Atmospheric Research 301 (2024) 107293

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Atmospheric Research
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/atmosres

Three-dimensional structure and transport flux of springtime smoke

aerosols over the Indochina Peninsula
Yurun Liu a, b, Ke Gui b, *, Quanliang Chen a, Liangliang Feng c, Hongke Cai a, Xutao Zhang b,
Wenrui Yao b, Hengheng Zhao b, Nanxuan Shang b, Lei Li b, Yu Zheng b, Huizheng Che b, *
a
Plateau Atmospheric and Environment Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, College of Atmosphere Sciences, Chengdu University of Information Technology, Chengdu
610225, China
b
State Key Laboratory of Severe Weather & Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Chemistry of CMA, Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
c
Kunming Meteorological Bureau of Yunnan, Kunming 650501, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Springtime smoke aerosols attributable to biomass burning on the Indochina Peninsula (ICP) are a major source
CALIOP of absorbing aerosols globally, and play a nonnegligible perturbing role in climate change. Using smoke
Smoke aerosols extinction profiles provided by the Cloud-Aerosol Lidar with Orthogonal Polarization (CALIOP) instrument, and
Three-dimensional structure
aerosol and meteorological reanalyses for the period 2007–2021, this study investigated the three-dimensional
Transport flux
Indochina Peninsula
structure and transport flux of springtime smoke aerosols over the ICP. Stratified analysis revealed that
CALIOP-derived peaks of smoke aerosol optical depth (SAOD) and smoke mass flux (SMF) at altitudes of 0–2 km
occur over the central ICP, which is the main source region. Driven by a southwesterly jet stream and updrafts,
massive amounts of smoke aerosols are transported toward the northeast of the ICP, resulting in the largest
stratified SAOD and SMF observed at altitudes of 2–4 km. Over the main smoke source regions, the estimated
springtime SMF was approximately 0.4 Tg accumulated through a distance of 2◦ latitude at altitudes of 2–4 km.
Meteorological analyses indicated a path for the transport of smoke aerosols to the mid-troposphere. Smoke
aerosols in the source region are first lifted thermally to the 600-hPa level. Lifting then continues to the 500-hPa
level via the combined effects of topography and frequent, deep, and dry convective updrafts over the moun­
tainous areas of the northern ICP. The smoke aerosols are subsequently transported to South China and the
western Pacific owing to strong westerly winds and weak vertical motion. Further analyses demonstrated that
differences in meteorological conditions between daytime and nighttime have substantial impact on the vertical
structure of smoke aerosols, particularly over the northeast of ICP. Compared to daytime, enhanced updrafts and
moisture transport at night favor further lifting of smoke aerosols and greater extinction intensity owing to
increased hygroscopic growth.

1. Introduction major impact on atmospheric chemistry (Donahue et al., 2009; Kalog­

The primary sources of smoke aerosols categorized as carbonaceous
are combustion of fossil fuels and biomass burning. The practice of
biomass burning dates back 2 million years, whereas fossil fuel com­
bustion has played a notable role in smoke aerosol emissions only over
the past two centuries (Andreae and Merlet, 2001). Initially, research on
emissions of pollutants focused solely on those associated with fossil fuel
combustion, and it was not until the 1970s that the first groundbreaking
studies on the effects of burning biomass on the atmosphere were pub­
lished (e.g., Wong, 1978; Crutzen et al., 1979). Smoke aerosols can have
ridis et al., 2018). Moreover, smoke aerosols can change the charac­
teristics of clouds (Penner et al., 1992; Ackerman et al., 2000), and
absorb and scatter solar radiation (Hansen et al., 1997), which could
change the climate. Reid et al. (2005) reported that smoke aerosols are
primarily composed of two types of carbon: black carbon (BC) and
organic carbon (OC). Ramanathan et al. (2005) demonstrated that BC
and OC can substantially affect the intensity of the Indian monsoon by
enhancing atmospheric stability. According to reports, enhanced crea­
tion of low clouds over Southeast Asia can be facilitated by the syner­
gistic effects of aerosol, cloud, and boundary layer interactions with the

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: guik@cma.gov.cn (K. Gui), chehz@cma.gov.cn (H. Che).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2024.107293
Received 14 November 2023; Received in revised form 25 January 2024; Accepted 10 February 2024
Available online 12 February 2024
0169-8095/© 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Y. Liu et al.
monsoon (Ding et al., 2021). Additionally, because smoke aerosols are
poisonous, they could be harmful to human health (Janssen et al., 2011;
Ho et al., 2018).
The Indochina Peninsula (ICP) is a region characterized by frequent
fires and it is one of the global aerosol hotspots, similar to South
America, Africa, and Australia (van der Werf et al., 2017). Smoke
aerosol emissions from biomass burning on the ICP might be linked to
crop combustion and forest wildfires; crop combustion is most common
in the southern part of the ICP, whereas the northern part has complex
topography and high incidence of forest wildfires (Streets et al., 2003).
