Synchronous Machines 31.03.2024

Synchronous Machines
By
Dr. Krishna Roy
Assistant Professor
Electrical Engineering Department
NITR
Syllabus
Synchronous Machines:
Torque and power relations
V and O curves, hunting and surging, variable torque loading
The parallel operation
Synchronization
Active and reactive power sharing between alternators
Governor characteristics
Parallel operation of dissimilar generators
2
Syllabus
Synchronous Machines:
Torque and power relations
V and O curves, hunting and surging, variable torque loading
The parallel operation
Synchronization
Active and reactive power sharing between alternators
Governor characteristics
Parallel operation of dissimilar generators
3
Load sharing between alternators
If the two induced EMFs are
not equal
IC E A  EB
Then there will be circulating
current between the
Alternator A
Alternator B
alternators
E A  EB
IC 
Z A  ZB
Current shared by A:
ZB
I A  Il  IC
Z A  ZB
Current shared by B:
ZA
I B  Il  IC
Z A  ZB 4
If the two induced EMFs are
equal
IC E A  EB
Then there will be no
circulating current
Alternator B
Alternator A
E A  EB
IC  0
Z A  ZB
ZB
I A  Il
Z A  ZB
ZA
I B  Il
Z A  ZB
5
Alternate expressions:
E A  Vt
IA 
ZA
Alternator B
Alternator A
EB  Vt
IB 
ZB
I A ZB
Therefore, 
IB Z A
Load current shared by the two alternators is inversely proportional to

their impedances when their induced emfs are equal
6
When the load impedance Zl is specified:
Terminal voltage Vt  I l Zl   I A  I B  Zl
Induced emf in A EA  I A Z A  Vt  I A Z A   I A  I B  Zl
Induced emf in B EB  I B Z B  Vt  I B Z B   I A  I B  Zl
E Z   E A  EB  Z l E B Z A   EB  E A  Z l
Therefore, IA  A B IB 
Z A Z B   Z A  Z B  Zl Z A Z B   Z A  Z B  Zl
E A Z B  EB Z A
Hence, the load current I l   I A  I B  
Z A Z B   Z A  Z B  Zl
Terminal voltage Vt  Il Zl   E A Z B  EB Z A 
  Zl
 Z A Z B   Z A  Z B  Zl 
7
Vto
When the load impedance Zl is specified: ZS 
I a ( SC )
 E A Z B  EB Z A 
Terminal voltage Vt     Zl
 Z A Z B   Z A  Z B  Zl  E A EB

E A Z B  EB Z A Z A ZB
Or, Vt  
Z AZ B 1  1 1 
  Z A  ZB    
Zl Zl  Z A Z B 
E A EB
  ...
Z A ZB I A( SC )  I B ( SC )  ...
In general, Vt  
1  1 1  1  1 1 
   ...     ... 
Zl  Z A Z B  Zl  Z A Z B 
8
When the load impedance Zl is specified:
I A( SC )  I B ( SC )
EA 
1  1 1 
  
Therefore, E A  Vt Zl  Z A Z B 
IA  
ZA ZA
I A( SC )  I B ( SC )
EB 
1  1 1 
  
EB  Vt Zl  Z A Z B 
IB  
ZB ZB
Thus, power shared by the two alternators are given by
S A  Vt I A S B  Vt I B
9
Load sharing between identical alternators
Same excitation
E A  EB  E
Identical alternators
Z A  ZB  Z
E A  Vt E  Vt
IA  
ZA Z
Il EB  Vt E  Vt
I A  IB  IB  
2 ZB Z
10
Controlling the load sharing between alternators
E A  Vt E B  Vt
IA  IB 
ZA ZB
• If excitation of one of these

two machines is increased
• Then one of the machines
develop more induced EMF
than the other
• But since they are connected in parallel, their terminal
voltages always remain the same.
• Thus, in addition to the load currents, there will be certain
amount of circulating current that would flow in the loop
between the two alternators.
• But there will not be appreciable change in the power
delivered to the load 11
In order to change the active power sharing of any alternator:
The active power input to that
alternator must be changed
This can only be done by
adjusting the input to the prime
movers
Adjusting steam supply to the
turbine in thermal power plant or
water in a hydro power plant
Flow of the steam or water is
controlled by a mechanism called
the governor
Any change in active electrical
output load to be supplied by the
alternator causes corresponding
deviations in running speed
12
In order to change the active power sharing of any alternator:
The governor senses this change
in speed and accordingly varies
opening of the throttle for
controlling the steam or water
input to the turbine
The share of active power
between two alternators
connected in parallel can thus be
varied by controlling setting of
the governor fitted to the
alternators
13
Governor characteristics:
The speed versus load
characteristics of an alternator
must be drooping in nature
Which ensures the stability of
operation of the alternators when
connected in parallel
Otherwise, any increase in load
will result in increase in speed
that will still deliver higher load
This process will make the speed
to increase further
The process goes on
cumulatively to increase the
speed till the machine loses
synchronism and runs away
14
On the other hand a drooping
speed-load characteristic ensures
Speed drops at increased load
demand
Enhancement in mechanical
power brings back the speed
to its original value to match
the increased load demand
The two alternators will share the

