Chapter 4:

COMPONENTS OF SPECIAL AND

INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
1. CHILD FIND THROUGH A PRE-
REFERRAL PROCESS
Referral for evaluation and special education
services begins by identifying students who have
additional needs and who may be at risk for
developmental disabilities. School guidance
counselors, early childhood teachers, primary
school teachers, and community-based daycare
workers are often the first to notice such
developmental delays in children. In other
instances, the parents themselves notice the delays
and seek consultation with pediatricians and other
specialists.

A. Pre-referral Process
A child noted to have significant difficulties in
relation to expected competencies and
developmental milestones may be referred by
parents and teachers for observation and
assessment. A team of professionals, known as a
pre-referral team, is comprised of special education
teachers, counselors, administrators, and
psychologists who collaborate to determine reasons
for the observed challenges (Hallahan et al. 2014).
They collaborate to find ways to meet the needs of
children with developmental delays.
Taylor (2009) provided an assessment model
that begins with a pre-referral process. Children
with noted developmental delays and difficulties
are identified through observations and use of
norm- and criterion- referenced tests. They are not
immediately referred for special education testing
but are first provided with the necessary academic
and behavioral support needed to address noted
challenges. In his assessment model, Taylor (2009)
explained that the initial step is to determine
teaching areas where a learner will benefit from
additional support through a variety of means.
Very young students who are at-risk or suspected
to have additional needs may also be identified
through community-based screening. Child
development and social workers use developmental
screening tools such as the Early Childhood Care
and Development (ECCD) Checklist that covers
items expected for a child's typical development as
presented in Chapter 5.
Once a program of pre-referral intervention
has been designed implementation and evaluation
follow to determine how effective it is in
addressing the needs of the child. Figure 4.1 shows
the pre-referral process and strategies.
B. Pre-referral Strategies
Essential in a pre-referral Intervention is the
use of pre-referral strategies that are designed to
provide immediate instructional and/or behavior
management support to a child. Using such
strategies lessens the number of cases referred for
special education and makes efficient use of time
and financial resources that could have been spent
for special education assessment (Heward 2013).
This will also lessen the tendency of over-referrals
to special education and wasting time as children
wait to be tested rather than receive the
instructional and behavioral support they need.
Examples of pre-referral strategies are:
observation of the child's behavior, including
interactions with parents, teachers, and peers;
interview of parents and teachers to gather more
information about the child; review of school
records; and analysis of the child's academic output
through error analysis, portfolio assessment, and
criterion-referenced and curriculum- based
assessment (Taylor 2009). Depending on the
information gathered, corresponding changes can
be made to manage the child's needs, such as
modification of the classroom environment (e.g.,
seating arrangement, group change, and teacher's
proximity in class), instructional support, and
relevant classroom and behavior management
(Mcloughlin & Lewis 2009).
 Pre-referral process

observation
classroom
record or
school
Review of
observation
Teacher
Parents or
problems
of potential
Recognition
Initial
Identafication

instruction
Direct
instruction
Small-group
Determenation of
Teaching Areas and
Strategies
potential needs
to address
of instruction
Modification
and behaviour
environment
of classroom
Modification
school support
class or after-
Additional in-
Implementation
of Teaching
Programs
behaviour
learning and
programs on
s of
effectivenes
Determine

Evaluation of
Teaching
Program

If despite provision of additional support, struggles

and difficulties persist, then the child is referred for
assessment either within the school. if such
services are available, or referred to a professional
for further assessment. What is essential at this
point is that the teachers have implemented a
variety of approaches and practices to ensure that
support is provided before formal assessment.
II. ASSESSMENT
Assessment is the process of collecting
information about a child's strengths and needs. It
uses a problem-solving process that involves a
systematic collection as well as interpretation of
data gathered(Salvia et al. 2013). Teachers and
administrators make instructional decisions based
on the assessment results.