The aerosols in this area exhibit marked characteristics of both temporal
and spatial variation (Sahu and Sheel, 2014; Shi et al., 2014). The
intertropical convergence zone and regional monsoon systems coordi­
nate to control the climate of the ICP, which has distinct seasons of rain
and drought (Dong and Fu, 2015). Consequently, the seasonal variation
in smoke aerosol emission over the ICP is considerable, with springtime
emissions being most prominent. Smoke aerosols over the ICP are often
transported by the winds of the southwest monsoon and can cause
deterioration in the ambient environmental conditions over South China
(SC) (Huang et al., 2013). Distribution of smoke aerosols in vertical
direction is crucial considering it strongly affects atmospheric chemis­
try, their own transport, and climate impact (Kahn et al., 2008; Guan
et al., 2010; Bourgeois et al., 2018). The position of aerosols in the at­
mospheric column largely affects their residence time during long-
distance transport (Bourgeois et al., 2015). To better comprehend the
long-distance transport of aerosols, it is crucial to examine their vertical
structure characteristics. A few studies have revealed that during the
Indian monsoon season, the elevated aerosols in the lower troposphere
are mainly formed through the long-range transport of the low level jet
and maintained by vertical shear in the horizontal winds (Ratnam et al.,
2018; Prasad et al., 2019). VanCuren et al. (2005) reported that aerosols
in lower free troposphere of Asia can persist and be transported to the
northeast Pacific and western North America. Although smoke aerosol
transport above the ICP is regularly observed or simulated, quantitative
studies of smoke aerosol transport remain limited. Therefore, it is
necessary to assess the mass flux of smoke aerosols.
In this study, we comprehensively elucidated the long-distance
transport properties and the three-dimensional structure of smoke
aerosols from biomass combustion on the ICP. We used Cloud-Aerosol
Lidar with Orthogonal Polarization (CALIOP) observations, obtained
during springtime of each year during 2007–2021, for the purpose of
analyzing the spatial distribution characteristics of smoke aerosol opti­
cal depth (SAOD) integrated at different heights, and to examine vertical
structure of smoke aerosol extinction coefficient (SAEC) over the ICP.
Moreover, we used Modern-Era Retrospective analysis for Research and
Applications version 2 (MERRA-2) reanalysis data to further investigate
the aerosols and we compared the results obtained from MERRA-2 with
those obtained from CALIOP. We further analyzed the meteorological
conditions that affect aerosol distribution using the fifth-generation
European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts atmospheric
reanalysis (ERA5) data. Additionally, we estimated the smoke mass flux
(SMF) and explored the transport characteristics of smoke aerosols.
2. Data and methods
2.1. Study area
As shown in Fig. S1, the northern part of the ICP is a mountainous
area with elevations of about 1000–3000 m. The main mountain ranges
are Arakan Yoma in the northwest and a series of mountains extending
southward from the Shan Plateau in the north. Smoke aerosols emissions
from the ICP may affect air quality over downstream areas from South
China to the Pacific (Tsay et al., 2013; Dong and Fu, 2015; Zhang et al.,
2022). In order to study the three-dimensional structure and the trans­
port flux of smoke aerosol, the regions selected in this paper include the
Indochina Peninsula (ICP; 8–24◦ N, 92–108◦ E), South China (SC;
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Atmospheric Research 301 (2024) 107293
18–25◦ N, 108–122◦ E) and Western Pacific (WP; 17–28◦ N, 122–150◦ E).
In addition, to study the regional diurnal differences of smoke aerosols,
we defined the approximate concentrated region “northeast of ICP”
(19–22◦ N, 95–108◦ E) with the diurnal difference of SAOD above 0.1 in
springtime, according to the distribution of diurnal differences of SAOD
from MERRA-2 (Fig. S2).
2.2. CALIOP observations
Through acquisition of vertical observations, NASA’s Cloud-Aerosol
Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations (CALIPSO) project
offers fresh understanding of the function of aerosols and clouds in
relation to Earth’s climate and weather. The primary device on the
CALIPSO satellite is the CALIOP two-wavelength polarization-sensitive
lidar. The CALIOP instrument has provided the first global multiyear
dataset of aerosol and cloud profiles during both daytime and nighttime.
Along the CALIOP observing track, it also offers vertically resolved
attenuated backscatter data collected from the Earth’s surface to the
elevation at 40 km (Winker et al., 2009). The CALIPSO satellite uses the
cloud–aerosol discrimination technique to classify clouds and aerosols
(Liu et al., 2009). In the recently released CALIPSO version 4 products,
seven categories of aerosols are defined: elevated smoke, dusty marine,
clean continental, polluted dust, dust, marine, and polluted continental/
smoke aerosols (Kim et al., 2018).
This study used the CALIPSO Level 2 15-year aerosol extinction
profile dataset (05kmAPro, V4.10), which includes daytime and night­
time “all-sky” circumstances spanning 2007–2021. The nominal altitude
range of this dataset is between − 0.5 and 30.1 km (399 levels) above
mean sea level (all subsequent heights are likewise higher than mean sea
level) (Gui et al., 2021). The unified orbit-following spatial resolution of
this dataset is 60 m vertically and 5 km horizontally. Because back­
ground solar illumination in daytime reduces the signal-to-noise ratio,
CALIOP detections have higher sensitivity at night than during daytime.
