International Journal of Thermal Sciences 200 (2024) 108950

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International Journal of Thermal Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijts

The effects of single-point extraction on smoke diffusion length and ceiling

temperature distribution in a tunnel with one closed end
Shengzhong Zhao a, Junhao Yu a, Liu Xu b, Tiantian Xu a, Fei Wang a, *, Imad Obadi c, **, Lin Xu a,
Wenjun Lei a
a
School of Thermal Engineering, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan, China
b
China Machinery International Engineering Design & Research Institute Co. LTD, Changsha 410018, China
c
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON K1S 5B6, Canada

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Previous studies on ventilated tunnel fires mainly focused on both open-end tunnels and longitudinal ventilation.
Single-point extraction There is still a lack of in-depth research on the effects of single-point extraction on smoke characteristics in tunnel
Tunnel fire fires with one closed end. In this paper, the effects of heat release rate, smoke vent location, and exhaust volume
Closed end
on smoke diffusion length, maximum ceiling temperature, and temperature attenuation were investigated. The
Smoke diffusion length
results indicate that smoke diffusion length can be controlled more effectively when the smoke vent is located
Temperature distribution
directly above or downstream of the fire source. The maximum ceiling temperature decreases as exhaust volume
increases when the smoke vent is located upstream or directly above the fire source. However, the maximum
ceiling temperature is almost unaffected by exhaust volume and smoke vent location when the smoke vent is
located downstream of the fire source. Similarly, the effect of exhaust volume on temperature attenuation is also
different due to the different smoke vent locations and longitudinal induced air velocities. A series of models are
finally proposed to predict the smoke diffusion length, maximum ceiling temperature, and temperature atten­
uation. The findings could provide reference value for the relevant research and practical engineering application
of single-point extraction in tunnels with one closed end.

transverse ventilation, and semi-transverse ventilation [4–8]. Compared

1. Introduction
With the development of the modern transportation industry, tun­
nels have become an indispensable part, and the number of tunnels is
increasing rapidly. With this background, tunnel fire safety has always
been a major concern in recent years [1,2]. The relevant statistical data
have shown that 85% of casualties in tunnel fires are caused by inhaling
excessive toxic smoke [3]. In the event of a fire, smoke longitudinally
spreads along the tunnel due to its long and narrow structure, which
brings great difficulties to personnel evacuation and rescue.
High-temperature smoke could also damage the structure of the tunnel.
To avoid severe casualties and economic losses, using a reasonable and
effective smoke extraction system to quickly exhaust fire-induced smoke
from the tunnel is crucial.
Mechanical ventilation is the most timely and effective measure for
smoke control in tunnel fires. Three main mechanical ventilation
methods are currently used in tunnels, i.e., longitudinal ventilation,
with longitudinal ventilation, transverse or semi-transverse ventilation
can effectively shorten the smoke diffusion length and reduce the fire
spreading area. Existing research on transverse or semi-transverse
ventilation in tunnel fires has mainly focused on maximum tempera­
ture, temperature distribution, smoke diffusion length, smoke control
strategies, etc. Tao et al. [4,5] experimentally explored the influences of
heat release rate (HRR), smoke vent layout, longitudinal air velocity,
and exhaust volume on ceiling temperature distribution. Yu et al. [6]
conducted a set of full-scale experiments to study smoke control stra­
tegies in sloping tunnels with transverse ventilation. The results showed
that the effect of tunnel slope should be fully considered when transverse
ventilation was adopted. Zhou et al. [7] investigated the fire charac­
teristics under semi-transverse ventilation and explored the interde­
pendent relationship among temperature, visibility, smoke extraction
velocity, fire source location, and piston wind. Zhu et al. [9] studied the
influences of transverse smoke extraction on the transverse temperature
distribution and the maximum temperature under the ceiling, and

* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: wangfei22@sdjzu.edu.cn (F. Wang), imad.obadi@gmail.com (I. Obadi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2024.108950
Received 25 July 2023; Received in revised form 7 November 2023; Accepted 31 January 2024
Available online 15 February 2024
1290-0729/© 2024 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
S. Zhao et al.
Nomenclature
V velocity (m/s)
Qm mass flow rate (kg/s)
A cross-sectional area of the tunnel (m2)
V∗ dimensionless velocity
g gravity acceleration (m/s2)
H tunnel height (m)
l smoke diffusion length (m)
Q heat release rate (kW)
X smoke vent location (m)
T temperature (K)
Cp specific heat capacity of air (kJ/(kg⋅K))
l∗ dimensionless smoke diffusion length
Q∗ dimensionless heat release rate
X∗ dimensionless smoke vent location
ΔT temperature rise (K)
t time (s)
Qv volume flow rate (m3/h)
d distance from the fire to end wall (m)
proposed a correlation for predicting the maximum temperature.
The above studies mainly focus on multi-point centralized ventila­
tion, but the research on single-point extraction is relatively limited.
Single-point extraction is a typical form of semi-transverse ventilation
and can effectively avoid the dispersal of suction force. Related research
can provide theoretical foundations and the design basis for the devel­
opment of comprehensive smoke extraction strategies in tunnel fires
[10,11]. The current research on single-point extraction mainly focuses
on local microscopic phenomena in the tunnel with natural smoke
extraction using a vertical shaft, such as plug-holing [12,13] and
boundary layer separation [14,15], etc. Studies on mechanical smoke
extraction are relatively few. Ingason et al. [1] proposed the concept of
smoke back-layering length for mechanical single-point extraction and
analyzed the critical extraction mass flow rate required for confining the
smoke into the region between the fire source and the smoke vent
through experiments. Chen et al. [16] experimentally investigated the
effect of fire-vent distance on the smoke back-layering length under
single-point centralized extraction and longitudinal ventilation, and
theoretically deduced a new model to predict the smoke back-layering
length. Tang et al. [17] investigated the effect of single-point extrac­
tion on the air entrainment characteristics of the one-dimensional smoke
movement stage in a tunnel under various ceiling extraction velocities,
and proposed a new empirical entrainment design formula for tunnel
fires under the effect of single-point ceiling extraction. Li et al. [11]
studied the smoke thermal stratification with ceiling extraction in a
longitudinally ventilated tunnel through a series of experiments, and
proposed a modified Froude number to describe the effect of ceiling
extraction.
However, most related research on single-point extraction mainly
focuses on conventional tunnels with both portals opened. In the past
few years, tunnels designed with one closed end or a similar structure
have gradually become common, such as corridors [18], tunnel-style
depots [19,20], tunnels under construction [21,22], etc. Wang et al.
[20] studied the maximum ceiling temperature and temperature distri­
bution considering different sealed situations, blockages, and
cross-sections, and proposed a revised model for the maximum ceiling
temperature. Han et al. [23] experimentally investigated the maximum
ceiling temperature and smoke diffusion considering single-point
extraction in tunnel fires with one closed end, and proposed three
empirical formulas. However, in-depth research on the maximum ceil­
ing temperature, longitudinal temperature attenuation, and smoke
diffusion considering single-point extraction in tunnels with one closed
2
International Journal of Thermal Sciences 200 (2024) 108950
Fr Froude number
x distance between the measuring point and the point with
the maximum temperature (m)
Subscript
in induced air flow
a ambient
ef effective
max maximal
r small-scale
f full-scale
s smoke
Greek symbols
ρ density (kg/m3)
γ maximum temperature prediction coefficient in Eq. (17)
ε maximum temperature prediction index in Eq. (17)
φ temperature attenuation coefficient in Eqs. (20) and (22b)
α fitting coefficient in Eq. (25)
β fitting coefficient in Eq. (25)
end is still lacking. For example, the combined effects of exhaust volume,
smoke vent location (or fire source location), and HRR on ceiling tem­
perature distribution and smoke control effectiveness have not been
systematically analyzed.
Based on the above considerations, the smoke diffusion character­
istics and ceiling temperature distribution in one-end closed tunnels
with a single-point extraction system were experimentally studied. A
total of 60 small-scale experiments were conducted. The effects of
exhaust volume and smoke vent location on smoke diffusion length,
maximum ceiling temperature, and longitudinal temperature attenua­
tion were analyzed in detail. Finally, the corresponding prediction
models were developed. The findings in this paper could provide
reference value for the relevant research and practical engineering
application of single-point extraction in tunnels with one closed end, and
also provide a research basis for multi-point extraction.
2. Dimensionless analysis
2.1. Smoke diffusion length
Fig. 1 shows the schematic diagram of single-point extraction in a
tunnel with one closed end. Smoke can only spread toward the open end
in the event of a fire. If smoke is only extracted through the smoke vent
instead of the tunnel entrance, the exhaust volume induces a leftward
longitudinal air flow in the tunnel. This induced air flow prevents smoke
from moving toward the open end. If the induced air velocity Vin in­
creases to a certain value, smoke will be controlled within a certain
range.
Smoke diffusion length can be used to describe the smoke spread
range in a tunnel, which is defined as the distance between the fire
source location and the smoke front, as shown in Fig. 1. When the smoke
vent is located downstream of the fire source, the smoke spreading area
in the entire tunnel can be divided into three typical regions: Region I
(from the closed end to the fire source), Region II (from the fire source to
the smoke vent), and Region III (from the smoke vent to the tunnel
entrance). Note that, due to the uncertainty of the fire source location
within the tunnel, the smoke vent may also be located upstream or
directly above the fire source. Consequently, the smoke vent location
relative to the fire source will be investigated in this paper. The detailed
description can be found in Section 3.
Dimensional analysis was carried out by the similar π theorem [24].
For single-point extraction in tunnels with one closed end, the crucial
S. Zhao et al. International Journal of Thermal Sciences 200 (2024) 108950

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of single-point extraction in a tunnel with one closed end.

parameters to determine the smoke diffusion length are HRR (Q), The indexes of the physical quantities can be determined by the
induced air velocity (Vin ), smoke vent location (X), effective tunnel conservation principle:
height (Hef ), air density (ρa ), specific heat capacity of air (Cp ), ambient ⎧
⎪ α1 = − 1, ​ β1 = 0, ​ γ1 = 0, ​ ε1 = 0
temperature (Ta ), and gravity acceleration (g). The relevant physical ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨ α2 = − 2, ​ β2 = − 3, ​ γ 2 = − 1, ​ ε2 = 0
quantities, symbols, and dimensions are shown in Table 1. Corre­ α3 = 0, ​ β3 = − 2, ​ γ3 = 0, ​ ε3 = 1 (4)
spondingly, the smoke diffusion length l can be broadly considered as: ⎪
⎪
⎪ α4 = 1, ​ β4 = − 2, ​ γ4 = 0, ​ ε4 = 0
⎪
⎩
( ) α5 = − 1, ​ β5 = 0, ​ γ5 = 0, ​ ε5 = 0
f l, ​ Q, ​ Hef , ​ Vin , ​ X, ​ ρa , ​ Ta , ​ g, ​ Cp = 0 (1)
According to the relevant criteria of similarity theory, the dimen­
where Vin is the induced air velocity. Previous studies [25,26] have sionless equations can be simplified as:
shown that the increase in mass caused by the combustion of the fire
source is very limited. Therefore, Vin can be calculated by Eq. (2) ac­ l Q Cp Ta gHef X
π1 = , ​ π2 = , ​ π3 = , ​ π4 = , ​ π5 = ​ (5)
cording to the law of mass conservation [6,23,27]. Hef ρa Hef 2 Vin 3 Vin 2 Vin 2 Hef