A. Assessment Purposes
Assessment has a variety of purpose in special
and inclusive education. It begins with initial
identification that was explained in the previous
section in Child Find and the pre-referral process.
The results of an assessment are used to decide on
a child's educational placement and to plan
instructional programs for a child identified to have
additional needs. Progress monitoring and
evaluation of teaching programs and services is
another, the purpose of which is to determine how
effective programs are to assist the inclusive
teacher and the special education teacher (Giuliani
& Pierangelo 2012).
There are a variety of assessment methods that
regular and special education teachers can use. This
section covers the following: (1) interviews, (2)
observations, (3) checklists or rating scales, and (4)
tests.
B. Methods of Assessment
Tests. School psychologists, educational
diagnosticians, and other related professionals use a
variety of assessment tools to ensure that results are
valid and reliable. Norm-referenced tests are
standardized assessments that compare a child's
performance with a representative sample of
students of the same chronological age. Such tests
are rigorously made by a team. Results are reported
as percentile ranks and age and grade equivalent
scores, which makes it easier for professionals to
determine class and individual performance. While
such quantitative reporting makes it easier to
compare the test performance of children in a class,
it has its limitations in terms of use in instructional
planning. Intelligence Tests (e.g., Wechsler
Intelligence Scale for Students and Stanford-Binet
Intelligence Scale) and Achievement Tests (Wide
Range Achievement Tests and Kaufman Test of
Educational Achievement) are examples of norm-
referenced assessments.
On the other hand, criterion-referenced tests
compare a child's performance based on established
standards and competencies and can be used to
describe student performance (Jennings et al. 2006
as cited in Spinelli 2012). Scores are typically
reported as simple numerical scores, percentage of
correct responses, letter grades, or graphic score
reports. Such assessment data are more useful and
relevant as these provide specific skills a child has
mastered and those that need additional instruction
(Gargiulo 2012).

Informal Assessment. Professionals also use

informal or non- standardized assessments, which
are considered more authentic and thus can be used
primarily to describe performance and inform
instruction. Such assessments can be curriculum-
based or performance-based, such as the teacher-
made instruments used in classrooms and portfolio
assessments. For example, the use of reading
inventories where a teacher listens to a child read
while counting for accuracy and speed is an
example of an informal assessment.
Authentic Assessment. The use of tests,
whether formal or informal, is only one method of
assessment. There are other ways of assessing
students considered at-risk for developmental
delays or have additional needs. One that is highly
recommended by professionals is the use of
authentic assessment methods and tools. Authentic
assessments provide students the opportunity to
apply knowledge and skills in meaningful, real-
world settings (e.g., classroom, playground, etc.)
rather than in an artificial and contrived setting
(Dennis et al. 2013). Assessment tasks that are
more real- life are considered more authentic.
An example of authentic assessment is
observation of young students as they interact with
family members, peers, and objects in naturally
occurring activities across settings (e.g., home,
school, playground, etc.), and routines. During
observations, teachers and specialists can use
running records which focuses on the occurrence of
behaviors as they happen sequentially. Clay (2000
as cited in Dennis et al. 2013) identified essential
information to be included in a running record:

 Date and time of the observation

 Names of children involved
 Location of the incident
 Verbatim recording of what the children said
 Actual events that occurred