This leads to the possibility that poorly scattered aerosol layers observed
at night might not be detected during daytime, thereby amplifying the
uncertainty in daytime observation. We used the atmospheric volume
description dataset that includes a characteristic categorization sign for
determining the aerosol category in each profile partition and in each
aerosol layer. Here, for simplicity, we used “smoke” to represent
“elevated smoke.” In the CALIOP V4.2 classification algorithm, the
smoke plumes raised from biomass burning, which are essentially
composed of carbonaceous aerosols, are represented by the “smoke”
category. We applied quality-screening methods to every all-sky curve to
reduce the uncertainties related to the aerosol extinction curve, refer­
encing various individual studies (Tian et al., 2017; Liao et al., 2021)
and the official Level-3 aerosol profile dataset quality-screening
methods (Tackett et al., 2018). In general, the fundamental input data
required for quality-screening procedures are CALIOP level 2 aerosol
extinction profiles and layer classification information (aerosol, cloud,
and clear air). Here, the quality-screening procedures used is briefly
summarized as follows: (1) extinction quality control sign at 532 nm =
0, 1, 2, 16, or 18; (2) − 100 ≤ cloud aerosol identification fraction ≤
− 20; (3) uncertainty of extinction coefficient at 532 nm ≤ 10 km− 1 ; (4)
0 ≤ extinction coefficient at 532 nm ≤ 1.25 km− 1 ; (5) aerosol extinction
in “clear air” = 0 km− 1 ; (6) excluding extinction under 60 m elevation
(above ground surface). For detailed information on CALIOP Level 2
aerosol data products, including storage structure, variables, and quality
control flags, please refer to Kim et al. (2018). Following quality control,
the aerosol extinction for quality screening were averaged over a 2◦
latitude × 2◦ longitude grid box. When calculating the monthly aver­
ages, to obtain more reliable statistics, only 10 or more extinction values
for each stratified grid box were averaged for the aerosol extinction
values. Given that CALIPSO has constant equatorial crossing times,
because it is a polar sun-synchronous satellite, we considered 13:30 and
01:30 (local time) as representative of daytime and nighttime,
Y. Liu et al.
respectively, when exploring diurnal differences.
We calculated the SAOD at different altitudes based on the extinction
of smoke aerosols at 532 nm, as shown below.
∫ h2
SAOD = SAEC(h)dh (1)
h1
where h1 and h2 represent the bottom and top elevations of SAOD, and
SAEC(h) is the smoke aerosol extinction coefficient at 532 nm (km− 1 ) at
height h. By dividing the distance from the ground to the altitude of 6 km
into three height segments, each comprising 2 km, we calculated SAOD
at various heights.
The SMF were estimated using the following method. First, we
assumed the mass extinction efficiency (MEE) of smoke to be 3.5 m2 g− 1 ,
thus converting the SAEC to smoke mass concentration M (g m− 3 )
(Hirsch and Koren, 2021; Wu et al., 2022).
We calculated the zonal (east–west) SMF rate (FRu ; g s− 1 ) and the
meridional (north–south) SMF rate (FRv ; g s− 1 ) in each 2◦ × 2◦ grid cell,
as shown below:
∫ h2
FRu = M(h)U(h)L1 dh (2)
h1
∫ h2
FRv = M(h)V(h)L2 dh (3)
h1
where h1 and h2 represent the bottom and top elevations of FRu and FRv ,
and the mass concentration at height h is represented by M(h). The 2◦
latitude segment along the longitude line is L1, and the 2◦ longitude
segment along the latitude line is L2. Using the ERA5 data, U and V
represent the zonal wind (m s− 1 ) and the meridional wind (m s− 1 ),
respectively.
At 2-km intervals from the ground to the altitude of 6 km, three
layers of SMF were determined. The computation of monthly SMF
involved multiplying the average flux rate per month by the duration for
that month. Because we discuss the diurnal and nocturnal durations of
SMF separately, the duration of SMF during daytime or nighttime was
estimated to be 12 h. The SMF in springtime was determined through
summation of the SMF in springtime in each year. The multiyear average
SMF during springtime was determined by averaging the SMF during
springtime for the years 2007–2021. Negative flux was associated with
transport toward the west and south, whereas positive flux was associ­
ated with transport toward the east and north. The uncertainty in the
estimations of SMF was associated with CALIOP extinction, smoke MEE,
vertical profile shape, and potential variation in the distribution of the
size of smoke aerosols while undergoing transport.
2.3. MERRA-2 dataset
This study used the aerosol mixing ratio containing hydrophilic and
hydrophobic aerosols (product: inst3_3d_aer_Nv) and the aerosol optical
depth (product: tavg1_2d_aer_Nx) from daily datasets in springtime
during 2007–2021 to demonstrate the three-dimensional distribution of
smoke aerosols (OC and BC), with 0.625◦ × 0.5◦ spatial resolution. For
maintaining consistency with CALIOP datasets on exploring diurnal
variations, we used 06:00 (UTC) and 18:00 (UTC) to represent daytime
and nighttime, respectively, over the ICP, after time zone conversion.
Then, all daily data were processed into seasonally averaged data.
2.4. ERA5 dataset
The ERA5 dataset applies 4D variational assimilation with a
geographic resolution of 0.25◦ × 0.25◦ . Here, we used hourly datasets of
the ERA5 uvw, divergence, eastward water vapor, northward water
vapor, and divergence of moisture in the springtime during 2007–2021,
with the daytime and nighttime selection consistent with that adopted
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Atmospheric Research 301 (2024) 107293
for the MERRA-2 dataset.
