≡ b + k (mod m) for any integer k (compatibility with translation)

 k a ≡ k b (mod m) for any integer k (compatibility with scaling)
 k a ≡ k b (mod k m) for any integer k
 a1 + a2 ≡ b1 + b2 (mod m) (compatibility with addition)
 a1 − a2 ≡ b1 − b2 (mod m) (compatibility with subtraction)
 a1 a2 ≡ b1 b2 (mod m) (compatibility with multiplication)
 ak ≡ bk (mod m) for any non-negative integer k (compatibility with exponentiation)
 p(a) ≡ p(b) (mod m), for any polynomial p(x) with integer coefficients (compatibility
with polynomial evaluation)
If a ≡ b (mod m), then it is generally false that ka ≡ kb (mod m). However, the following is true:
  If c ≡ d (mod φ(m)), where φ is Euler’s totient function ,
 then ac ≡ ad (mod m)—provided that a is comprime with m.
For cancellation of common terms, we have the following rules:

 If a + k ≡ b + k (mod m), where k is any integer, then a ≡ b (mod m).

 If k a ≡ k b (mod m) and k is coprime with m, then a ≡ b (mod m).
 If k a ≡ k b (mod k m) and k ≠ 0, then a ≡ b (mod m).
Fermat’s Little Theorem

It states that if p is a prime number, then for any integer a, the number a p – a is an
integer multiple of p.

ap ≡ a (mod p).

If a is not divisible by p, Fermat’s little theorem is equivalent to the statement that a p-1-
1 is an integer multiple of p.

ap-1 ≡ 1 (mod p)

Euler’s Function

The Euler's totient function φ for integer m is defined as the number of positive integers
not greater than and coprime to m. A few first values: φ(1) = 1, φ(2) = 1, φ(3) = 2, φ(4) =
2, φ(5) = 4, φ(6) = 2, φ(7) = 6, = φ(9) = 6, φ(10) = 4, φ(11) = 10, φ(12) = 4, φ(13) = 12, etc
α α α α
If n=p 1 p2 p 3 ⋯ p n
1 2 3

where p1 , p2 , p3 , ⋯ p n are prime numbers∧α 1 , α 2 , ⋯ α n areintegers then

(
ϕ ( n )=n 1−
1
p1)(
1−
1
p2
1−
)(
1
p3
…
)
Euler's Theorem
Let a and m be coprime. Then aφ(m) = 1 (mod m)

IMPORTANT PROPERTIES: -

 The product of r consecutive integers is always divisible by r!

 ( x + y )∨( x 2 n+1 + y 2 n +1 ) ∀ n ∈ N 0
 ( x− y ) ∨( x n− y n ) ∀ n∈ N 0
 ( x + y ) ∨ ( x 2 n− y 2 n ) ∀ n ∈ N 0
 Square of an integer is always of the form for some integer m
 1). 3m or 3m+1
2). 4m or 4m+1
 Cube of any integer is always of the form 9m or 9m+1 or 9m+8 , for some integer m
 If x 2+ y 2=k and if k is of the form 4m + 3 then x 2+ y 2=k does not have any integral
solution.
 If[ x 4 + y 4=k ]if k is of the form 16m+i, where i=3, 4, 5, 6, ............15 then x 4 + y 4=k does
not have any integral solution.
 GCD (a,b) = [|a.b|]/[lcm(a,b)] ( in questions where you have to find relation b/w lcm and
gcd , let those two numbers a and b be
A= px
B=qx
Where x is gcd(a,b) , and LCM of these two numbers will be pqx)
 every prime number can be written in the form of 6n + 1 or 6n – 1 (except 2 or 3)
 the number of positive integers less than or equal to n and divisible by m are

[ ]
n
m
where [ ⋅ ] denotes GIF

 the number of kth powers from 1 to n is [n1/k ]

 Legendre's formula
It gives an expression for the exponent of the largest power of a prime p that divides
the factorial n! and is given by

[ ][ ][ ]
+¿ ⋯ ¿
n n n
+ 2 + 3
p p p

 For any m≥2 , the number of positive integers x such that

2 2
[ ][ ]
m−1
x
=
x
m+1
m −4 m −5
Is if m is even , if mis odd .
4 4