Anecdotal records contain shorter descriptions

of incidents or anecdotes that teachers and
specialists can use to analyze a student's behavior
and plan strategies for a specific child or group of
children. Other examples of authentic assessment
for young children are play-based assessment and
portfolio assessment.
The different assessment methods and tools
used to assess Carl after the pre-referral process are
discussed in the following.
C. Assessment Principles
Assessment practices should be anchored on
principles as provided by the Division for Early
Childhood of the Council for Exceptional Student
(DEC) (2014). Child- and family-centered
practices, a team-based approach, application of
individualized and appropriate process, and use of
genuine and meaningful communication that
adhere to ethical and legal practices are the
recommendations provided by the DEC.
Thus, a variety of assessment methods and tools,
use of authentic measures, as well as involvement
of the family are necessary to make decisions for
placement and instructional planning (DEC 2014).
III. PLACEMENT
Assessment results are used to decide a child's
appropriate education placement within a
continuum from the least to the most restrictive
settings. During the evaluation, student
performance is assessed and the team determines if
there would be any changes in the educational
placement within the continuum. Teams will base
this on their observations, assessment results, and
other factors, with the goal to move toward the
least restrictive learning environment. Sound
decisions are made to allow for fluidity in the
child's placement based on the child's strengths,
abilities, and needs.
A general education classroom is the least
restrictive environment for a child with additional
needs. Access to the same learning experiences and
opportunities is provided as to typically developing
students. Thus it is considered as the "most
normalized or typical setting" (Gargiulo, 2012).
Additional support in the form of accommodations
or changes in expectations through curriculum
modifications may be provided but still within the
same classroom as peers within the year level.
Another option for placement is to be in a
general education class but the child receives
supplementary instruction and services such as
speech, physical, and occupational therapy or
counseling services during the school day. Options
may be provided when such sessions are
conducted, either during school or as an after-
school service.
Students who may be part of a general
education class are pulled-out of their class to
receive instruction from a specialist teacher in a
resource room. In such a placement, it is assumed
that the child will benefit more from either a small-
group or individualized instruction with a specialist
teacher who will be able to more intensively target
his learning needs.
Other students need more intensive support
that is not provided in a general education class.
Teams may decide to recommend placement for a
child in a more restrictive setting such as a self-
contained special education class but still located in
a general education school. In this learning
environment, all students receive individualized
and group instruction with peers with disabilities
and additional needs from a special education
teacher. Depending on the program goals, students
may be given the opportunity to interact with
typically developing peers through school
community-building activities.
Moving up in the placement continuum, some
students who need more intensive instruction and
supports are educated in a special education class
in a special education school. Teams of
professionals, along with the special education
teacher, work with students with disabilities and
additional needs in a highly specialized setting.
 On the other end of the continuum is the most
restrictive or isolated setting, such as a residential
facility where students live and receive their
educational support twenty-four hours a day.
Finally, children with multiple disabilities, often of
the severe kind, are provided with home- or
hospital- based programs to manage their medical
condition and learn as much as they could.
Inclusive education espouses that all students,
to the maximum extent possible, is provided access
to general education classroom with the provision
of support to remove barriers to enable success.
Figure 4.2 presents this continuum of educational
placement options (Spinelli 2012).

Educational placement options

Home/Hospital program

Residential facility
Special education class in a special
education
Self-contained special education class in a
general education
General education class with resource center
instruction
General education class (inclusion or co-taught with a
special education teacher)

General education class with related services

General education class with modifications

IV. ACCOMMODATIONS AND
CURRICULAR MODIFICATIONS
Students with disabilities and additional needs
who are studying in an inclusive general education
classroom may need accommodations in the form
of instructional support and other supplementary
services. Others who need more intensive support
are provided with curricular modifications.

A. Accommodations
Based on the definition, accommodations are
supports provided to students to help gain full
access to class content and instruction, without
altering the curriculum standards and competencies
expected and to demonstrate accurately what they
know. When accommodations are provided in a
general education classroom for children with
disabilities, barriers are removed from accessing
education. As a result, children can work around
the effect of their disabilities. Examples of
accommodations are altering instruments, toys or
materials, changing the room during specific
activities, providing time extensions or allowances
for tests and tasks, and changing response formats
in worksheets.
Accommodations may be provided both during
assessment and instruction, depending on the
learning profile and needs of a child and may vary
in terms of presentation, response, setting, and
scheduling (Beech 2010).
1. Presentation Accommodations
Children with disabilities may need specialized
presentation formats especially those with sensory
impairments so they can learn the same content
alongside typically developing peers. Table 4.1
presents examples of accommodations in
presentation.

