.

Indian Journalof Engineering& Materials Sciences : " ,ii." '..',

Vol. 5, December1998,pp. 372-389
,

Ferrofluid technology -An overview

K Raj& AF Chorney
Ferrofluidics Corporation,Nashua,NH 03061,USA
Received6 February1998;accepted17 November1998

Researchers and productdesigners havebeenintriguedby ferrofluidseversincethe discoveryof

this fascinatingmagnetically
responsive liquid. Thepurposeof this articleis to providean overviewof
the progressthat has beenmadeto datein the development of ferrofluidsandaffiliatedapplications.
Actual examples of magnetic fluid based devicesperformingin commercial
presented.The technologyhas beengrowingsteadily.New innovations andenvironments havebeen
solutionsto challenging ..
problemspromisefurtherscientificadvancements
andcommercial
opportunities.

Although the dream and challengeof producinga
liquid that possessesstrong magnetic properties
had been in the scientific comm4nity for a long
timel; the first successfulcolloid was not realized
until the early 1960s by a researcher,Papell2at
NASA. This ferrofluid was kerosenebased,had a
high evaporation rate and was not suitable for
many industrial applications. After a few years of
NASA fund~d magneticcolloid re'f'earchat AVCO,
Ferrofluidics corporation was founded by the two
visionaries, Rosensweig and Moskowitz, to
commercialize the technology. At that time,
although the scientific disciplines were well
established,the technology was unproven in the
industrial market and lacked rigorous evaluation.
Today, after about 30 years of existence,
ferrofluids are a global industry with estimated
annual revenuesof $150 million. Becauseof their
unique features,products basedon magneticfluids
have become a corner stone of many high tech
industries. Ferrofluid is a subject of researchat
various leadinginstitutesthroughoutthe world. It is
a material that has enticed v~rious scientific
enq~irie~ a.nd o,ffers ch~llenging fundame~tal
studles.1n dispersion~hemls~ a~d s~all particle
magnetism. For practlc~l ap~lIcatlons It has.been
sought after and investigated. by diverse
engineering disciplines such as mechanical,
I . I h . I b. d. I I h " I
e ectrlca , ~ emlca, tome Ica, e ectrome~a~lca
and acoustical. The total number of publications
and ~~tent~'as of 1997 adding to the pr~vious
score In this fiel.dare 5800 and 2?70 respectlvel~.,
To meet vaned marketand requirements,
devices havea wide
range of ferrofluids been
developed.The aim of this paper is to review the
significantadvancesin the field of magneticliquid
technology and to present challenges for future
innovations. Important properties of various
commercial ferrofluids have been discussed.The
operational principles of a number of magnetic
fluid devicesalong with field examplesis expected
to illuminate the unique aspectsof this spaceage
technology. ,
Magnetic Fluids
Magneticparticles,large or small, are utilized in
many practical devicesand are of great industrial
significance(Fig. 1). Ferrofluids occupythe lowest
limit of magnetism,with a particle size of about
0.01 Ilm and share this regime with aquatic
magnetotacticbacteria4.It has beenspeculatedthat
asthe particle becomessmaller in sizethe magnetic
moment becomes vanishingly small. In particles
with diametersof 0.002 J.1lllonly feeble magnetism ..
is observed5. The particles suitable for magnetic '
ink are roughly 0.1 Ilm and for toners 0.3 Ilm. The
particles used in magnetic recording media are
closeto 0.5 Ilm. In production of permanentferrite
magnets,."the particle size employed is IJ.1lll.The
particles are made of ferrimagnetic or
ferromagnetic materials such as Fe 0
)4,
CrO2, Y-Fe20 3, or MFe120 19 (M= Ba, Sr or ~b "
Except for the caseof ferrofluids, the particles are
multidomain. Furthermore particles in a ferrofl "d
are incorporated in a li~uid medium possess~~g ..
colloidal features, whereas in other cases either
they form a suspensionor are imbedded in a sol"d
matrix. I
 , .:',~}C

RAJ & CHORNEY: FERROFLUIDTECHNOLOGY 373

APPLICATIONS OF MAGNETIC PARTICLES

15 D = 45 Ao
10 FWHM = 23 Ao
E
~ IIi
..~ 0.3 0,5 .~
N
in 0.1 0.1 J.; f t
.
.! ~ ~ j ! ~
uSa
~ 0.01 }J/. ..~ ~
"0
c
'0 .f f
a..
0-001
PrVllers Copiers-yDi,k. Speak",sMClowave
CI~"s
Seals g
Man.,;cT 'PO' ""'Ior. 8f.k~ D = 60 AO
Dampers
FWHM = 31 AO
Fig. I -lndustaes developed around various sizes of
magnetic particles.

*;JI;; * FWH~
==
~~1
~:

iJ;c .~ *~ 0 50 100 150 200

~ * ~ Fig. 3-Log n:~~s~~E:::::(~;ParriCleS ofvarioils

l' ","""..rsurfN
M1~%n:Jic
. diameters obtained with magnetization measurements.
I
MagnetIc '
I
100 AO -.; ..r Surfactant 0 Carri.r
5
-04(10000

Fig. 2-Model ora ferrofluid. ~ 1000

"
If)
..
D-

100
..
The model of a ferrofluid is a three component :g
material with one homogeneous phase (Fig. 2). The i! 11 10 100
particles that have typically been used in Ferrorfiuid Mogn~imtlon,Gouss
commercial ferrofluids are the ferrimagnetic Fe304
.h .. I F Fig. 4 -Particle separation as a function of saturation
~
, Wit an Inverse spIne structure. or reasons of magne
t.lza t.Ion 0
f a
fierro fl UI.d (Courtesy. Rosenswelg . R E -
colloidal stability the average particle diameter IS personal communication).

about 10 nm (0.01 J.Lm) with a distribution that may

extend from 50-150 nm. The average particle is
composed of approximately 6200 molecules of value for various particle diameters .is shown in
Fe304. Ferrofluids based on small particles tend to Table 1. A plot of particle-particle separation in the
have a narrow size distribution compared with colloid is depicted in Fig. 4 (Rosenweig R E,
large particles, Fig. 3. The curie temperature of a personal communication). For example, in a
ferrofluid is the same6 as for Fe304, i.e. 585°C, ferrofluid composed of 10 nm particles and having
however, the maximum temperature at which the the magnetization value of 100 G, the particle
colloid can be used is dictated by the selection of separation is roughly 220 nm.
...the surfactant and the carrier liquid and is about Although a number of ferromagnetic elements,
200 °C. The calculated number of particles per unit alloys and compounds have been cited in the
volume of ferrofluid as\a function of magnetization literature7.8 such as the Fe, Co, Ni; Fe-Co, Fe-Ni-
)
374 INDIANJ.ENG.MATER.SCI.,DECEMBER
1998

Table1-Particle density
versussaturation
magnetization
MagnetiZhtion 11nm 10nm 9 nm 8 nm 7 nm
value,G
1 2.5xl014 3.4xlW4 4.7xl014 6.7xl014 10xl014
5 1.3xl01s 1.7xl01s 2.4xlWs 3.4xl01s 5.0xl01s
25 6.3xl01s 8.5xl01s 1.2xl016 1.7xl016 2.5xlW6
50 1.3xlW6 1.7xl016 2.4xl016 3.9xl016 5.0xl016
100 2.5xl016 3.4xl016 4.7xl016 6.7xl016 1.0xl017
200 5.1xl016 6.8xl016 9.4xl016 1.3xl017 2.Oxl017
300 7.6xlW6 1.0xl017 1.4xl017 2.Oxl017 2.5xl017
400 1.0xl017 1.4xl017 1.9xl017 2.7xl017 4.0xl0~