Qm Thus, Eq. (1) can be rewritten as:

Vin = (2) ( )
ρa A l Q Cp Ta gHef X
f , ​ , ​ , ​ , ​ =0 (6)
Hef ρa Hef 2 Vin 3 Vin 2 Vin 2 Hef
where Qm is the exhaust mass flow rate, and A is the cross-sectional area
of the tunnel. Note that the induced air flow is assumed to be evenly After a simple organization, Eq. (6) can be converted into:
distributed across the entire cross-section of the tunnel, so Vin in Eq. (2) { (√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ )3 } ( )
is regarded as an idealized value. Therefore, it is only used to quantify l Q gHef X Q∗ X ∗ (7)
the strength of the extraction effect rather than the real value of air l∗ = ​ = ​f √̅̅̅ = ​ f ​
Hef ρa Cp Ta g Hef 5/2 Vin Hef Vin∗ 3
velocity. This method has been previously used by Han et al. [23].
The L, T, M, and Θ are selected as the basic dimensions, and the Hef , where Q∗ , X∗ , and Vin ∗
are the dimensionless values of HRR, smoke vent
Vin , ρa , and Cp are selected as the basic parameters, then the dimen­ location, and induced air velocity, respectively, which can be expressed
sionless equations for the other five parameters can be expressed as as Q∗ = ρ C T √Q
̅̅gH 5/2 , X∗ = HXef , and Vin
∗
= √V̅̅̅̅̅̅
in ̅ Qm̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
= √ .
gHef ρa A gHef
below: a p a ef

If the smoke vent is located directly above the fire source (i.e., X∗ =
0), the smoke diffusion length is independent of X∗ . Thus, Eq. (7) can be
⎧ ( )β ( )γ ( )ε
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
π1 = Hefα1 Vinβ1 ργa1 Cpε1 l = Lα1 LT − 1 1 ML− 3 1 L2 T − 2 Θ− 1 1 L written as:
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ( )β ( )γ ( )ε ( ) ( )
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ π2 = Hefα2 Vinβ2 ργa2 Cpε2 Q = Lα2 LT − 1 2 ML− 3 2 L2 T − 2 Θ− 1 2 ML2 T − 3 l Q∗
(8)
⎪
⎪ ∗
⎨ ( )β ( )γ ( )ε l = =f
π = H α3 V β3 ργ3 Cε3 T = Lα3 LT −
3 ef in a p a
1 3
ML− 3 3
L2 T − 2 Θ− 1 3
Θ Hef Vin∗ 3
(3)
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ( )β ( )γ ( )ε ( )
⎪ α β 4 γ 4 ε4
⎪ π 4 = H Vin ρ C g = Lα4 LT − 1 4 ML− 3 4 L2 T − 2 Θ− 1 4 LT − 2
⎪
⎪
4
⎪
⎪ ef a p
2.2. Maximum ceiling temperature rise
⎪
⎪ ( ) ( ) ( )
⎪
⎩ π = H α5 V β5 ργ5 Cε5 X = Lα5 LT − 1 β5 ML− 3 γ5 L2 T − 2 Θ− 1 ε5 L
⎪
5 ef in a p

The crucial parameters to determine the maximum ceiling temper­

​ ature rise are HRR (Q), induced air velocity (Vin ), effective tunnel height
(Hef ), air density (ρa ), air heat capacity (Cp ), ambient temperature (Ta ),
and gravity acceleration (g). Consequently, the maximum ceiling tem­
Table 1 perature rise ΔTmax can be expressed as:
Physical variables influencing smoke diffusion length. ( )
No. Physical quantity Symbol Dimension
f ΔTmax , ​ Q, ​ Hef , ​ Vin , ​ ρa , ​ Ta , ​ g, ​ Cp = 0 (9)

1 Smoke diffusion length l L Eq. (9) can be replaced by the following equation using the same
2 Heat release rate Q ML2 T− 3
method mentioned above:
3 Effective tunnel height Hef L ( )
4 Induced air velocity Vin LT− 1 Cp ΔTmax Q Cp Ta gHef
​f , ​ , ​ , ​
5 Smoke vent location X L Vin 2 2
ρa Hef Vin 3
Vin 2
Vin 2

6 Air density ρa ML− 3 ( )

ΔTmax Q gHef
7 Ambient temperature Ta Θ =f , ​ 2
, ​ 2
=0 (10)
8 Gravity acceleration g LT− 2 Ta ρa Hef Vin Cp Ta Vin
9 Specific heat capacity of air Cp L2 T− 2 Θ− 1
After a simple organization, Eq. (10) can be converted into:

3
S. Zhao et al. International Journal of Thermal Sciences 200 (2024) 108950

( ) ( √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ )
ΔTmax Q gHef Q gHef gHef and time, respectively.
ΔTa
=f 2
, ​
ρa Hef Vin Cp Ta Vin 2
=f √̅̅̅ 5/2 ⋅
Vin
, ​
Vin 2 Fig. 2 shows the 1/15 small-scale tunnel model, whose dimensions
ρa Cp Ta gHef
( ) ( ) are 9 m (length) × 0.38 m (width) × 0.30 m (height). The corresponding
full-scale tunnel dimensions are 135 m (length) × 5.7 m (width) × 4.5 m
= f Q∗ ⋅Vin∗ − 1 , ​ Vin∗ − 2
= f Q∗ , ​ Vin∗
(height). The cross-sectional size of the model tunnel is approximately
(11) similar to a single-lane tunnel during construction or a tunnel-style
depot being constructed. The frame of the tunnel was made of square
3. Experiment hollow steel pipes. The bottom, ceiling, closed end, and one side wall
were made of 9 mm-thick calcium silicate fireproof board. The other side
The Froude scaling law was employed to transfer the fire parameters wall was made of 8 mm-thick transparent tempered glass, which was
from the full-scale tunnel to the small-scale tunnel model, which has convenient for observing the combustion of the fire source and smoke
been proven to be applicable for the flow and heat transfer of fire- spread in real time. The burner was located 1.2 m (18 m at full size)
induced smoke [4,28]. This method has been extensively used in tun­ away from the closed end (the fire source was close to the end wall, but
nel fire experiments [29–31]. The scaling laws are listed in Eq. (12) as: the “wall fire” scenario was not considered in this paper [32,33]), and
the size was 0.1 m × 0.1 m. Propane (C3H8) was used as the fuel, and the
( )5/2
Qr lr volume flow rate of the fuel was controlled by a gas flow meter (ALICAT
= (12a)
Qf lf MCRW-100SLPM-D) with an accuracy of ±0.4%. Considering the HRR
of a car fire in road tunnels or a carriage fire in metro tunnels, two HRRs,
Tr = Tf (12b) i.e., 3.44 and 5.74 kW, were set in small-scale model experiments, which
corresponded to 3 and 5 MW at full-scale tunnels according to the
( )1/2
Vr lr Froude scaling law, respectively.
= (12c)
Vf lf Taking the tunnel under construction as an example, multiple vents
can be installed on the ventilation duct. The vent located at the head of
( )1/2 the ventilation duct is generally used for ventilation or to exhaust smoke
tr lr
= (12d) in the form of press-in or extraction. However, this vent location may not
tf lf
be the best design in the event of a fire. Exploring the effect of the
where Q, l, T, V, and t denote the HRR, length, temperature, velocity, relative location of the fire source and smoke vent on fire-induced smoke

Fig. 2. Schematic view of the 1/15 tunnel model.