3. Results
3.1. Comparison of SAOD from CALIOP and MERRA-2
We first contrast the 15-year seasonal average SAOD from CALIOP
and MERRA-2 for the period 2007–2021. Fig. 1 depicts the spatial dis­
tribution of SAOD over the ICP, SC, and WP regions obtained from
CALIOP and MERRA-2 during spring (March–April–May; MAM), sum­
mer (June–July–August; JJA), autumn (September–October–November;
SON), and winter (December–January–February; DJF). Both CALIOP
and MERRA-2 observed that the ICP region has the highest smoke
loading during MAM, followed by that in DJF; the lowest smoke loading
is in JJA and SON. The smoke loading in MAM is considerably greater
than that in the other three seasons. There is distinct seasonal pattern to
the regional biomass burning. Burning activities start in December of
DJF and peak in March and April of MAM, which are associated with
local crop burning, forest fires, and dry climate. In JJA, the burning
activities are greatly reduced as the Asian summer monsoon brings
sufficient rainfall to the ICP (Yin et al., 2019). The high smoke loading
during MAM over the ICP can be attributed to the massive amount of
smoke aerosols emitted by large-scale biomass burning in this season
(Tsay et al., 2013). During DJF, SAOD is mainly distributed in the
southern ICP. However, during MAM, SAOD is mainly distributed in the
northeastern ICP and the SC region, and the intensity of SAOD is the
largest. Given that CALIOP detection sensitivity is higher at night than
during daytime, we discuss smoke aerosols observed during daytime and
nighttime separately, but we consider only the differences in their dis­
tribution. As for the differences in magnitude, it is justified from the
MERRA-2 data. It should be noted that smoke loading during nighttime
(Fig. 1e-2) from MERRA-2 is markedly higher than that during daytime
(Fig. 1e-1).
3.2. SAOD at different altitudes
The 15-year averages of SAOD during daytime and nighttime at
various altitudes during the main period of smoke aerosol activity (i.e.,
MAM), as measured by the CALIOP instrument between 2007 and 2021,
are displayed in Fig. 2. The SAOD at an altitude of >6 km accounts for
only 2.4% of the total gas column layer at night and only 1.2% during
daytime. Therefore, as samples typical of the variation in smoke aerosols
at various altitudes, we selected the SAOD at altitudes of 0–2, 2–4, and
4–6 km. The ICP is the main area of regional biomass burning, and the
SAOD can be transported from the ICP downwind to SC and the WP,
forming the transport pathway of smoke aerosols along the middle
lower-latitude region of East Asia (Tsay et al., 2013; Dong and Fu, 2015;
Zhang et al., 2022). However, there are notable differences in SAOD
among the three selected altitude layers.
In the Northern Hemisphere, at middle and low latitudes, SAOD
enhancement mainly occurs at altitudes of <4 km near the origin of the
smoke aerosols. Within altitudes of 0–2 km, the SAOD over the areas
(12◦ –18◦ N, 95◦ –108◦ E) can exceed 0.1, which is considered to be the
main source regions of smoke aerosols. In addition, the SAOD that ex­
ceeds 0.15 over the northwest and southeast of the source regions is
roughly consistent with the hot spots of biomass burning during
springtime as studied by Huang et al. (2016). Compared to the lower
layer, the SAOD in altitude range of 2–4 km increases, with the peak
value reaching 0.22. The increase in SAOD over SC is substantial. The
SAOD initially increases and then decreases with increasing altitude,
and the SAOD in range of 4–6 km is markedly reduced.
It is noteworthy that SAOD enhancement at altitudes of 0–2 km is
mainly distributed over a large area in the middle of the ICP, whereas
SAOD enhancement at altitudes of 2–4 km is shifted to the northeastern
ICP and southern parts of SC. It indicates that some transport mecha­
nisms might exist between these areas. At the 0–2 km over the ICP,
Y. Liu et al.
Fig. 1. Seasonal climatology of SAOD from CALIOP (a-1 to d-1) and MERRA-2 (e-1 to h-1) during daytime and from CALIOP (a-2 to d-2) and MERRA-2 (e-2 to h-2) at
nighttime during 2007–2021. Red box (19◦ –22◦ N, 95◦ –108◦ E) represents the northeast of ICP. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the
reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
Fig. 2. The 15-year averaged daytime and nighttime distribution of SAOD at
altitudes of 0–2 km (a, b), 2–4 km (c, d), and 4–6 km (e, f) in MAM 2007–2021.
SAOD enhancement is blocked near 18◦ N, possibly owing to the influ­
ence of mountainous areas with elevation of 1000–3000 m in the
northern ICP, resulting in reduced transport by the southerly wind.
However, At the 2–4 km altitude, the influence of mountain topography
is greatly reduced. Consequently, SAOD can continue to be transported
northward. Additionally, the increased westerly wind at this altitude
provides support for eastward transport of SAOD. In the 2–4-km altitude
layer, SAOD might be transported across most of SC and on to the WP
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Atmospheric Research 301 (2024) 107293
under the influence from the southwesterly jet (Duncan et al., 2003; Ooi
et al., 2021). In the 16◦ –30◦ N region at altitudes of >2 km, the transport
pathway of smoke aerosol from ICP to SC and WP can be observed.