Co Fe-N; Sm-Co, Nd-Fe-B etc. which may be Table2-Liquid carriers usedin synthesis
offerrofluids
considered, as candidates for colloidal particles in Inorganicsolvent:Aqueous
the preparation of magnetic fluids, either the Organicsolvents:Heptane, Xylene,Toluene,
MEK A
chemistry or the long-term stability of these Oils: Esters. .
materials have not yet been proven comparedwith H.ydrocarbons: MineraIandSynthetIc
d h . d fi . S I f h I.. bl Sllahydrocarbons .
Fe304an t e mlxe emtes. evera 0 tee Igl e Perfluoropolyethers
materials possesslarge magnetic momentsand thus Polyphenylethers
are attractive to advance the technology into the Glycols
realm of high magnetizationferrofluids. Silicones
Th .I b . d .
e partlC es may e vlewe as sp enca
h . I Vegetable:Sunflower,
Cannola,Castor

nanomagnetsdispersed randomly in a continuous biodegradibility and toxicity are of concern,

phase. In order to achieve a stable suspension,
these magnets must be kept apart and prevented
from agglomeration under the attractive magnetic
and Van der Waals forces. The role of a surface-
active agent in a ferrofluid is to mail1taina certain
minimum distance9, namely 1-2 nm, betweenthe
particles and at the same time invoke further
stabilization through steric repulsion. The solvated
stabilizing molecules have a polar head group,
which anchors, firmly to the surface of the particle
and a tail, which resemblesthe solvent. Different
surfactants are required to disperse particles in
different carriers. Stabilization of colloidal Fe304
with ionic charges has also been achieved1o.The
particles are kept in a colloidal state against the
gravitational settling by the Brownian movement.
The selection of the third component, i.e., the
carrier, depends on the application. Oil based
ferrofluids are used for their low volatility and long
life. Esterbasedferrofluids canoperateover a wide
temperaturerange, have a high viscosity index and
are more oxidative stable than the hydrocarbons.
On the other hand, hydrocarbonspossessa greater
hydrolytic stability than esters. Mineral oils are not
as thermally stable as the synthetic hydrocarbons.
For harsh chemical environments, perfluoropoly-
ethersare the best liquids. Under nuclear radiation,
polyphenyl ethers are most durable. Where
vegetableoils offer the best choice; however, they
suffer from poor thermal stability and their pour
points are high. Silicones have the highest viscosity ~
index of all the carriers, exhibit low volatility and
can be used over a wide operating temperature
range. However, the magnetization values of
silicones are limited to about 100 G. Aqueous
basedferrofluids are environmentalfriendly with a
high volatility and a restrictedtemperaturerange of
10-80°C.
The first magnetic fluid was based on a low
molecular weight mineral oil 2. Early commercial
ferrofluids used mostly esterand water as carriers,
followed by the developmentsof fluorocarbon and -'
synthetic hydrocarbon products. Then came the
polyphenyl ethers, glycols, halocarbons, and
vegetable oils. Most recently, a stable silicone
basedferrofluid has been synthesized.A complete
list of industrial magnetic colloids is shown in
Table 2. Each category except for the aqueous
medium representsa chemical family of carriers
offering a choice of parameters as viscosity,
operatingtemperature,volatility and environmental
compatibility to suit the particular requirementsof
an application. Including the option of various "
magnetizationvalues in eachfamily, this represents
more than 100 different ferrofluids that are
available for engineeringdesigns.
 RAJ& CHORNEY:FERROFLUID
TECHNOLOGY 375

COLLOID STABILITY
~Q9nrlic
FirldGrQ~irnt=
7.2X10"o./cm Table3-Achievable parameters in commercial
ferrofluids
S t t...
;: 80'1.
100", a ura IonmagnetIzation, 25°C 1100G
-~ , Externalfield for 90%Saturation 1600Oe
~60t, 1 " 1 . Permeabilit
..~O'l
u ..,
' 0" mtla magnetIc y 200G' 25°C 2. 5
~ 20'; P~rom~gnetic coefficient,1000Oe,20°C 3.5xI0-2emu/gK
, VISCOSity, 27°C 10000cp
0'" ViscosityIndex 300
2 3 4 5 6 Th I d ..
S .erma Evaporatlon.conrate,
UCtIVlty,
25°C 215mw/mK
~ at 'Ions
UCC~SSIV~ G~nar 175°C 2.7xI0-9gicm2s
Fig. 5 -Improvements made in colloidal stability of Upper Temperature 250°C
ferrofluids. Lower Temperature -80°C
VapourPressure,25°C -10-11Torr
THERMALSTABILTY
175°C Particle.
size ..55 A
0.3 2.1 2 CoefficIent
of Fnctlon 0.05
'"' 250 9 cm Electrical Resistivity, 25°C 35x1090-cm

200 255 .Ieectnc

O I .
Constant,I QOG,
25°C 2.5
.c 150 145
~
E 100 100 magnetic fluids. More than 200,000 of these seals
j: 50 have been manufactured since commencement. The
0 seals have the distinguished record of providing
1
2 3 4 5 6 years of maintenance free service in a wide
Succ~ssiv~G~n~rations commercial sector such as the semiconductor,
Fig. 6-lmprovements madein thennalstability of t / aerospace, laser, process and nuclear industriesl2.
es er A II th . I..
hydrocarbonbasedferrofluids. mong a e competIng sea mg technologIes, this
is the only product which has a unique combination
.The chemistry of ferrofluids has steadily of st.andardperf~rmance ~aramete.rs: bi-directional
Improved over the years. The growth was fueled by rotation, hermetic behavior, static and dynamic
?Iarket. opportunities requiring technological sealing, non-rubbing, pressure range: 10-8 torr to 5
Innovations. The physical properties that have been bars, temperature range: -10-1 OO°C, shaft
the focus of continual refinement are colloidal diameter: 5-100 mm, DN (shaft diameter in
stability, thermal stability, volatility, temperature mmxspeed in rpm)=200,000, 100% torque
range, durability under harsh environments transmission and very low power consumption.
compatibility with materials and merit ratio (th; However, state-of-art seals have been built to
ratio of viscosity and saturation magnetization operate at; ultrahigh vacuum: 10-9 torr, positive
,,:ithout impacting any other physical parameters). pressure: 15 bars, shaft diameter: I m, upper
Fig. 5 shows progressive improvements in colloid temperature: 200°C, DN=500,000, but these values
.l stability and Fig. 6 in thermal stability. Table 3 is a do not necessarily represent the limit of the
summary of the maximum physical parameters that technology. The seal is predominantly a gas seal
have been achieved in ferrofluids. It must be noted but it can withstand occasional liquid splashes.
that no single ferrofluid can achieve all these Bec~use of its zero leakage capability, the seal
specifications. When one parameter is optimized pe~its con.tamination free processing of silIcon
the others are compromised to various degrees. For ChiPS,contaInment of nuclear radiation, fabrication
example, an 1100 G ferrofluid will be very viscous of optical fibers in clean environments and growth
and can be used only in a limited temperature of def~ct free. semi~onductor single crystals, and
range. Furthermore, only certain carriers can be thus It provides Invaluable service to these
employed for this purpose. Similarly, a very low indu.stries.
pour point ferrofluid will in general have a high Fig. 7 shows the basic design of the seal. An~
volatility associated with it. axially polarized ring magnet is the source of
magnetic flux, which is channeled and focused into
Vacuumrotary ~eal an air gap by a set of pole pieces attached to ~ach
Introduced m 1969-70, vacuum rotary seals were face of the magnet. A magnetically permeable shaft
the very first industrial product I I based on supported by two precision bearings completes the
 INDIAN J. ENG. MATER. SCI., DECEMBER 1998 _~76