4
S. Zhao et al.
characteristics can be used to guide the determination of the smoke vent
location and the development of single-point extraction strategies. For
example, the lining construction section is usually taken as the place
with the highest fire risk in the tunnel under construction, and a
reasonable smoke vent location (in the upstream or downstream of this
area) is crucial. Moreover, the research on single-point extraction can
also serve as a theoretical foundation for the development of multi-point
extraction strategies. Thus, three different relative smoke vent locations
were discussed in this paper, i.e., the smoke vent was located upstream,
downstream, or even directly above the fire source when single-point
extraction became operative. Five smoke vent locations were estab­
lished at different locations relative to the fire source, which were
located at X = -0.6, 0, 0.6, 1.2, and 1.8 m. Only one smoke vent was kept
open for each experiment. The diameter of the smoke vent was 0.1 m. A
non-combustible stainless-steel ventilation duct was installed on the
ceiling of the tunnel to exhaust smoke (see Fig. 2(a)). The ventilation
duct was connected to a centrifugal fan, which was equipped with a
frequency controller to adjust exhaust volume. The flow meter (HRF-
80SYCC1A10) was used to measure exhaust volume, whose accuracy
was ±1.5%. The exhaust volume flow rate Qv was set at 0, 50, 100, 150,
200, and 250 m3/h. A total of 60 experimental cases were carried out,
and the detailed experimental cases of small-scale tunnel fires are shown
in Table 2.
A total of 89 K-type sheathed thermocouples were used to measure
temperature inside the tunnel model, which were placed 0.01 m below
the ceiling of the tunnel. The probes distributed within -1.2–1.8 m,
1.8–4.8 m, and 4.8–7.8 m were installed with an interval of 0.05 m, 0.15
m, and 0.3 m, respectively. The measuring range and accuracy were
273–1373 K and ±0.1 K, respectively. The thermocouples were con­
nected to the data acquisition instruments (FLUKE HYDRA Series III
2638A) to read and save data in real time. A digital camera was used to
record the smoke diffusion and flame shape. A laser device was used to
present the smoke flow patterns more clearly.
In addition, all the experiments were conducted at a similar envi­
ronmental temperature, about 20±2 ◦ C. According to Chen et al.’s study
[34], the temperature fluctuation can be assumed to have a very limited
influence on the measurement. Further uncertainty analysis of mea­
surement is given in Appendix A.
4. Results and discussions
4.1. Smoke diffusion length
Fig. 3 demonstrates the smoke flow patterns under various exhaust
volumes using the cases with HRR = 3.44 kW and X = 0.6 m as exam­
ples. When the exhaust volume is 0 m3/h, smoke quickly diffuses out of
the tunnel, resulting in a distinct boundary between the upper smoke
layer and the lower air layer (see Fig. 3(a)). When the exhaust volume
increases to 50 m3/h, smoke is restricted within a certain range by the
induced air flow and prevented from escaping the tunnel. Moreover, the
smoke diffusion length decreases as the exhaust volume increases, and
the interface between the upper smoke layer and the lower air layer
becomes less distinct due to the strong shear action. When the exhaust
volume increases from 100 m3/h to 200 m3/h, the smoke diffusion
length decreases from 3 m to 1.05 m. Once the exhaust volume reaches a
certain value (250 m3/h), the smoke diffusion length no longer
Table 2
Small-scale experimental cases.
Test HRR Corresponding full-scale Smoke vent Exhaust
no. (kW) HRR (MW) location (m) volume (m3/h)
1-30 3.44 3 − 0.6, 0, 0.6, 0, 50, 100,
1.2, 1.8 150, 200, 250
31-60 5.74 5 − 0.6, 0, 0.6, 0, 50, 100,
1.2, 1.8 150, 200, 250
5
International Journal of Thermal Sciences 200 (2024) 108950
decreases and remains a constant value, which is exactly equal to the
fire-vent distance, as shown in Fig. 3(f).
Fig. 4 shows the variation of the smoke diffusion length with the
smoke vent location under different exhaust volumes. The smoke
diffusion length of 7.8 m indicates that smoke cannot be constrained
within the length of the tunnel by the induced air velocity, which has
been marked by pink circles in Fig. 4. The major findings can be sum­
marized as follows: (1) When the smoke vent is located directly above
the fire source (i.e., X = 0 m), smoke is most effectively controlled, and
the smoke diffusion length is shortest under the given HRR and exhaust
volume. (2) When the smoke vent is located at X = 0.6 m, the smoke
diffusion length is shorter than that when located at X = -0.6 m.
Therefore, placing the smoke vent directly above or downstream of the
fire source is advisable in tunnel fires with one closed end, and the
related cases are the focus of the following analysis. (3) When the smoke
vent is located downstream of the fire source, the smoke diffusion length
increases as the fire-vent distance increases. (4) The smoke diffusion
length can be influenced by HRR. The smoke diffusion length is longer at
HRR = 3.44 kW than at HRR = 5.74 kW. A higher HRR generates more
smoke with higher temperature, which means that greater thermal
buoyancy needs to be overcome by a greater exhaust volume.
Fig. 5 shows the relationship between the dimensionless smoke
diffusion length l∗ and VQ∗ 3 (X∗ = 0) or QV∗X3 (X∗ > 0). The experimental
∗ ∗ ∗
in in
data can be well fitted with a logarithmic function, and the correlation
coefficients are R2 = 0.873 (X∗ = 0) and R2 = 0.903 (X∗ > 0), respec­
tively. Moreover, the experimental data in Han et al.’s investigation [23]
is also provided in Fig. 5(b), and it exhibits a strong consistency with the
data obtained in this paper. This result provides empirical support for
the viability of the proposed model. The prediction model of smoke
diffusion length can be finally written as:
⎧ ( )
⎪ ∗
⎪ l∗ = 3.33ln Q
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨ Vin∗ 3
− 2.23, ​ X ∗ = 0
( ) (13)
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ∗ Q∗ X ∗ ∗
⎩ l = 4.22ln V ∗ 3 − 4, ​ X > 0
⎪
in
Fig. 6 illustrates the deviation between the experimental and model-
predicted values. A majority of the data exhibits a deviation of less than
20%, which indicates the accuracy of Eq. (13) in predicting the smoke
diffusion length is reliable. The smoke diffusion length can be deter­
mined based on the HRR and the smoke vent location by utilizing Eq.
(13), and then the exhaust volume can be accurately adjusted to improve
the smoke control performance.
4.2. Temperature distribution
4.2.1. Maximum ceiling temperature
Fig. 7 shows the maximum ceiling temperature at different exhaust
volumes. When the smoke vent is located directly above or upstream of
the fire source (i.e., X ≤ 0), the maximum ceiling temperature linearly
decreases as the exhaust volume increases. This is mainly because the
induced air flow needs to traverse the area of the fire source before
entering the smoke vent. Under the effect of the induced air flow, the
flame and vertical plume are deflected, and then more air is entrained
into the plume. The inclination of the flame increases as the induced air
velocity increases when the smoke vent is located upstream of the fire
source, as shown in Fig. 8(a). The flame even touches the ground and is
dragged when Qv = 250 m3/h.
When the smoke vent is located downstream of the fire source (i.e., X
> 0), the maximum ceiling temperature is almost unaffected by exhaust
volume and smoke vent location. This result is mainly caused by the flow
patterns in the tunnel. The majority of the induced air flow is directly
exhausted from the smoke vent, except for the amount needed to meet
the plume entrainment requirement. In addition, as shown in Fig. 8(b),
the flame shape is almost unaffected as the induced air velocity
S. Zhao et al. International Journal of Thermal Sciences 200 (2024) 108950

Fig. 3. Smoke flow patterns under different exhaust volumes (HRR = 3.44 kW, X = 0.6 m).

increases. where d is the distance between the fire source and the closed end of the
Li et al. [35] presented a prediction model for the ceiling maximum tunnel.
temperature: Gao et al. [37] proposed that the maximum temperature in the
Q2/3 tunnel with one closed end could be calculated as follows:
ΔTmax = 17.5 (14)
Hef 5/3 ΔTmax d
= 5.48Q∗H 2/3 , ​ >1 (16a)
Ji et al. [36] found that the maximum temperature was greatly Ta Hef
affected by the distance between the fire source and the closed end in a
ΔTd, ​ max d
tunnel with one closed end, and proposed a prediction model: = 1.82Q∗d 2/3 , ​ ≤1 (16b)
ΔTmax Hef
( ) Q2/3
0.793Hd
(15)
−
ΔTmax = 0.299e + 1 16.9 Q
ef
Hef 5/3 where Q∗H = ρ Q
√̅̅ 5/2 , Q∗d = √̅̅̅ .
a Cp T a gHef ρa Cp Ta gHef d3/2

6
S. Zhao et al. International Journal of Thermal Sciences 200 (2024) 108950

Fig. 4. Variation of smoke diffusion length as the smoke vent location under different exhaust volumes. (a) HRR = 3.44 kW, (b) HRR = 5.74 kW.

Fig. 5. Prediction of smoke diffusion length. (a) Smoke vent is located directly above the fire source, (b) Smoke vent is located downstream of the fire source.