3.3. Vertical structure of SAEC
Fig. 3 displays the vertical structure of daytime and nighttime 15-
year averages of the SAEC along certain representative pressur­
e–longitude cross sections in springtime that characterize the spatial
transport of smoke aerosols. High values of the SAEC are evident over
the source areas (~15◦ –20◦ N), exceeding 0.1 km− 1 . The maximum
height of the smoke aerosol layer (MHSAL) (SAEC >0.01 km− 1 ) is
approximately at the 700-hPa level in the 10◦ N profile. Peak values of
smoke aerosols are mainly distributed in the 95◦ –108◦ E region along the
15◦ N and 20◦ N profiles. During transport from the ICP to the WP, the
smoke plumes continuously diminish, and the SAEC increases and then
decreases with altitude. The pressure–longitude profiles of 20◦ N and
25◦ N pass over the mountains in the northern ICP. Compared to that in
the 10◦ N and 15◦ N profiles, the MHSAL (SAEC >0.01 km− 1 ) increases in
the 20◦ N and 25◦ N profiles. The strong smoke aerosol peak in the 20◦ N
profile is expanded eastward to approximately 116◦ E, and the SAEC
value at approximately 130◦ E is increased. The SAEC value at approxi­
mately 140◦ E is increased in the 25◦ N profile, which means that the
intensity of the eastward transport of smoke increases at higher lati­
tudes. This might reflect that the low-latitude equatorial easterly wind is
not conducive to eastward transport of smoke, whereas the relatively
enhanced low–mid-latitude westerly wind can result in smoke accu­
mulation and eastward downwind transport.
It is important to note that the mountains in the northern ICP appear
to affect the MHSAL (SAEC >0.01 km− 1 ) in the transport pathway. As
the mountainous topography extends from low-latitude areas of the ICP
to higher latitudes, the MHSAL increases. In the 20◦ N and 25◦ N profiles,
Y. Liu et al. Atmospheric Research 301 (2024) 107293

Fig. 3. The 15-year averaged daytime (a-1, b-1, c-1, d-1) and nighttime (a-2, b-2, c-2, d-2) SAEC of pressure–longitude cross sections at 10◦ N, 15◦ N, 20◦ N, and 25◦ N
in MAM 2007–2021. Corresponding location maps are displayed at the top of each plot. Black shading represents terrain.

the height of the smoke layer reaches a peak value over the northern
mountains. This might be attributable to frequent convective updrafts
forcing the smoke over the mountains and the smoke subsequently
maintaining an upward trajectory. The smoke aerosol flow gradually
diminishes over the WP, as the transport distance increases. Smoke
aerosols from the ICP might be transported to SC and the WP by the
westerly wind.
Normally, the MHSAL (SAEC >0.01 km− 1 ) can reach the 600-hPa
level over the source areas. However, the MHSAL (SAEC >0.01 km− 1 )
in the mountainous region of the northern ICP might exceed 600-hPa

Fig. 4. The 15-year averaged daytime (a-1, b-1, c-1, d-1) and nighttime (a-2, b-2, c-2, d-2) vertical speed (10− 2 Pa s− 1 ; shading) and zonal circulation (arrows) at
10◦ N, 15◦ N, 20◦ N, and 25◦ N in MAM 2007–2021. Corresponding location maps are displayed at the top of each plot. Black, blue, and red shading represents terrain,
downward motion, and upward motion, respectively. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of
this article.)

5
Y. Liu et al.
level. This raises a question regarding the mechanism that results in the
smoke layer in the mountainous area of the northern ICP being higher
than that in the source regions.
3.4. Impact of circulation on the three-dimensional structure of the SAEC
Smoke aerosol transport is influenced substantially by atmospheric
circulations. Fig. 4 shows the 15-year averages of the spring zonal cir­
culation during daytime and nighttime. We selected pressure–longitude
profiles along 10◦ N, 15◦ N, 20◦ N, and 25◦ N to discuss the vertical at­
mospheric circulation above ICP. Compared to the 10◦ N and 15◦ N
profiles, the 20◦ N profile shows a stronger updraft in the region of
95◦ –108◦ E (northeast of ICP). Below 600-hPa level, the vertical velocity
averaged during springtime over the mountainous areas of the northern
ICP can vary approximately from − 8 to − 40 10− 2 Pa s− 1 . In the 25◦ N
profile, there is a sinking air current at approximately 100◦ E, whereas
strong updrafts to 400 hPa exist over the peripheral slopes. Wu et al.
(2012) speculated that this might be the result of slope heating. Previ­
ously, Lau et al. (2006, 2008) proposed the elevated heat pump hy­
pothesis, whereby smoke aerosols deposited on mountain slopes might
absorb more solar radiation, thereby enhancing slope heating. Frequent
updrafts over mountainous areas might facilitate smoke aerosols trans­
port into the mid–upper troposphere.