PERMANENT electromechanical subsystems providing combined

MAGNET linear, rotary and oscillatory motions, liquid

cooling and electrical power under vacuum

STATIC conditions. The examples of these subsystems are:
D- RING SIDE crucible lift assembly for crystal growth, platen
VACWMSIDE ING
BALL BEARII«; actuation in control vapor deposition machines and

substrate manipulation in RF sputtering units. The

seal integrated subassemblies eliminate the
problems of incorrect installation of ferrofluid seal
in the equipment, space and interface requirements
for the seal and simplification of the procedure of
electromechanical
-'
design.
SemiconduGtor processing subsystem-Magnetic
fluid seals are utilized in all phases of '"'

VACUUM ATMOSPHERE semiconductor processing, from the very first step

(PROCESS) .
0 f pro d uctlon 0 fh .Ig h gra d e monocrysta II ..
me Sl 1.Icon

Fig. 7 -Elements of a multistage magnetic fluid rotary seal. material to the last step of fabrication of integrated

devices. Several seals are employed in the machine

RF SPUTTERING SUBSVTEM that converts chunks of polY.crystalline silicon into

SPUTTERING defect free, dimensionally controlled monocrystal-

T~ ATERCOOLED line silicon ingotsl3. Each ingot is then sliced into
MOVABLE ~~ AfERPLATTEN
SHUTTER-wafers, about 0.5 mm thick, using a diamond saw.
WAFER The wafers, which may range in diameter from 100