Accommodations in presentation
Examples of
Learning Needs
Accommodations
 Minimize visual
distraction
 Visual cues (e.g., use
color-coded text,
highlighting)
Visual support
 Use of larger print
materials (font size,
illustrations)
 Use of sign language
 Videos with closed
captioning
Auditory and  Read aloud by a peer
comprehension support  Audio books
 Digital text that reads
aloud or gives
definition of words
 Text-to-speech
software
 Advance organizer or
 story guide
 Highlighting or color
coding
 Advance organizer
 Explicit verbal or
visual cues; physical
prompts
Listening and focusing  Repeat/Clarify
directions and
important information
 Note-taking support
 Copy of directions
2. Response Accommodations
Response accommodations allow students with
disabilities and additional needs a variety of ways
to complete assignments, written tests, performance
tasks, and other activities. Providing such
instructional and assessment supports allows them
to access the same learning experiences as other
students in a general education classroom. Table
4.2 summarizes examples of response
accommodations for students with disabilities and
additional needs.
Response accommodations
Examples of
Learning Needs
Accommodations
 Different
size/diameter of
pencil, marker, or
crayon
 Pencil or pen grip
(triangular, pear-
Writing difficulty (e.g.,
shaped)
errors in spacing, visual-
 Finger spacer
perceptual or spatial-
 Scribe to record
orientation, illegible
dictated responses
handwriting)
 Handwriting
template/guide on the
student's desk
 Visual cues on paper
Different types and
sizes of paper
  Electronic dictionary
with spell check
 Written expression
difficulty
 Online dictionary
 Word processor with
Written expression
spelling and grammar
difficulty
check
 Writing cue cards
 List of sight words
 Writing templates,
outlines, and graphic
organizers
 Calculator
 Concrete models and
manipulatives
 Visual representation
 Problem-solving
Math difficulty
guides
 Graphic organizers
 Special paper-
graphing paper for
computation
3. Setting Accommodations
Changes in the location or conditions of the
educational setting or environment may be
necessary for students who need support in terms
of behavior, attention, and organization of space
and materials. Accommodation in a setting may
allow a child who gets easily distracted to work in
a quiet corner of the classroom in his own study
carrel so that he will not be sidetracked by
environmental stimuli. Or a child who is still
unable to read fluently may be allowed to take a
silent reading comprehension test in another room
with a supervising adult just so she could hear
herself read aloud which helps her better
understand the story.

4. Scheduling Accommodations
Changing time allotment, schedule of tasks and
assessments, and management of time are some
types of scheduling accommodations. Students
with slower ability in processing information and
directions well as with focusing issues may need
these types of accommodation. Some examples of
accommodation that can modify scheduling are: (1)
extending time for assignments and assessments;
(2) providing breaks in between tasks; (3)
providing a visual schedule or a checklist of
individual responsibilities; (4) providing
predictable routines and procedures; and (5)
providing an electronic device with alarms and
cues.
B. Modifications
Curriculum modifications are provided for
students with significant or severe disabilities
where content expectations are altered, and the
performance outcomes are changed in relation to
what are expected of typically developing students
of the same age (DEC 2007). When instruction and
assessment are modified, a student with disability
is still given the right to access the same learning
opportunities as other students in the general
education class, but the tasks are more respectful
and appropriate to the student's abilities and needs.
Curricular modifications include changes in
instructional level, content and performance
criteria, as well as the breadth and depth of content
being learned by students. Students with disabilities
or additional needs may be given more, less, or
different content and resource materials altogether.
They may also be assessed using different
standards that are more appropriate to the student's
needs and abilities, such as being provided with
fewer objectives, shorter lessons, or a smaller
number of vocabulary words to learn.
Educational teams responsible for instructional
planning may indicate curricular modifications in
the student's Individual Educational Plan (IEP).
Such modifications are needed so that students also
have access to the general education curriculum.
V. PARENT INVOLVEMENT
Another component of an inclusive and special
education is parent involvement. It has long been
established that parent involvement in education,
planning, and management of children with
disabilities and additional needs is essential as they
are the primary caregivers and have direct
influence on their children. This is anchored on
Bronfenbrenner's Human Ecological Theory, which
states that there are five environmental systems that
comprise a child's social context. For the purposes
of this book, focus is given on the microsystem,
where the child and his/her family belong, along
with peers, school, and the immediate community
(i.e., neighborhood). Within these microsystems, a
child has direct interactions with parents, teachers,
peers, and others; while the mesosystem refers to
the linkages or relationships between microsystems
such as the connections between family
experiences and school experiences and between
family and peers (Santrock 2011).
A. Home-School Communication
Having established the critical role of parents in a
student's developmental and academic progress and
achievement, it is essential that there is a close
home and school collaboration and communication.
To establish partnerships, problem-solving, two-
way communication, and shared decision making
are some of the practices needed. Communicating
with parents may be done in several ways.