7
S. Zhao et al. International Journal of Thermal Sciences 200 (2024) 108950

small-scale tunnel model was 15 m (length) × 0.48 m (width) × 0.54 m

(height). The floor and ceiling of the tunnel were built with magnesium
board, and the two vertical walls were covered with fire-resistant glass.
An electric axial fan was used to provide longitudinal ventilation. The
data of Liu et al. [39] fits well with the data in this paper, as shown in
Fig. 9(a). Thus, when the smoke vent is located at X∗ ≤ 0, the calculation
model for the maximum ceiling temperature could be written as:
( )1.107
ΔTmax Q∗2/3
= 1.318 ∗ 2/3 , ​ X∗ ≤ 0 (18)
Ta Vin

Fig. 6. Comparison between the experimental and model-predicted values.
Q2/3
Fig. 9(b) shows the relationship between ΔTmax and Hef 5/3
. The
experimental results are well fitted with a power function, with a cor­
relation coefficient of R2 = 0.928. In Li et al.’s study [35], two
small-scale test rigs with different cross-sectional dimensions were built,
which consisted of a 12 m long tunnel model, a 5.25 m long air supply
duct, and a static pressure box. The dimensionless longitudinal venti­
lated velocity was less than 0.19. The data of Li et al. [35] fits well with
the data in this paper, as shown in Fig. 9(b). Thus, when X∗ > 0, the
calculation model for the maximum ceiling temperature could be writ­
ten as:

Q2/3
These studies were conducted in natural ventilated tunnels. For ΔTmax = 16.12 , ​ X∗ > 0 (19)
Hef 5/3
longitudinal ventilation, Kurioka [38] gave an empirical equation for
predicting the maximum temperature through a series of experiments: Fig. 10 illustrates the deviation between the experimental and
⎧ ∗2/3 / model-predicted values. A majority of the data exhibits a deviation of
⎪Q
( ∗2/3 )ε ⎪
⎪ 1/3 < 1.35, ​ γ = 1.77, ​ ε = 6 5 less than 20%, which indicates that the accuracy of Eqs. (18) and (19) in
⎨
ΔTmax
=γ
Q Fr
(17) predicting the maximum ceiling temperature is reliable.
Ta Fr1/3 ⎪ ⎪
⎪ Q∗2/3
⎩
Fr1/3
≥ 1.35, ​ γ = 2.54, ​ ε = 0 4.2.2. Temperature attenuation
The ceiling temperature distribution along the longitudinal center­
V2 line is a key parameter for optimizing the evacuation route in tunnel
where Fr = .
gHef fires. Fig. 11 demonstrates the ceiling temperature under different
Based on the said studies and dimensional analysis, it can be exhaust volumes by taking the cases with HRR = 3.44 kW as examples.
concluded that whether the fire source is affected by the exhaust volume The main conclusions are as follows:
can be distinguished by the smoke vent location, i.e., X ≤ 0 or X > 0. The
maximum ceiling temperature could be expressed as a function of the (1) When the smoke vent is located downstream of the fire source,
HRR and induced air velocity when the fire source is affected by the the ceiling temperature is not obviously affected by the exhaust
induced air velocity (i.e., X ≤ 0). Alternatively, when the fire source is volume in Regions I and II. However, the ceiling temperature
not affected by the induced air velocity (i.e., X > 0), the maximum decreases as the exhaust volume increases in Region III. This
ceiling temperature is mainly influenced by the HRR and effective tun­ result indicates that the induced air flow has less effect on the
nel height. temperature field near the fire source. Furthermore, a larger
Fig. 9(a) shows the relationship between ​ and Q∗ 2/3 exhaust volume can effectively remove more heat, leading to a
∗ 2/3 . The
ΔTmax
Ta Vin
lower temperature in Region III.
experimental results are well fitted with a power function, with a cor­
relation coefficient of R2 = 0.882. In Liu et al.’s study [39], the

Fig. 7. Maximum ceiling temperature vs. exhaust volume. (a) HRR = 3.44 kW, (b) HRR = 5.74 kW.

8
S. Zhao et al. International Journal of Thermal Sciences 200 (2024) 108950

Fig. 8. Flow direction and flame tilt under different smoke vent locations (HRR = 3.44 kW).

(2) When the smoke vent is located upstream or directly above the where x is the measuring point, x0 is the reference point, ΔTx and ΔTx0
fire source, the ceiling temperature significantly decreases as the are the temperature rise at x and x0 , φ is the temperature attenuation
exhaust volume increases. As previously analyzed, this behavior coefficient.
is mainly caused by the shapes of the flame and plume. When the Ingason and Li [41] proposed a tunnel ceiling temperature prediction
smoke vent is located downstream of the fire source, the flame model under a low air velocity by small-scale experiments:
almost does not tilt, as illustrated in Fig. 8(b). ( ) ( )
(3) As shown in Fig. 11, a slight temperature increase can be found ΔTx x x
= 0.57exp − 0.013 + 0.43exp − 0.021
near the smoke vent. This may be due to the suction effect of the ΔTmax H H (21)
smoke vent exacerbating the gathering of high-temperature
smoke near the smoke vent.
where x is the distance from the fire source, ΔTmax is the maximum
temperature rise, and H is the tunnel height.
Hu et al. [40] established a ceiling temperature attenuation predic­
Han et al. [23] summarized the longitudinal temperature attenuation
tion model in the underground passage with one closed end, as shown in
law considering single-point extraction in the tunnel with one closed
Eq. (20):
end. The prediction models of longitudinal temperature attenuation in
ΔTx different regions are presented, as shown in Eq. (22).
= exp[ − φ(x − x0 )] (20)
ΔTx0 Region II:

9
S. Zhao et al. International Journal of Thermal Sciences 200 (2024) 108950

Fig. 9. Prediction of maximum ceiling temperature. (a) Smoke vent is located upstream and directly above the fire source, (b) Smoke vent is located downstream of
the fire source.