3.5. Vertical structure of the SAEC in the northeast of ICP
As previously observed, the values of smoke aerosols differ between
daytime and nighttime within the range of 19◦ –22◦ N and 95◦ –108◦ E, i.
e., the northeast of ICP. To explore the specific underlying reasons, we
further analyzed this area. In this section, we examine profiles of the
SAEC derived from CALIOP and smoke mixing ratios derived from
MERRA-2 to explain differences in the vertical structure of smoke over
the northeast of ICP between daytime and nighttime.
Fig. 5 illustrates the averaged daytime and nighttime distributions of
the SAEC and the smoke mixing ratio in the northeast of ICP, in both
meridional and zonal directions. Overall, owing to the nearby
Fig. 5. The 15-year averaged meridional (average between 95◦ –108◦ E) (a-1, b-1) and zonal (average between 19◦ –22◦ N) (a-2, b-2) profiles of the SAEC from
CALIOP, and the meridional (c-1, d-1) and zonal (c-2, d-2) profiles of the smoke aerosol mixing ratio from MERRA-2 over the northeast of ICP (central area of the red
lines) in MAM 2007–2021. Black shading represents terrain. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web
version of this article.)
6
Atmospheric Research 301 (2024) 107293
topography and favorable wind patterns, the MHSAL (SAEC
>0.01 km− 1 ) of the nighttime is slightly higher compared to that in
daytime. The CALIOP-derived distribution reflects that the maximum
value of the SAEC is limited to a vertical range, with a lower limit and
upper limit of 850 and 700 hPa respectively; conversely, the MERRA-2
distribution shows that the SAEC is very high below 700 hPa.
It must be noted that even though the CALIOP data cannot account
for the differences in magnitude between daytime and nighttime owing
to detector sensitivity, the maximum loading value of the smoke aerosol
mixing ratio at night observed in the MERRA-2 data is higher than that
in daytime. It indicates that there might be differences in the meteoro­
logical fields between the daytime and nighttime periods in the north­
east of ICP that account for the greater maximum height (SAEC >0.01
km− 1 ) and higher maximum loading value of smoke aerosol layer during
nighttime compared to those in daytime.
3.6. Influence of meteorological conditions on differences between
daytime and nighttime
Fig. 6 shows the 15-year mean values of the meridional and zonal
circulation, water vapor flux and its divergence during MAM in the
northeast of ICP. Vertical updrafts are evident during both daytime and
nighttime in the northeast of ICP. However, it should be noted that in the
16◦ –23◦ N, the strength of the upward flow at night is greater than that in
daytime, and that there is a vigorous updraft zone below 600 hPa at
night (Fig. 6a–c) that may be related to the mountainous terrain with
high drop elevations in the north of ICP. At the high elevations of
26◦ –30◦ N, updrafts are stronger during daytime than at nighttime, while
at lower elevations of 16◦ –23◦ N, updrafts are stronger at nighttime
(Fig. 6c). This may be because during daytime, the high elevations heat
up faster, which is conducive to the development of updrafts, while the
low elevations produce compensatory subsidence; at nighttime, the high
elevations radiate cold faster, which is conducive to the sinking move­
ment, while the low elevations produce compensatory rise (Rampanelli
et al., 2004; Pan and Chen, 2019). To illustrate the causes of regional
differences in vertical motion, Fig. S3 shows the nighttime-daytime
Y. Liu et al. Atmospheric Research 301 (2024) 107293

Fig. 6. The 15-year averaged mean and difference (nighttime value minus the daytime value) of meridional circulation (average between 95◦ –108◦ E; arrows) and
zonal circulation (average between 19◦ –22◦ N; arrows) and vertical speed (10− 2 Pa s− 1 ; shading) (a, b, c, d, e, f), together with the water vapor flux (arrows) and
water vapor dispersion (10− 5 kg m− 2 s− 1 ; shading) (g, h, i) between daytime and nighttime in MAM 2007–2021. Black shading represents terrain.

differences in horizontal wind and divergence. In contrast to the day­
time, there are significant convergences near the black terrain of the
925 hPa and 850 hPa layers during nighttime, which may lead to
stronger upward movement that can transport more smoke from the
source vertically upward to approximately the 600-hPa level.
Conversely, the weaker vertical updraft in daytime might be able to
transport only a small amount of smoke from the source to the 600-hPa
level. Therefore, the smoke loading value and the peak smoke aerosol
layer height (SAEC >0.01 km− 1 ) in daytime are both lower than those at
night. Additionally, the southerly wind at night is weaker than that in
daytime between 700 and 500 hPa (Fig. 6b–c).
In the northeast of ICP, water vapor is largely dispersed during
daytime (Fig. 6g), whereas it tends to be condensed at night (Fig. 6h).
The intensity of the southwest water vapor flux transport at night is
stronger than that during daytime (Fig. 6i). As shown in Fig. S4, the
difference between nighttime and daytime of hydrophilic smoke aerosol
is obviously higher than that of hydrophobic smoke aerosol. This might
be because water vapor affects the hygroscopic growth of aerosols,
thereby influencing their optical characteristics (Zieger et al., 2013).
The favorable water vapor environment during nighttime is instru­
mental in influencing the magnitude of aerosol extinction coefficient
(Jung et al., 2009). The growth of aerosol optical depth is facilitated by
increase in the total column water vapor content (Smirnov et al., 2002).