1. Parent-Teacher Conferences
Parent-teacher conferences are face-to-face
meetings held between parents and teachers.
Conducting such meetings is necessary so parents
of students with disabilities and additional needs
will be able to share about their child's background,
strengths and abilities, history of difficulties, and
practices they have been implementing at home as
well as interventions done with other specialists.
Together with teachers, they can coordinate their
efforts and services to support their child both in
school and at home.
Schools differ when it comes to the frequency of
parent teacher conferences. One best practice is to
hold a meeting with parents at the beginning of a
school year as part of goal setting for the student
with a disability. In this way, both parents and
teachers can set expectations for the year and agree
on goals and objectives for the child. This is also a
good opportunity for teachers to establish rapport
with parents. Conferences are also held after every
grading period (e.g., every quarter, trimester, and
semester) so that progress, changes, and results can
be communicated and discussed with parents and
agree on necessary action plans.

2. Written Communication
Home-school communication may also be
conducted through written messages, such as the
use of a home-school communication notebook,
where teachers and parents write homework
assignments, the student's behavior in the
classroom, as well as progress on program goals. A
written communication may be time consuming,
but some parents prefer this form of collaboration
as the messages are documented and they can
provide a copy to a developmental specialist when
needed.

3. Digital communication
With the influx of mobile devices, many parents
and families are more able to communicate through
electronic and digital means such as email, text
messages, and social network messaging systems.
A study found that parents and teachers perceive
technology as an effective tool to promote parent
involvement and thus value its use for
communication (Olmstead 2013). Because it is
instant and real-time, parents and teachers are
immediately able to receive messages and updates
about the student. However, drawbacks can also
occur such as when both parties are not mindful of
parameters in communication; hence, it is
necessary that parties agree on certain boundaries
in order to be respectful of everyone's time and
personal space.

4. Home-School Contracts
A home-school contract contains an agreement
between teachers and parents regarding behavioral
and/or academic goals for a student with disability.
Just like any formal contract, this is a written
agreement between teachers, parents, and students
(when appropriate) on specific objectives and
corresponding reinforcements or rewards when
they are met.
One example of a home-school contract is a Daily
Report Card, an individualized intervention used in
schools that is anchored on the behavioral
principles of operant conditioning. The card
Indicates specific behaviors targeted for a child
with disability that are framed as positive
statements and targets for improvements. The use
of a daily report card has been found to be
beneficial in helping a child with Attention Deficit
Hyperactivity Disorder in school and in promoting
daily collaboration between teachers and parents
(Moore et al. 2016; Mautone et al. 2012). This will
be further discussed in Chapter 6.

B. Other Ways to Involve Parents

Parents also have strengths, abilities, intuitive
knowledge, and the commitment to help their own
child. They become advocates of their own
children. To maximize their involvement, schools
provide other opportunities such as parent
education training, workshops, and parent support
groups.

a.Parent education may take the form of

providing seminars and workshops to parents to
equip them with a better understanding of their
child's disability and accompanying strengths,
uniqueness, as well as specific techniques and
strategies that they can practice at home. Such
training sessions can be for a few hours done on a
quarterly basis or for a regular period, such as
every Saturday, depending on the needs of the
parents and the training capacity of the school. In
this way, parents become educated in evidence-
based approaches so that there will be continuity in
the practices implemented between the home and
school.
b.Parent support groups are also helpful as
parents are able to ask other parents about tips and
techniques to work with their children. Parents
should be empowered so that they can participate
in planning and organizing parent support groups.
Through such groups, parents can draw support
from one another during meetings as they share
techniques and strategies, even frustrations and
successes about their children.

In summary, this chapter has presented the

different components of inclusive and special
education, which include the following: per-
referral, assessment, placement, accommodations
curricular modifications, and parent involvement.
Across these components, a team approach is
highly recommended where each member-the
child, parents, general education teacher, special
education teacher, therapists, and other specialists-
coordinate and collaborate in planning and making
decisions for the child with disabilities.