to 200 mm, go through several processing steps

~~~~~~~TE such as photoresist, chemical vapor deposition, .

plasma etching, ion milling, eptitaxial growth and

sputtering depending upon the specifications of the
RF POWER-end product. In these processes the surface of the

silicon wafer is modified to include SiO2 layers, p

WATERIN and n type impurities, metallization and electrical
WATER
OUT .
elements. Because of the small feature sIze of
Fig. 8 -Schematic of an RF s~u~erin.g ~ubsyst~m w~th a circuits the process environments must be clean.
hallow shaft ferro~uid seal pr~vldmg liquid coolIng, lInear Fig. 8 is a schematic of a RF sputtering
displacement ' rotation and electncal power under vacuum. ..
equIpment WIt h a fierro fl UI.d sea I su b assem bl y.

Sputtering is a method of depositing a thin film of

magnetic circuit. A series of stages formed either material on a desired surface. An energetic beam of ,
on the shaft or pole pieces create alternate regions ions, initiated by a RF power, bombards a target
of intense and weak magnetic fields. When the seal (substance to be sputtered), and releases
is charged with a ferrofluid distinct liquid O-rings microscopic amounts of the target material which
are formed occupying the gaps under the stages is deposited on the substrate. The process consists
(regions of strong magnetic field) with intervening of evacuating the chamber and then back filling it
air annular spaces (regions of weak magnetic field). with argon gas. The ferrofluid feedthru is a conduit
Depending upon the mechanical design and to various services that are needed for the process
ferrofluid properties each ring can hold a practical such as water cooling, RF power and rotation. The
pressure differential of 15-30 kPa. However, with shaft of the seal is 38 mm in diameter and is
recent advances in the technology, each stage can hollow. It is connected to a planten carrying wafers
withstand up to 50 kPa without burst. The total to be processed. The planten is cooled with water ~,
pressure capacity of the seal is the sum of the to minimize temperature rise of wafers resulting
pressure holding strength of each stage. from the deposition of the target material. The
From the simple seal component, the technology water is carried from a rotary union into a
in the last few years has evolved into complex concentric pipe and then to the planten with one
 RAJ & CHORNEY: FERROFLUID ~- TECHNOLOGY 377

SIX DEGREES OF FREEDOM I Movable Elements I

FERROFLUID FACE SEAL
IIIIIII
II1III1

-Diaphragm

Voice Coil

MOVABLEPLATE

-Spider

6 DDf'
ACTUAT

I Fixed Elemen1s1...

Fig. 9 -Six degrees Qf freedom magnetic liquid seal used in Baske\

X-ray lithography.
Pole Piec~
, Ferrofluid
pipe serving as an inlet and the-other as the return Front Plote
path for water. The outer surface of the outside net
pipe is silveJ plated to conduct RF (- 13.5 Mz, 1 k Plate

kW) with minimum losses. The planten is indexed

to various angular positions for sputtering of Fig. 10- Schematic diagram of a dynamic loudspeaker
different materials on to the wafers. The bellows identifying fixed and moveable parts..attached
to the seal provide linear displacement to
the wafers
planten from
to facilitate
an adjacent
loading
load-lock.
and unloading
In additionof Into the s~al. Helium IS emplo~ed as It does not

to the main seal there are also other ferrofluid seals absorb.or1~pede the X-rays as air would and at the
in the machine which are used to control the s~e tl~e I~ cools the wafer and tJte ~ask. The seal
position of various shutters interposed between the ?eslgn ~s .dlfferent from the conventional struct.ure
wafer and the target, The shutters start and m that It IS a face seal rat.her than a rotary device.
terminate the process .The purpose of the seal IS to allow a very small

t
S .-1
.IX uegrees 0
iffr
eeuom
.-1

sea
I
-lerro
A ~ fl
UI
. d
sea
I movement of the mask relative to the wafJr with

I f h I .. fi I .. dth X very little mechanical resistance. The seal position

re amsl . a co umn 0 e lum m a me me-wI
th h h . t I. htl ..IS controlled by stepper motors operatIng m the
ray I ograp y mac me a a s Ig y posItive . .-'
d b d. I d .. d f~ ' mlcrostep mode. The motors are not capable of
pressure an can e ISp ace m SIX I lerent ...
orlen
. t
a
t .
Ions name
I
y X, y, z-
d '

Irec
t .
lons as we
II
as
overcomIng the friction of an elastomer type seal or

.t h d t t. (F . 9) Th I d. t an edge welded metal bellows. Larger motors can

.pi
IS
c , yaw
180
mm
an
an
d
ro a Ion
th
e
Ig. .e
d .
ISp
I
acements are
sea
z=+
lame er
0 5
.mm
solve
I
.
..
this problem
d .m t h.IS app I..Icatlon,
but at the expense of fine

2 2 .-, reso utlon require

x=:t mm,_y=:t mm. It IS attached to a movable
plate (one seal per face) which also carries a mask. Moving coil loudspeaker
At one end of the column is an X-ray source and at
the other a silicon wafer. The wafer is mounted a This application of magnetic fluids followed the
few microns away from the mask to minimize the sealing devices in the chronology of commercial
diffraction of X-rays. Lithography is a process of events, The use of ferrofluids in moving coil,"
transferring an image from a mask to a wafer and is loudspeakers may be traced back to 1973. It is
one of the steps in the manufacturing of integrated estimated that about 350 million speakers have
circuits. The section of the wafer to be modified by been built with ferrofluids to date. Various
the X-ray beam is positioned in line with the mask. components of a loudspeaker are shown in Fig. 10,
A complete alignment between the mask and the A strong magnetic field is produced in an air gap
wafer is achieved with the degrees of freedom built by forming a magnetic circuit composed typically
378 INDIANJ. ENG.MATER. SCI.,DECEMBER1998
of an axially polarized ceramic magnet and
magnetically permeable steel elements: the front
plate, black plate and pole piece. However, some
recent speakerdesigns also include powerful Nd-
Fe-B magnets with polarization in ~he radial
direction. Inside the gap is suspendeda bobbin or
voice coil with one or more layers of copper or
aluminum windings. The majority of speakers
contain a single magnetic gap and a cylindrical
coil. There are also commercial speakerswith dual
magnetic gaps and a flat voice coil14.Commonto
all speaker constructions is the formation of a
magnetic air gap
when excited withinan
which
audioasignal
coil can vibrate
in the freely
frequency
range of 20-20,000 Hz. The coil is connectedto a
dust cap, spider and diaphragm. The diaphragm
oscillates with the coil and produces compression
and rarefaction of surrounding air, thus generating
sound waves. The ferrofluid resides in the gap and
is retained by the prevailing magnetic field. It is a
freely suspendedcolumn of liquid enveloping both
sides of the coil and cannot be easily dislodged by
impact or g-forces of the moving mass. The coil
now travels in a liquid medium rather than air; and
this feature brings about a vast improvement in
speakerperformance. The thermal conductivity of
ferrofluid is about four times that of air and the
viscosity of ferrofluid, which may be adjusted, is
several orders of magnitude higher than air. The
fluid forms a bridge betweenthe moving coil and
the stationary metal structure. The structure serves
two functions: (i) it acts as a heat sink for the coil
which becomesvery hot during operationand (ii) it
establishes a velocity gradient across the film of
ferrofluid introducing a viscous damping term into
the force equation of the moving spring- mass
system. The presence of ferrofluid controls the
mechanical damping coefficient (Qm) of the
vibrating system. The Qm-factoris proportional to
the viscosity of the colloid. With a properchoice of
viscosity, the resonance peak can be critically
damped leading to a smooth frequency response
curve of the driver, a requisite for a hi-fi speaker
system. The fluid protects the coil from bum out
under high power levels. The fluid is known to
increasethe transient power handling capability of
a. driver by as much as a factor of four. The
magnetic fluids in the beginning were
predominantly used in tweeters, which reproduce
treble sound and are known to be highly
underdampedand susceptible to thermal failures.
However, today the fluid applications are more
wide spread,they are successfullyused not only in
tweeters but also in woofers, midranges,
compression drivers, alarm type speakers,
intercoms and under water acoustical systems.The
speaker industry now takes advantage of several
other attributes of ferrofluids such as the
simplification of cross-over networks, sealing,
corrosion protection and improved production
yields which previously lacked diligence. The large
demand for ferrofluids in loudspeakersand related
applications mainly created the need for the
development
with of tailored
properties a new generation of ferrofluids
to solve more difficult ..
problems. Some of the more unusual speaker
applicationsare describedbelow:
Spiderlesswoofer-FeiTofluids have traditionally
been used for the centering of voice coils in
tweetersI5. Ferrofluid has also been employed to
align a flat voice coil of a line source speakerl4.
However, more recently ferrofluid was designedto
provide a support mechanism for the coil in the