3.7. SMF at different altitudes
Atmospheric aerosols over East Asia can also have far-reaching
environmental impacts on continents, hemispheres, and even the
entire globe owing to their long-distance transport. To better compre­
hend the origins and paths associated with pollution and the transport of
smoke, we conducted further research on SMF. The SMF represents a
broad estimate of the specific tonnages of smoke transport, which might
also be important for model simulation.
Fig. 7 illustrates the 15-year averages of the zonal (east-west) SMF
accumulated through the distance of 2◦ latitude at altitudes of 0–2, 2–4,
and 4–6 km during MAM. Notable changes are evident in SMF from the
lower to upper atmosphere, consistent with the SAOD (Fig. 2). In the
main smoke source areas, SMF initially increases and then decreases
with increasing altitude. The strong SMF region is observed at altitudes
of 2–4 km. Smoke aerosols transported from their areas of origin on the
ICP toward SC and the WP might be accelerated by the establishment of
lower subtropical westerlies. A smoke band at approximately 17◦ –25◦ N
begins to appear at altitudes of between 2 and 4 km, and the maximum
SMF value over the northeast region of the ICP is 0.4 Tg. However, at
altitudes of 4–6 km, the maximum SMF value decreases to 0.08 Tg. The
smoke band not only expands northward to 30◦ N but also transports the
SMF eastward to 150◦ E. Greater SMF can also be observed near 120◦ E

7
Y. Liu et al.
Fig. 7. The 15-year averaged SMF (Tg; 1 Tg = 1012 g) accumulated through a
distance of 2◦ latitude at altitudes of 0–2, 2–4, and 4–6 km dominated by U in
MAM 2007–2021. Positive (negative) SMF indicates eastward (west­
ward) transport.
and 130◦ E relative to that of the main source areas of smoke. It is worth
noting that there is distinct westward transport of SMF between the east
of the ICP and the region of the Philippines at altitudes of 0–2 km. This
might be attributable to the fact that the ICP is at the intersection of low-
layer easterly and westerly winds. The smoke generated in the region of
the Philippines is transported westward by the equatorial easterlies to
SC and eastern parts of the ICP, causing thick aerosol clouds to build on a
vast scale across the South China Sea (Zhang et al., 2012). Owing to the
effects of terrain, the vertically integrated SAEC over the ICP will be
lower than its true value. In fact, the SMF transported westward near the
Philippines should be weaker than that transported eastward from the
ICP. Fig. 8 shows the average SMF for 15 years in both east–west and
north–south directions. Owing to terrain blocking, strong SMF at alti­
tudes of 0–2 km above the ICP appears south of 20◦ N. The transport
pathway of SMF at altitudes of 2–4 km moves northward, especially
reaches SC. At altitudes of 4–6 km, SMF decreases sharply, which might
be attributable to both the weaker southerly wind at higher levels
compared to that at lower levels, and the much lower value of high-level
SAEC compared to that at mid–lower levels.
4. Discussion
We proposed a method to analyze the three-dimensional structure of
smoke aerosols and to calculate their transport flux using CALIOP ob­
servations, and we integrated the MERRA-2 reanalysis dataset for
assisted analysis. However, the method has some inherent uncertainties.
The first is that background solar illumination in daytime reduces the
signal-to-noise ratio, which leads to the possibility that poorly scattered
aerosol layers observed at nighttime might not be detected during
daytime, thereby amplifying the uncertainty in daytime observations.
Therefore, the method can be used to compare differences in the spatial
distribution of smoke aerosols between daytime and nighttime, but it
cannot be used to compare differences in their magnitude. To remedy
this deficiency, we considered the MERRA-2 reanalysis datasets to
demonstrate the distinctions in the magnitude and regional distribution
of smoke aerosols between day and night. However, this uncertainty in
the SMF calculation leads to imprecise estimates and uncertainties in the
8
Atmospheric Research 301 (2024) 107293
averaged SMF. The second uncertainty is that the factors contributing to
diurnal and nocturnal differences in smoke in the ICP hotspots are not
limited to meteorological conditions, but may also be influenced by
ultraviolet and visible light from solar radiation, which can alter the
optical properties of aerosols by affecting their ageing time. Strong
photochemical reactions during the daytime cause aerosols to age more
rapidly than at nighttime (Chen et al., 2017). Furthermore, the vertical
resolution of the wind field cannot match that of CALIOP, which has 60-
m resolution. And, given the inability to separate the smoke class from
“polluted continental aerosol”, we only consider the “elevated smoke” in
CALIPSO as “smoke”, so the loading of smoke aerosols may be under­
estimated. We suggest that future work should utilize multisource data
fusion to form a more accurate aerosol extinction dataset, which would
reduce the uncertainty in the SMF. Additionally, we plan to undertake
bias correction for CALIOP extinction to rectify the aerosol extinction
and further mitigate the impact caused by the uncertainty of CALIOP’s
own detection. Furthermore, more refined high-resolution vertical wind
fields data (e.g., Aeolus data) might be required to support CALIOP’s
observations.
5. Conclusions
This study used smoke extinction profiles from the CALIOP instru­
ment, and aerosol and meteorological reanalyses from MERRA-2 and
ERA5 for the period 2007–2021, for the purpose of characterizing the
three-dimensional structure of springtime smoke aerosols over the ICP,
and estimating the stratified transport fluxes over the ICP, SC, and WP.