Fig. 10. Comparison between the experimental and model-predicted values. (a) Smoke vent is located upstream and directly above the fire source, (b) Smoke vent is
located downstream of the fire source.

ΔTx ( x − x0 ) coefficients of R2 = 0.978 (Region I) and R2 = 0.961 (Region II). Thus,

= exp − 0.37 (22a)
ΔTmax H the prediction model for the ceiling temperature attenuation can be
written as follows:
Region III:
⎧ ( x) ( x)
ΔTx ( x− x ) ⎪
⎨ 0.319exp − 0.066 + 0.681exp − 1.398 , ​ Region І
(22b)
0
= exp φ ΔTx H H
ΔTx0 H = ( ) ( )
ΔTmax ⎪ ⎩ 0.526 ​ exp − 0.181 x + 0.434exp − 1.777 x , ​ Region ІІ
[ ] H H
where φ = − 0.106exp 118exp( − 81.8Q∗ )⋅Vin ∗
. (23)
The said studies indicate that the ceiling temperature decays with an
exponential function. Fig. 11 shows that when the smoke vent is located Fig. 12 also shows that almost all of the data falls within the ±20%
downstream of the fire source, the ceiling temperature remains high and error region, which means Eq. (23) can be used to accurately predict the
is almost unaffected by the exhaust volume in Regions I and II. There­ temperature attenuation in Regions I and II when the smoke vent is
fore, the ceiling temperature distributions in Regions I and II are located downstream of the fire source.
focused. Note that most of the high-temperature smoke is exhausted When the smoke vent is located directly above the fire source, the
when it diffuses to the smoke vent location, and the temperature is upstream side of the fire source is the leeward side. The overall tendency
greatly reduced in Region III. The effect of smoke on personnel safety of ceiling temperature attenuation is less affected by exhaust volume in
and tunnel structure is very limited. Therefore, the temperature atten­ this scenario. However, the downstream side of the fire source is the
uation in Region III is not analyzed in the following. windward side, and the air flow is relatively strong. The ceiling tem­
perature attenuation can be influenced by the exhaust volume in this
Fig. 12 shows the relationship between Hx and ΔT ΔTx
in Regions I and II
max
scenario. The ceiling temperature attenuation considerably differs be­
when the smoke vent is located downstream of the fire source. Here, x is
tween the upstream and downstream of the fire source. Therefore, when
the distance between the measuring point and the point with the
the smoke vent is located directly above the fire source, the temperature
maximum temperature. As shown in Fig. 12, the experimental data can
attenuations in the upstream and downstream of the fire source are
be well fitted with a double-exponential function, with correlation

10
S. Zhao et al. International Journal of Thermal Sciences 200 (2024) 108950

Fig. 11. Ceiling temperature under different exhaust volumes (HRR = 3.44 kW).

discussed separately. ( ) ( )
ΔTx x x
When the smoke vent is located directly above the fire source, the = 0.271exp − 0.141 + 0.729exp − 1.494 ​ (24)
ΔTmax H H
ceiling temperature attenuation in the upstream of the fire source can
still be fitted by a double-exponential function. Fig. 13 shows the rela­ When the smoke vent is located directly above the fire source, the
tionship between Hx and ΔT ΔTx
max
in the upstream of the fire source. The temperature distribution in the downstream of the fire source is affected
experimental results can be well fitted with a double-exponential func­ by exhaust volume. The temperature decays exponentially, and the
tion, with a correlation coefficient of R2 = 0.986. Thus, the calculation fitting coefficient is related to the induced air velocity [23]. Therefore,
model of the ceiling temperature attenuation can be written as follows: the dimensionless induced air velocity Vin∗ is used to measure the influ­
ence of exhaust volume on temperature attenuation, and the tempera­
ture attenuation can be assumed as:

11
S. Zhao et al. International Journal of Thermal Sciences 200 (2024) 108950

Fig. 13. Ceiling temperature attenuation in the upstream of the fire source
when the smoke vent is located directly above the fire source.

⎧ ( x) ( x)
⎪
⎨ 0.271exp − 0.141 + 0.729exp − 1.494 , ​ upstream
ΔTx H H
= [( ) ]
ΔTmax ⎪⎩ 0.880exp − 6.162V ∗ − 0.181 ⋅ x , ​ downstream
in
H
(27)
Fig. 15 compares the experimental and calculated values of tem­
perature when the smoke vent is located directly above the fire source.
Almost all of the data is within ±20% error lines. Therefore, Eq. (27)
exhibits a relatively high level of predicted accuracy and can be used to
predict the temperature attenuation when the smoke vent is located
directly above the fire source.

5. Conclusion

In this paper, the small-scale experimental method was adopted to

investigate the effect of single-point extraction on smoke characteristics
Fig. 12. Ceiling temperature attenuation in Regions I and II when the smoke in tunnels with one closed end. The effects of HRR, smoke vent location,
vent is located downstream of the fire source. (a) Region I, (b) Region II.
and exhaust volume on smoke diffusion length, maximum ceiling tem­
perature, and temperature attenuation were analyzed in detail. The
( x)
ΔTx
= α⋅exp β⋅ (25) main conclusions are summarized as follows:
ΔTmax H
(1) Fire-induced smoke is most effectively controlled, and the smoke
where α and β are the fitting coefficients. To determine the effect of
diffusion length is the shortest when the smoke vent is located
induced air velocity on α and β, Eq. (25) is used to fit the temperature
directly above the fire source. The smoke diffusion length in­
attenuation under different experimental conditions. Table 3 shows the
creases as the fire-vent distance increases when the smoke vent is
values of α and β under different experimental conditions, and Fig. 14
located downstream of the fire source. When the smoke vent is
intuitively illustrates the relationship between α and β and the dimen­
sionless induced air velocity Vin
∗
. The plotted values indicate that α is less
affected by the induced air velocity, while β follows a linear decay as the
induced air velocity increases. Therefore, the ceiling temperature Table 3
attenuation in the downstream of the fire source can be determined by Values of fitting coefficients α and β under different experimental conditions.
Eq. (26) when the smoke vent is located directly above the fire source: Vin
∗
HRR (kW) α β