most demanding application, i.e., a line of 4 to 8
inch woofers. These drivers reproduce low
frequencysonic information by moving a large coil ~
and heavy diaphragm. The forces acting on the
spring- mass systemare quite large. A corrugated
disk element made of a flexible fabric called the
'spider' aligns the coil in the gap so that it vibrates
in a truly axial direction without any rotation,
rocking or uneven motion. Such a coil
displacementis necessaryto ensure low distortion
of sound. The retention of the ferrofluid iri these
drivers posed a challenge during operation as air
pressure is created in various cavities causing
ferrofluid to spew out of the gap. Furthermore, i
ferrofluid magnetostaticforces neededto be high
enough to counter the mechanical forces. A high
magnetization and low viscosity ferrofluid was
found suitable for this application. The fluid
provided the centering force for the coil and thus
the requirementfor the disk elementwas alleviated.
The woofers are vented through the pole piece and
rear plate to relieve excess pressure enabling
ferrofluid to stay in the gap. The magnetic flux
density in the gap is more than 10,000 Gauss,the 'f
coil excursion about6 mm, the power rating in the
rangeof 150 Wand the operatingfrequency20 Hz-
2 kHz. Both the cone and bobbin are made of
aluminum. The spun aluminum diaphragmremains
unaffected under water, Fig. 11, and its rigidity
 RAJ&CHORNEY:
FERRqFLUID
TECHNOLOGY 379

oor

Fig.12-Outline of atactilesound
transducer.

along with the coil. The system can be operated

continuously at 100 W RMS and up to 200 W
transient. A high power level is desired to create
'-- the maximum sensation.However, at these power
levels the voice coil may be overheatedespecially
at instantaneous peaks and may bum out. The
ferrofluid in the gap prevents thermal failures and
extendsthe service life of the transducer.The gap
flux density is in excess of 1.4 T to create a high
transduction force. The fluid possessesboth high
Fig. 11-Spiderless wooferwith ferrofluidsubmerged
in colloidal and thermal stabilities to ensurelong term
waterandtestedoverayear. reliable performance of the tactile audio system.
(Courtesy,
KieltykaW,NewEngland AudioResource,Maine) The device is used in home theaters, flight
simulators, amusementparks, schools for the deaf,,
etc.
ensuresan absenceof a high frequencypeak, found Alarm type speaker-The speakeris installed
typically in paper cones. Its large metallic conical as a warning device on heavy transportation and
surface area provides additional heat transfer for construction vehicles to alert people of the
the coil. These speakersare the preferred choice at impending danger of the moving vehicle. The
Disney World and theme parks and are either driver is subjected to harsh environmental
submerged in water or experience splashing of conditions such as extreme temperatures and
water. A fabric spider cannot function in these humidity. In this applicationthe speakeris operated
environments and the speaker will fail at the resonance peak to ensure the maximum
immediately. Ferrofluid is the only choice to align sound pressure level (SPL) for the alarm. The
the coil and as an additional advantageimprove the broader and higher the peak, the better the device.
F-' heattransfer. The selectedfluid is compatible with Thus the requirements for the ferrofluid are
water. opposite to the conventional speakers. The
Tactile soundtransducer-Tactile sound is the sPe;cificationfor the SPL is 107-103 dB, which is
experienceof low frequencyvibrations, 20-800 Hz, achieved with a tight air gap having a high
passing through the whole body and not just magnetic flux density. Ferrofluid eliminated the
listening to the bass music through the ear. This problem of voice coil rubbing created by the
"flying saucer" shapedtransducer, about 200 mm narrow radial gap and improved production yields.
in diameterand 50 mm high, is directly fastenedto The resonancepeak was slightly (-2 dB) damped-
a physical structure such as a chair, bed or floor in the presenceof ferrofluid but the speakerwas
through a threaded fitting, (Fig. 12) and transmits still within the specification. The enhanced heat
sonic energy into the object rather than into the air. transfer allowed an increasedcurrent flow into the~
The magnetic circuit is similar in design to a coil thereby restoring some of the loss in
conventional speaker and is rigidly connected to efficiency. The fluid caused the peak to broaden
the bottom half of the shell. The voice coil is over a wider band and improved the alarm
attachedto the top half of the shell, which vibrates frequencyselection.
 INDIAN J. ENG. MATER. SCI., DECEMBER 1998 '.

much larger in size than the flying height of the

disk and can easily destabilize the head and cause it

HEAD to cras. h Th e rotation . .
0 f t h e disk creates a small
MAGNETIC

ICALLY negative air pressure, which P romotes mi g ration of

SILVER P~INT I DUCTIVE
CONDUCTIVE
GLUE NETIC FLUID bearing g rease P articles towards the disk cavi ty .

The ferrofluid exclusion seal prevents this flow of

ETIC SEAL partlc . I es. Add ..ItIona II y, electrostatic charges are

! generated on the moving disk. If the potential

difference between the disk and the head is allowed

to exceed the dielectric breakdown of air (0.8

kV/mm), a spark may be produced resulting in

IC) system failure. The accumulation of static charges

also constitutes a flow of low level electrical ""'

Fig. 13 -Computer disk drive spindle equipped with a current through the bearings. This may cause a loss

electrically conducting magnetic fluid seal. of accuracy, pitting of the bearings and a shortened

bearing life. An electrically conducting ferrofluid,

ISO FERROFLUID STEPPER in addition to providing sealing, also protects the

spindle from static electrical discharge' .

Shaftless seal designs and new ferrofluids were

developed in tandem around 1979 specifically for

sealing magnetic disk drive spindles. The current

mechanical sealing technology that existed was not

performing satisfactorily and a reliable sealing

method was sought by the computer industry. The )

disk cavity needed to be hermetically sealed from

external and internal sources of contaminants to

avoid hard (head crash) or soft (information loss)

errors. The most challenging problem was to seal

Figure 14. Cross section of a permanent magnet stepper motor. the rotating shaft so that the bearing grease vapors

and any other particulate matter produced

internally did not escape to the disk area.

Exclusion seal for hard disk drive Conventional elastomer type seals were not

A magnetic disk drive spindle equipped with a adequate as they self-generated particles due to

ferrofluid exclusion seal is shown in Fig. 13. The friction. A ferrofluid exclusion seal is a low

shaft of the spindle is supported by two precision pressure, thin profile seal designed to protect the ~

ball bearings. One end of the shaft is attached to a critical elements of a rotating system from

motor (for rotation of the spindle) and the other is deleterious environments. The torque and power

fixed to a hub (for placement of memory disks). A requirements of the seal are minimal which makes

magnetic pick- up head stores or retrieves the technology attractive. Although these seals are

information from the rotating disk. In a floppy disk also utilized successfully in textile, robotics and

drive, the head rides on the surface of the disk in an marine industriesl2, the largest application has been

intimate contact, but in a hard drive the head in the computer industry. Presently, about four

initially rests on the surface of the disk but as soon million of these seals are manufactured per month

as the disk begins to rotate, it is aerodynamically to serve the needs of the computer industry. The

lifted at a height of about 0.2 J.1m above the surface first exclusion seal application was in a 14" disk

of the disk. The latter technology, called the drive spindle, followed by 10" and 8" drives used'

Winchester drive, enables one to achieve a high in main frame computers. The shaft diameter for

magnetic storage density. The operating the 14" drive was 46 mm and smaller for the

environments for the head and the disk must be others. The speed of rotation for all these spindles

kept clean. Even a small dust particle (typical was 3600 rpm with the sealing pressure

dimension: 24 J.1ffi) or human hair (-100 J.lm) is requirement of 5" H2O.

 RAJ& CHORNEY:FERROFLUID
TECHNOLOGY 381

..AUTOMATED STA6E LIGHTING

Table4 -Recovery of mineralsfromconcentrate
of a placer
goldmineusingmagneticfluid separator
MMER
(Courtesy:RalphaelSmoltin,MagneticTechnologiesfor
RecoveryofMineralsLtd,Israel)
FirstStep:Magneticseparation
in a weekmagneticfield: 5
0.26-0.3Tesla
Magnetite 35.5%
Magneticwastes 60.8%
Chromite 3% ~ LAMP
Zircon 0.2%
Cinnabar
Lossof 2old afterthis process
0.5%
0.4%
tc:::D
,j.
in a strongfield: 2.3Tesla F.Ig. 15-erro
SecondStep:Magneticseparation F fl .d t tta h d t d.
"- UI s epper ace 0 a Immer. The
Chromite 77% magneticfluid improvesstepaccuracy.
Zircon 8%
Ilmenite 2.6%
Cinnabar 3.6% pressure capacity:> 5 H2O, temperature range: -20
Hematite 8% to 80°C, life: 5 years, shock: 6-150 g. The seals are
and the rest of 0.9% consistedof garnet of Fe(OHh