Stratified analysis revealed that the spatial distribution of smoke aero­
sols has obvious differences; specifically, the position of the northeast of
ICP is vastly different between the altitudes of 0–2, 2–4, and 4–6 km. At
altitudes of 0–2 km, the peak values of SAOD and SMF appeared in the
central region of the ICP, which might reflect that fact that this region is
the primary source of smoke, whereas at 2–4 km the peaks observed
appeared over the northeastern ICP and SC. Additionally, along zonal
transects, the highest smoke layer was typically seen in the mountainous
area of the northern ICP. Within the height range of 0–2 km over the ICP
region and 2–4 km over SC, the SAOD magnitude reached 0.1, whereas it
was only 0.01 at altitudes of 4–6 km. The estimated springtime SMF over
the main smoke source area was approximately 0.4 Tg accumulated
through a distance of 2◦ latitude at 2–4 km, which can be transported to
the northeast of the ICP under the action of the southwesterly jet stream.
Although the SMF drops to 0.1 Tg at 4–6 km, it can be transported
further to SC and the WP by strong westerly winds. In the region of
20◦ –30◦ N at altitudes of >4 km, with strengthening of the westerlies,
there is an obvious band of smoke aerosols transported to 150◦ E.
Atmospheric circulation patterns influence the transport of smoke
aerosols. Upward air currents can be clearly observed in springtime over
the northern region of the ICP, with a seasonal mean vertical velocity
ranging from approximately − 8 to − 40 10− 2 Pa s− 1 . Meteorological
analyses revealed a pathway for smoke aerosol transport to the mid-
troposphere. Source area smoke aerosols are first lifted thermally to
the 600-hPa level. They are then lifted further to 500 hPa via a combi­
nation of topographic effects and frequent, deep, dry convective up­
drafts over the mountainous areas of the northern ICP. Further analysis
of the meteorological conditions showed that, in the northeast of ICP
with large diurnal differences in smoke aerosols, the peak SAEC is
located between 850 and 700 hPa, which is related to the local vertical
circulation. The vertical updraft speed at 850–700 hPa is sufficiently
strong to continuously lift smoke aerosols from the surface of the source
region to the 700-hPa level. However, at 600 hPa and above, the vertical
speed is substantially reduced, making it difficult for continued uplift of
smoke aerosols. Additionally, differences in meteorological conditions
between daytime and nighttime have substantial impact on the vertical
distribution of SAEC, especially in the northeast of ICP. Compared to the
conditions in daytime, the weaker southerly wind at night makes it
easier for smoke aerosols to accumulate in the area to the south of the
Y. Liu et al.
Fig. 8. The 15-year averaged SMF (Tg) at altitudes of 0–2, 2–4, and 4–6 km dominated by U and V in MAM 2007–2021.
mountainous region in the northern ICP, and enhanced water vapor
concentration at night also increases the hygroscopic growth of aerosols,
resulting in a notably higher SAEC value. In contrast to daytime,
enhanced updrafts at night result in higher MHSAL (SAEC >0.01 km− 1 ).
The findings of this study are extremely important both for eluci­
dating the long-distance transport of smoke aerosols over East Asia, and
for providing an analytical framework of smoke aerosol transport that
could help improve global climate models. In future studies, we hope to
compare CALIOP observation data with multiple sets of modeling data,
combine the advantages of multiple data sets, and analyze the transport
flux of springtime smoke aerosols by integrating a biomass burning in­
ventory. This integrated study will provide additional insight regarding
the impact of ICP biomass combustion on environment locally and on
other regions attributable to the transport of smoke aerosols.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Yurun Liu: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis,
Investigation, Methodology, Visualization, Writing – original draft. Ke
Gui: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation,
Methodology, Supervision, Writing – review & editing. Quanliang
Chen: Conceptualization, Supervision. Liangliang Feng: Methodology,
Software. Hongke Cai: Formal analysis, Supervision. Xutao Zhang:
Data curation, Formal analysis. Wenrui Yao: Data curation, Formal
analysis. Hengheng Zhao: Data curation, Formal analysis. Nanxuan
Shang: Data curation, Formal analysis. Lei Li: Data curation, Formal
9
Atmospheric Research 301 (2024) 107293
analysis. Yu Zheng: Data curation, Formal analysis. Huizheng Che:
Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Supervision.
Declaration of competing interest
We affirm that the study presented here could not have been affected
by any of their financial or personal conflicts.
Data availability
CALIPSO Level 2 aerosol profile data are available from
https://subset.larc.nasa.gov/calipso/index.php. MERRA-2 datasets are
available from https://earthdata.nasa.gov/eosdis/daacs/gesdisc. The
ERA5 data are available from https://cds.climate.copernicus.
eu/cdsapp#!/dataset/.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by grants from the National Key
Research and Development Program of China (2023YFC3706305), Na­
tional Natural Science Foundation of China project (42175153,
42105138, 42375188, and 42030608), Young Elite Scientists Sponsor­
ship Program by BAST, and Basic Research Fund of CAMS (2023Z021).
We express our gratitude to the science teams of MERRA-2, ERA5, and
CALIPSO for their outstanding and easily available data products.
Y. Liu et al.
Appendix A
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2024.107293.
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