ΔTx [( ) x] 0 3.44 0.7094 − 0.4829

= 0.880exp − 6.162Vin∗ − 0.181 ⋅ (26) 5.74 0.6936 − 0.2967
ΔTmax H 0.067 3.44 0.7096 − 0.4767
Based on the above analysis, when the smoke vent is located directly 5.74 0.6845 − 0.4276
0.134 3.44 0.9311 1.0688
above the fire source, the prediction model of the temperature attenu­
−
5.74 0.8895 − 0.9025
ation can be summarized as: 0.202 3.44 0.9914 − 1.6316
5.74 0.9871 − 1.6412
0.269 3.44 0.9846 − 1.7164
5.74 0.9909 − 1.8171
0.336 3.44 0.9902 − 2.2970
5.74 0.9929 − 2.2128

12
S. Zhao et al. International Journal of Thermal Sciences 200 (2024) 108950

temperature is almost unaffected by exhaust volume and smoke

vent location when the smoke vent is located downstream of the
fire source. The prediction models of the maximum ceiling tem­
perature are established, i.e., Eqs. (18) and (19).
(3) When the smoke vent is located upstream of the fire source, the
ceiling temperature in Regions I and II is high and almost unaf­
fected by exhaust volume, but exhaust volume has a remarkable
effect on the ceiling temperature in Region III. When the smoke
vent is located directly above the fire source, the overall tendency
of the ceiling temperature attenuation in the upstream of the fire
source is less affected by exhaust volume, but the ceiling tem­
perature attenuation in the downstream of the fire source is
significantly affected by exhaust volume. The prediction models
of the ceiling temperature attenuation are established when the
smoke vent is located downstream or directly above the fire
source, i.e., Eqs. (23) and (27).

In this paper, the effect of the smoke vent location relative to the fire
source on the smoke diffusion characteristics is investigated. The find­
Fig. 14. Determination of fitting coefficients α and β.
ings can be used to guide the determination of the smoke vent location
or the development of single-point extraction strategies. Further, this
study could also provide a research basis for multi-point extraction in
tunnel fires. However, the results in this paper have certain limitations.
The conclusions should be cautiously used when single-point extraction
is applied to fire scenarios with a larger HRR (the flame may impact the
tunnel ceiling and spread longitudinally).

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial

interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.

Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

Acknowledgements

This work was sponsored by the National Natural Science Founda­

Fig. 15. Comparison between experimental and model-predicted values.
located downstream or directly above the fire source, a prediction
model of the smoke diffusion length is established, i.e., Eq. (13).
(2) The maximum ceiling temperature decreases as exhaust volume
increases when the smoke vent is located upstream or directly
above the fire source. However, the maximum ceiling
tion of China (NSFC) under Grant No. 52208115, the Natural Science
Foundation of Shandong Province under Grant No. ZR2020QE279, and
the Plan of Guidance and Cultivation for Young Innovative Talents of
Shandong Province. Shengzhong Zhao and Fei Wang were also finan­
cially supported by the Science and Technology Support Plan for Youth
Innovation of Colleges and Universities of Shandong Province of China
under Grant No. 2023KJ122 and the Leading Researcher Studio Fund of
Jinan under Grant No. 202333050.

Appendix A. Uncertainty analysis

The uncertainty analysis is conducted using the root-sum-square (RSS) method proposed by Kline and McClintock [42]. When the result R of an
experiment is assumed to be a function of a set of measuring variables, which can be expressed as:
R = f (x1 , x2 , …, xn− 1 , xn ) (A-1)
Then the overall uncertainty of the result δR can be determined by the combination of uncertainty contributed to each variable, which is as follows:
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
∑ n ( )2
∂R
δR = δxi (A-2)
i=1
∂xi

where δxi is the absolute uncertainty of the measured variable xi . If R can be calculated in a pure product form of the measured values [43]:
R = x1 a x2 b x3 c …xn m (A-3)

13
S. Zhao et al. International Journal of Thermal Sciences 200 (2024) 108950

Then
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
( )2 ( )2 ( )2 ( )2
δR δx1 δx2 δx3 δxn
= a + b + c +…+ m (A-4)
R x1 x2 x3 xn

Therefore, the uncertainty of measurements in this paper could be determined as follows:

(1) Uncertainty of the temperature measurement

In this paper, temperature is measured by K-type sheathed thermocouples, which have an uncertainty of ±0.1 ◦ C in temperature readings.
( C)
Therefore, ±1 ◦ C is considered to be the conservative value, and the relative uncertainty of temperature is calculated as . Since all the
◦
δT
T = ±±1
T (◦ C)
experiments are conducted under similar environmental conditions with an ambient temperature of around 20±2 ◦ C, the maximum relative un­
certainty of temperature measurement is about ±5.6%.

(2) Uncertainty of the propane volume flow rate measurement

The volume flow rate of the propane is controlled by a gas flow meter (ALICAT MCRW-100SLPM-D) with an accuracy of ±0.4%, so the relative
uncertainty of the propane volume flow rate measurement is about ±0.4%.

(3) Uncertainty of the exhaust volume flow rate measurement

The flow meter (HRF-80SYCC1A10) is used to measure the exhaust volume flow rate in this paper, which has an accuracy of ±1.5%. Thus, the
relative uncertainty of the exhaust volume flow rate measurement is approximately ±1.5%.

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