I .I
bl d t . t h .
assem ..e ID au oma IC mac IDes t 0 meet Iarge
.
p aglOC
ase
Lossof 2&ldafterthis process 0.3%
d b
productIon requIrements an cost 0 ~ectlves.
..
,j.
Third Step: Separation
withkerosene basedmagneticfluid, Ferrofluid filled stepper
density+0.9g/cc,Field gradient
-0.1 T/cm b d bd .
A stepper motor may e escn e as a precIsIon
..
Chromite 31% incremental actuator based on the interaction
,Zircon 23.2%
0.2%
b .
etween a permanent magnetic fiIeld and"Cassiterite
an
Cinnabar 42% electromagnetic field in an air gap. Ferrofluids are
Pyrite 3.0% used in permanent magnet or hybrid types of
Epidot ..0.6~0 steppers which possess a magnetic field in the gap
Lossof 2oldm thiSsta2e 0.2"/0 even when the motor is nonoperating, and not in
General
recove~of gold 99.1% variable reluctance motors where the field is
produced only when the windings are energized.
The shaft of the device moves in discrete angular
With the advent of personal and lap top positions in response to a sequence of excitation.
computers the seal volume surged dramatically. pulses. Being of digital nature and driven by logic
The spindle sizes shrunk successively to 51/4", circuits, these motors can easily interface with
'-' 31/2", 21/2" and 1.8" due to space constraints and computers. The applications of steppers are
so did the dimensions of the ferrofluid exclusion numerous; some examples are: plotters, scanners,
seals. Seals with an axial length as low as 0.75 mm silicon wafer transport, machine tool, mail sorting
have been produced but the most common size is '1 and robots. The angular displacement and the
mm. The sealing technology has been one of the direction of the shaft rotation depends upon the
few innovations which has successfully kept up number of stator and rotor teeth and the phase
with the changing trends of the spindle designs and relationship between the coils. A cross-section of a
of the computer industry. The new generation of PM stepper is shown in Fig. 14. The rotor is made
disk drive spindles are both fixed and rotating shaft of a nonmagnetic steel shaft. Mounted on the shaft
types with operating speeds in the range of 3600- are a cylindrical magnet and two soft iron yokes
7500 rpm. The seals, which are the scaled down affixed coaxially on either side of the magnet. This
"' version of the large two pole seals, are furbished is the construction of a single stack rotor. A
with ferrofluid after they are installed on the multiple stack rotor (a design used for boosting the
spindle, and can be either a single or double pole motor output tQrque) consists of the basic magnet
fill. The operating parameters of the seal are; and two yokes unit repeated several times along the
 382 INDIAN J. ENG. MATER. SCI., DECEMBER 1998
length of the shaft. Such a structure will invariably
use a higher amount of ferrofluid than the single
stack. Each yoke is composed of a number of teeth
along its circumference; The teeth on the second
yoke are displaced by half a pole pitch from the
first one but are of exactly the same shape and
number. For a 1.8° angular displacement there are
50 teeth on each yoke, and the adjacent teeth on
either yoke are spaced apart by 7.2°. The stator of a
1.8° stepper is comprised of 8 electrically
energized laminated poles with each pole equipped
with 5 teeth spaced the same as on the rotor. The
teeth of adjacent poles are 1/4 of a tooth pitch
displaced from each other. When the stator is
excited with four phase windings, the shaft
executes 200 steps in one revolution. Each step is a
result of the ,nagnetic force of attraction acting to
align the rotor teeth with the stator teeth of
opposite polarity. When a phase is energized, the
electromagnetic flux thus generated passes through
the pole into the ~ir gap, then into the yoke,
thro.ugh.the m~gnet, mto the yoke? then to the stator
laml~at!ons, mto the magnetically ~e~eable
housmg and bac~ throug~ the stator lammatlon to
the pole of o.pposltepolarity. ..into
.Several dlffere?t types of ferroflulds are used m
steppers dependmg upon the nature of the
VERTICAL
PUMP
MOTOR
MA~EE;~C
L stepper is used in a mechanism designef to move a
VAPO
LIQUID
""'-' '"'"
""'" ., "'"" ---
~ -::::::::::-
-::: -=--~
SHAFTALIG
BUSHING
Environmentalseals
Fig. 16-A verticalsumppumpwith a magneticfluid seal Preservation and protection of the environment
providingcontainment
of hazardous
gases. has become a major concern in the world. The
problem!? The maximum stepper motor housing
temperature is about 130°C. Being in sealed
environments, the ferrofluid evaporative losses are
minimal. The fluid life is generally not an issue.
However, the capillary migration of magnetic fluid
through the laminations must be prevented by
proper adhesive bonding of the individual sheets.
The advantages of using ferrofluids in PM steppers
are: noise reduction, decrease in settling time,
increased torque output at resonance, co"rrosion
protection and heat transfer. These benefits are
realized by the viscous shear effect of the ferrofluid
retained by the magnetic field between the stator
and rotor teeth. Sporadic commercial activities
.A
relatmg to ferrofluid steppers have existed since
1985, but it was not until 1992 that more consistent
market acceptance was realized. It is estimated that
there are close to 200,000 steppers operating at this
time in the field. A most recent application is
described below:
Automated stage lighting-In the entertainment
industry, automated stage lighting is quite
commonly employed. Originally conceived to
eliminate the need for a lighting technician to climb
the rafters to refocus lights and change their
colored lenses, automated lighting has also gained '1
wide popularity because of its ability to create
special effects. The automated function is
controlled by steppers which interface with a
computer. In fact the whole show can be
programmed in advance. A schematic of the
lighting arrangement is shown in Fig. 15. A size 17
lens in front of a high intensity bulb. The motor
was deficient in positional accuracy, and because
of vibrations it was also noisy. A mechanical
damper was used to correct this problem but "1
without avail. The fluid filled motor not only
substantially increased the positional accuracy, but
also reduced the noise. Additionally, the lens
became quite hot due to its close proximity to the
bulb. The heat flowed along the shaft of the motor
and resulted in an unacceptably high rotor
temperature. By bridging the gap b~tween the rotor
and stator, ferrofluid provided a path for heat flow
into a larger sink, lowering the operating
temperature of the rotor by 30°C.
~
g

RAJ & CHORNEY: FERROFLUID TECHNOLOGY 383

environmentalseal based on magnetic fluid is the pressureinside a processchamber.A stirrer may be

~atestproduct designed to contain the hazardous employedto agitatea liquid mixture in a reactor. A
volatile compounds within the process chamber pump may serveto remove liquid from a sump or
and prevent them from polluting the atmosphere18.evacuatea processvessel.The sealperforms a dual
The seal at the same time does not allow function, i.e., containment of hazardousgases in
atmosphericcontaminantsto leak into the process the enclosure and protection of process
thereby affecting quality and yield of finished environmentsfrom outsidecontamination.
product. These seals are used either as 'stand- Blower seal- A ferrofluid emission control
alone' or in tandem with a mechanicalseal. For seal was installed in a nickel ore refinement
most applications,the pressurecapacity of the seal system. The seal is attached to a blower which
need not be more than 34 kPa and only in few forces poisonous' CO over nickel ore, thus
instancesmay the sealing requirementexceed 101 producing Ni(CO)4. The mixture is then carried
kPa. In the process generally both liquid and over to another part of the system where under
vapour phasesare presentand a considerationof higher temperatureNi(CO)4 decomposesinto pure
~ theseenvironmentsand location of sealdictatesthe Nickel. Four seals are used per system with the
seal design. If a liquid is to contact the magnetic operating speed of about 1100 rpm. The seals
fluid seal,a mechanicalsealis desiredto avoid the hermetically retain the toxic fumes within the
mixing of liquid with ferrofluid. A mechanicalseal system,and at the sametime do not allow the oil
is also necessary if the operating pressuresare used for lubrication of bearingsand gearsto enter
excessivelyhigh. However, mechanicalseals such the process.Lip sealsare usedto preventmixing of
as labyrinths, packings and bushings inherently lubricating oil with ferrofluid.
leak and with the passageof time as the wear Pump seal-Fig. 16 shows the schematic of
increasesthe emissionof harmful processvapours application of the sealing technology to a vertical
increases.Magnetic fluid seals,on the other hand, sump pump. These types of pumps are used for
are nonwearingand hermetic in nature and thus in evacuationof difficult to accessindustrial wastes,
( combination with a mechanicalseal they ensurea corrosive and noncorrosive liquids. The pump
complete retentionof toxic organics or inorganics vtumn is attached to a motor which drives an
In caseswhere the seal is exposedto only vapours impeller. Except for the motor, most of the
which may be present on top of the liquid, the assemblyis submergedin the processliquid. The
'stand alone' version works fine. If the gasesare oottom of the column is filled with liquid and the
chemically active, a purge of inert gas such as top contains the vapour phase. The pressure is
nitrogen or argon in front of the seal may be close to vapour pressure,however, a seal with a
necessaryto extend its life. The seal may be sufficient high pressure capacity i.e. 34 'kPa was
refurbished with the ferrofluid through a fill port used.The shaft rotated at a speedof 3500 rpm, and
while mountedand operating on the equipment, if its diameter was 28 mm. The gasesconsistedof
so desired,providing multiple yearsof replacement tolueneand methyl ethyl ketone at a temperatureof
,-free operation.
accessed The interstage
to monitor regions
the leakage may
of any also be about
corrosive 90°C.
Mixer seal- In a low speedmixer application,
gas as the seal approachesits terminal life to Fig. 17, the vapours produced as a result of
preventcatastrophicimpact on environmentsand to chemical reaction were chlorofluorocarbonsand
enhance planned maintenance. These seals are hydrochlorofluorocarbons in a tank containing
typically not liquid cooled and may operate in the liquid diphenylmethane diisocynate prepolymer.
temperature range of 60-125°C. The operating The maximum pressureof the vapours was 510
speedsare from 1500 to 6000 rpm, and the shaft kPa, but the seal was designed with a sufficient
diametersmay range from 10 to 100 mm. To meet safety factor to sus~ain1100 kPa. To protect the
environmentaland life specifications,fluorocarbon magnetic fluid seal from an occasional liquid
based ferrofluids are ideal for these applications. splash, a guard seal was incorporated into the
~ The seal is used as a positive barrier around assembly.The atmosphereside of the sealwas als()
rotating shaftsof industrial fans, blowers, agitators, equipped with a guard sealto protect it from gear
mixers and pumps. The fan and other similar oil and dust. The temperature of the gaseous
devices move air or gas under vacuum or positive environmentswas lessthan 40°C. The rotary speed
384 INDIAN J. ENG. MATER. SCI., DECEMBER 1998

MIXER Two types of particle separators utt'lizing

magnetic fluid technology have been developed.

One is a static unit, known as magnetogravimetric

or sink- float method2O.21, in which the magnetic

MAGNETIC LIQUID fluid is station ary in the ta p ered P ole P ieces of an

SEAL.
electromagnet, Fig. 18. The fluid is subjected to a

VAPO magnetic field gradient. The apparent specific

LIQUID gravity of the fluid is proportional to the field

gradient. Mixed nonferrous materials are fed into

the middle of the fluid reservoir with a conveyor

MIxER BLA belt. Lighter materials float to the top, and the

heavier materials sink to the bottom of the

ferrofluid pool. Conveyor belts, one for the top part

and the other for the bottom, scoop these materials

Fig. 17 -A mixer fitted with an environmental seal based on and transfer them into separate buckets. The -..0

ferrofluid. apparent density of the fluid can be controlled by

the current in the electromagnet; thus materials of a

SINK FLOAT SEPARATION wide range of densities can be separated by this

method. Kerosene based ferrofluids are typically

used for this application because of their high

colloid stability in large field gradients and low

viscosity. They are relatively inexpensive, easily

diluted, and can be prepared with a high

magnetization value. These separators have

predominantly been used in recovery of precious

metals and stones.

Sink-float equipment using a hydrocarbon based 1

Electromagnet ferrofluid has recently been marketed. With this

system, materials in the density range of 0.85-22

Fig. 18-Schematic of a static material separator using g/mL can be separated with the resolution of 0.1

magnetic fluid. g/mL. The technique can be effectively used in the

grain size of 0.03-16 mm, and feed rates of up to

of the shaft was 10-50 rpm. The seal operated 30 kg(h. T?e re~overy of .go.ld in placer and ore

successfully in these environments. deposits With thiS process IS In the range of 98.6-

99.5%. An example of mineral separation in a

Material separation placer gold mine is shown in Table 4. The gold

Various methods exist for concentration and sands and rocks are always mixed in with weak and
separation of ores19 and a number of them utilize strong paramagnetic compounds. After the -~

gravimetric principles and rely upon the density of conventional gravity beneficiation process, the gold

the processing fluid. Heavy liquids such as concentrate is subjected to three stage separation.

methylene bromide and acetylene tetrabromide The first two steps remove the magnetic impurities;

possessing densities of up to 5 g/cc are some times the trailing is then passed through the sink~float

employed in centrifuges for this purpose. However, apparatus for final recovery of gold.

these liquids are toxic, threaten personnel safety The second system is known as Magstream(R).

and pose environmental hazard. A ferrofluid, on The magnetic fluid along with the particles to be

the other hand, can have an apparent density as separated rotate in a vertical duct placed in a

high as 20 g/cc and it can be controlled in precise magnetic field (Fig. 19). A septum at the lower end

steps with a magnetic field gradient. Water based of the duct divides the mixed mineral slurry into of

ferrofluids, generally recommended for this two fractions. Each particle in the separator is

application, are nontoxic, inexpensive, can be subjected to four radial forces22: the outward

easily diluted and reclaimed from the wet particles. centrifugal force, inward buoyancy force resulting
 RAJ& CHORNEY:FERROFLUID
TECHNOLOGY 385

from the outward centrifugal force on the MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMIC

SEPARATION
surrounding ferrofluid, inward levitation force by
the magnetic field gradient and .outward magnetic
attractive force on weakly paramagnetic particles.
The centrifugal and the levitation are the dominant
forces and the other two forces are relatively weak. STATIONARY
The magnetic attractive force term is zero for ~~I~~ 1/ ;o~o \
nonmagnetic
.. partlC
1
es.
Th
e centrl
. fu
ga
1
an
d FERROFLUIO
I
oto
+0+0+0
+
\

levitation forces can be independently varied on a ! i\~: I

particle by changing the speed of rotation and I ~oi+ I
magnetic fild .
Ie ...
Intensity or more convement1y ~r:;~~ I1 +0'"
0+0+..I I
magnetization of the fluid. The net force varies : ~:o"+ :
linearl y with the radius and is diretted either loot 0 ~ I
I
inward or outward depending upon the selection of : go~~ I~
speed, field intensity, magnetization of ferrofluid \ 'loAt: I
and the density difference between the fluid and the M ',- ~.1+ /
particle. By properly balancing these forces a HFAVY IttBI. LIGHT
d d . fi . 1.. .
b h
eslre speci IC gravity sp It pOInt may e ac leve
d . F:RACTION
IllER ERACTION
whereby the slurry is divided into two fractions; Fig. 19-Material separation
achieved
witha rotatingcolumn
one with the 'density below the chosen split point offerrofluid.
and the other above that point. The lighter R-action
is collected at the inside and the heavier at the Magnetization versus Density for
outside of the septum. Each of these fractions MSCW 11
which indeed may be a mixture of several different E 1'~.~
minerals can be further processed in the separator E
. fi
Into mer cuts. n
I M 1
agstream, umt partlC es 0
f 01 1.15
;;:
..
f .
d ffi d 1. d ..
I erent enslty va ues are riven opposite y
1 ..1.1
.~ 1005
independent of their shape, size and position in the ~ 1
duct. Precise separations in a wide density range, 0 50 100 150 200
i.e., 1.5 to over 21 g/cc can be achieved with Magnetization,Gauss
particle size less than 250 ~m. A controlled mineral
recovery experiment was performed using the Fig.20-= Ca1ibrati~n (magnetization
versusdensity)curvefor
commercial Magstream(R)unit model 50 and water waterbasedferrofluldMSGWIt.
based ferrofluid MSG WIt. The calibration curve,
(Fig. 20) provides a straight line relationship the minerals having SG greater than 3.1. This
between the density and magnetization of the procedure produced two fractions namely PCD (H)
ferrofluid. Ten glacier sediment specimens (already at the outside and PCD (L) at the inside of the
examined for absence of indicator minerals) septum. Both fractions were dried and weighed.
ranging in weight from 137 to 270 g but of The fraction PCD (H) contained all of the indicator
different origin and contents were spiked with ten minerals. These results are shown in Table 5. The
specimens of the known indicators: ~¥rope (PY)- quality of separation was determined in two ways:
SG: 3.51, chrome diopside (CD)-SG: 3.3 and (i) the weight of PCD (H) should be as low as
ilmenite (IL)-SG :4.72. The concentrated MSG possible so that when the indicators are sorted
WI I was diluted with water to obtain a density manually with a microscope, the time required
value of 1.05 g/cc with the corresponding would be minimum ensuring cost savings, and (ii)
magnetization of 37 G. The split point was there should be 10 of each of the indicators in the
experimentally determined to be at 3.1 SG. The PCD (H) fraction. If this number is less than 10,r-
speed of rotation, 370 rpm, was calculated from the this means that some of the indicators are present
known values of ferrofluid parameters and mineral in the PCD (L) fraction and the separation was less
density. Each of the ten samples were processed at than perfect. The results show varying weights and
the feed rate of IS g/cc only once to separate all of the number of indicators recovered. The variation
386 INDIANJ. ENG.MATER.SCI.,DECEMBER1998

-
Table5 -Results of mineralseparation
usingMagstream(!)
unit
(CrJurtesy..Bahjal Koshaba,CanameraGeological Ltd., Canada)
Ferrofluid MSGWI I
Magnetization 167.4G
Density 1.23g/mL
FeedRate 15g/mL
Sample Sample SG RPM PCD PCD PY CD IL
# weight,g ferrofluid (L) (H)

370
A 215.5 1.05 370 113.58 101.92 08\10 09\10 06\10
B 136.96 1.05 370 75.44 61.52 09\10 10\10 10\10
C 235.51 1.05 370 201.44 34.07 10\10 10\10 06\10
D 233.38 1.05 370 177.78 55.6 08\10 07\10 05\10
E 231.05 1.05 370 172.12 58.93 10\10 10\10 07\10
F 198.94 1.05 370 162.12 36.82 07\10 07\10 07\07 '""
G 198.32 1.05 370 167.94 30.38 10\10 08\10 07\10
H 198.77 1.05 370 176.84 21.93 09\10 08\10 07\10
---

FERROFLUID
SOLENOID
VALVE mechanical stop or butt affixed near the center
prevents the slug from being ejected out of the
bore. A spring attached to the plunger keeps it
away from the center when the coil carries no
c\XTent.Thus a reciprocating motion of the plunger
is produced as the coil is excited with a series of
electFical pulses. This back and forth movement
can ~ used to actuate a valve, which in turn may l
control a flow of liquid or gas. In miniature
solenoid valves this displacement is of the order of
1mm. A magnetic field is created in the gap
between the plunger and the butt. The higher the
Fig. 21 -Components of a solenoid valve and location 01 value of the magnetic field (or the current in the
ferrofluid. .
1) t he greater the fiorce on t he pIunger. A s t he
COt,
slug approaches the butt, the force increases rapidly
was attributed to the differences in the sediments due to a decrease in the reluctance of the magnetic
and not to any inadequacies in the fundamental flux path. The plunger strikes the butt with the
principles of the separation process. Subsequent maximum force; creating noise, vibrations and
experiments have shown that the weight of PCD chattering. Random noise of solenoid valves poses ,
(H) could be as low as 20 g with 100% recovery of serious restrictions in their utility in machines
the indicators. If desired it is possible to further which must perform quietly. For example, in
separate IL (SG 4.72) from the other two minerals medical applications such as dialysis equipment,
at the split point of SG 4.1. IL will be collected at blood chemistry instruments, blood pressure
the outside of septum and PY and CD at the inside. monitors and ventilators/respirators it is necessary
that the valyes be quiet for patient's comfort.
Quietsolenoidvalve The presence of ferrofluid in a solenoid valve
A solenoid consists of a hollow bobbin with a may lead to several advantages such as noise
wound coil and a plunger or magnetic slug which is reduction, lubrication of moving parts, corrosion
free to move inside the bore (Fig. 21). When the resistance, and increased force on plunger and heat
coil is energized with an electrical pulse, a dissipation. The fluid fills all of the gaps inside the .,
magnetic field is produced in and around the core. solenoid. A small external magnet retains the fluid
As a result of this field the plunger is magnetically when the valve is not.functioning.
attracted towards the center of the coil. A A miniature solenoid valve was filled with a
 RAJ& CHORNEY:FERROFLUID
TECHNOLOGY
SOL ENOIO VALVE
Conditions 2Hz
50
55 0 Nois~ l~\'t' I
I. 5 .Responst" T'
,1me(msec)
;~ '35
30
25
20
15
10 5-0
8 ::l.:':.~":.
~-_.
No Ferrofluid With Ft"rrofl uid
Fig. 22 -Comparison of solenoidnoise leveland response transformer must be conducted away to avoid an
time withandwithoutterrofluid.Conditions:2 Hz, I eV.
high viscosity fluorocarbon based ferrofluid. The
valve operated at 12 VDC with a frequency of2 or
20 Hz. The- noise level of the valve was measured
after it reached the steady state temperature of
45°C with a B&K acoustical meter in an anechoic
chamber. Without the ferrofluid, the noise level
was 50 dBA and with ferrofluid it decreasedto 32
dBA almost indistinguishable ~om t.he backg~ound
noise; Fig. 22. There was a SlIght Increase m the
response time of the valve; it increa~ed from 5.0.!0
5.5 ms in the presence of ferrofluld. The pu."-m
current was about 60 mA, less than the specIfied
value of 65 mA. This was believed to be cfue to an
increase in the magnetic permeability of the air gap
in the presence of ferrofluid and the resulting
increase in acceleration of the plunger.. The val~e
was contin~ously operated for a penod of SIX
months at 2 Hz and at a pressure of 50 kPa thus
accumulating over 15 million cycles with out any
problems. Separately, a life test was performed on
a different valve operating at 20 Hz. The valve
actuated for 20 million cycles at which time the test
was stopped; its electrical and seal parameters were
measured and then the device was disassembled for
inspection of wear. The solenoid met all the
operating specifications and no wear was.observed.
A model is proposed for the dampIng of the
solenoid valve with ferrofluid. It is believed that
this is not viscous damping since this type of
"" damping is affected by the temperature, which was
found not to be the case. The damping mechanism ferrofluids
is understood to be of dash pot type. It is the ~ploration
movement of entrapped air between the plunger begun.
387
and the butt through the ferrofluid seal that
provides the noise control.
Transformers .
The use of magnetic liquids in transformers, FIg.
23, is a relatively new area. The ferrofluids for t~is
application are typically based on petroleu~ o~l.s,
which are liquids of choice for heat conductIon m
transformers. Large transformers such as
distribution, traction and power transformers are
cooled with dielectric oils2 .The heat generated by
the current passing through the primary and
secondary windings as well as the heat generated
by the eddy currents in the laminated core of the
excessive temperature build- up. The temperature
degrades the insulation, increases power losses and
reduces the op~rating life of the transformer. It is
suggested that for every 4°C rise in temperature the
insulation life is reduced 24by 30%. The core is
cooled by the natural convective flow of the oil.
When transformer oil is converted into a ferrofluid,
the heat transfer is significantly improved. There is
an additional force that comes into play by virtue
of the fact that the liquid now has magnetic
properties. This force, called the magnetic body
force, is considerably higher than the buoyancy
force. The origin of this force is the chan~e in
magnetization of ferrofluid with temperature 5. At
elevated temperatures the magnetization of
ferrofluid is lower than at room temperatu~e. The
ferrofluid next to the windings is not as strongly
attracted in comparison to the fluid awa~from the
windings in the cooler regions of the transformer.
The time varying magnetic fields, already present in
the tr'ansformer due to the flow of electric currents,
cause the ferrofluid to circulate, thus providing the
heat transfer which is predominantly radial in
direction. The winding temperature may be
decreased by as much as 10°C with the fluid.
...
In addition to heat transfer and elImInatIon of
hot spots, ferrofluids for. transformer app!ic~tions
mus~ also ~osse~s electrIcal p~ramet~rs.s~mIlar.to
the InsulatIng otis such as hIgh resIstIvIty, hIgh
breakdown voltage, negligible charging tendency,
low dielectric constant and low power factor.
Whereas much work has been done to show that
can be used for cooling26, the
of their electrical behavior has just
388 INDIAN J. ENG. MATER. SCI., DECEMBER 1998.

T ANK several demanding research problems such as the

electrically conducting ferrofluids, high saturation

magnetization fluids, ultrastable colloids,

nonwetting liquids, ferrofluid composites and
-"""'"'""'"' , e ~"" &--, extreme temperature fluids. These new capabilities
& ::~d-" ~""'"'o.-" :: ::::~.;:-'~ once proven for commercial environments will lead
~ ::: -~ e.-- e-- ~ ~..-:::: to a new wave of engineering solutions and high
:::: :;:;::- performance products with significant impact on
the market place. In regard to the devices, the
challenge is found in the development of linear
seals, liquid sealing, ink jet printers, high DN seals,
compact and cost effective film bearings and ultra
high vacuum seals (~ 10-11 Torr). To this list may
be added the conceptual applications described by ...
Rosensweig27 namely the magnetoresistance
devices, optical displays, and hydroacoustic
projector, and those visualized by Zahn [Zahn M,
personal communication] in the far distant horizon
such as devices based on traveling magnetic fields,
P~h optical fibers coated with ferrofluids, optical
shutters and heat pumps.

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 RAJ & CHORNEY: FERROFLUID TECHNOLOGY 389

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