load equally when their speed-
load characteristics intersect each
other
15
When the load demand is
changed, then the two alternators
no longer can share the load
equally
Let the load be reduced to
 PA  PB  % of full load
PA  PB
To maintain synchronism, the
two alternators must run at the
same speed
But the speed of A has raised to N s
A is under loaded and be is over
loaded
16
Both machines can once again be
made to share equal proportions of
the total load by forcefully making
their speed-load characteristics
intersect each other
This can be done by adjusting the
spring tension in the governor
mechanism
This makes the speed-load
characteristic of B to shift to a new
position parallel to its original
position
A new point of intersection between
the two curves is thus obtained
It indicates equal sharing of load
between the alternators
17
Synchronizing current and synchronizing power:
When two alternators are made to
synchronize with each other, then at
the moment of synchronism their
frequencies are very close but might
not be exactly the same.
Alternator B
Alternator A
Then, a circulating current starts to
flow through the two machines.
This is called synchronizing current.
The power associated with this flow
of current is called synchronizing
power.
This synchronizing power helps bring
the frequency of both machines to the
same value. Er
This synchronizing current or the PS  E  I C  E 
synchronizing power acts as an
ZA  ZB
automatic governor that always tends
to maintain synchronism between the
two alternators connected in parallel. 18
Effect of change in mechanical power input to the prime mover of
alternators connected in parallel (more steam input)
Two identical alternators
Same excitation
Same speed
Connected in parallel
Same terminal voltage
Equal current sharing
Il
I A  IB 
2
Share of active power delivered: δ
EV EV θ Vt
PA  A t sin   B t sin   PB
Xs Xs
19
Steam input to prime mover of A is increased
Momentarily the speed of A will increase
So, phasor EA will rotate faster than EB
Magnitude of EA and EB will

remain same (since excitation is
maintained constant)
But EA will lead EB δ

θ Vt
20
Power angle will change
δA > δ B
Since A receives more

mechanical power, so its power
angle becomes higher
Thus, A now delivers more

δA
active power than B
δ δB
E AVt EV
PA  sin   PB  B t sin  θ Vt
Xs Xs
Alternator A , that receives more mechanical power, shares more active power output
21
Also, since EA and EB now do
not overlap any more, there will
be circulating current IC
This circulating current is due
to the resultant emf Er
This IC lags Er by 90°
Due to flow of circulating
current δA
I A  I A  I C
δ δB
θ
I B  I B  I C Vt
Thus, current sharing will

change
I A  I A I B  I B
22
Alternator A , that receives more mechanical power, carries higher share of load
Also, output power factors of
the alternators change
A   B  
Thus,
cos  A  cos  cos  B  cos 
θ θA Vt
θB
Alternator A , that receives more mechanical power, has higher power factor
23
Effect of change in excitation given to the field of alternators
Two identical alternators
Prime mover input (mechanical power) not changed
Same speed
Connected in parallel
Same terminal voltage
Equal current sharing
Il
I A  IB 
2
Both at the same pf angle δ

θ Vt
24
Now, excitation (field current) of A is increased
Thus, induced emf EA will increase to E'A
Since mechanical (active) power is kept constant:
The power angle of A must reduce a bit
E AVt EV
PA  sin   A t sin 
Xs Xs
Thus, δ δ'
   θ Vt
25
Since EA and E'A do not overlap any more, there will be circulating current IC
This circulating current is due to the resultant emf Er
This IC lags Er by 90°
Due to flow of circulating current
I A  I A  I C
I B  I B  I C
Thus,
δ δ'
I A  I A I B  I B
Vt
• Thus current sharing changes, θ
• A with more excitation shares more
current
26
I A  I A I B  I B
Also, A  
B  
Thus, we have
sin  A  sin  B
Hence reactive power sharing,

QA  Vt I A sin  A
QB  Vt I B sin  B
QA  QB θB Vt
θ
θA
• Thus, alternator A with more
excitation, gives a bigger share of
reactive power
27
Alternator connected to infinite bus
Vt
f
Infinite bus
(grid)
G1
Generator
bus
28
Changing active load keeping excitation constant
Changing excitation keeping active load constant
29
Changing excitation keeping active load constant
Terminal voltage (Vt) constant (connected to infinite bus)
Frequency (f) of the machine is constant (connected to infinite bus)
Active power is constant
Mechanical power input to the shaft is also constant
E f Vt
P sin  P  Vt I a cos 
Xs
Since, P, Vt and Xs are constants, thus:
E f sin   constant I a cos   constant
30
As excitation is increased, the flux is increased
As flux increases, induced emf Ef also increases
But since E f sin   constant
The power angle δ must reduce
Also, as the excitation is made stronger, the alternator
changes from being under-excited to over-excited state
 “Under-excited”alternator delivers leading current

 “Over-excited” alternator delivers lagging current
31
Let us start from a low excitation, i.e. when the alternator is
“under-excited” and it is delivering leading current
E f 1  Vt  jI a1 X s
Ef1
Ia1 jIa1Xs
θ1 δ1
Vt
32
As excitation increases, the magnitude of induced emf Ef will increase,
but its sinδ component (vertical projection) should always remain same
E f  Vt  jI a X s
Ef1
Ia1 jIa1Xs
θ1 δ1
Vt
33
 Vt remaining constant, the voltage drop phasor jIa1Xs will continue to
move as the emf Ef changes
Ef1
Ia1 jIa1Xs
θ1 δ1
Vt
34
 Since the current Ia must always remain at 900 to the phasor jIa1Xs, the
current phasor will also move, but its cosθ component (horizontal
component) remains constant
Ef1
Ia1 jIa1Xs
θ1 δ1
Vt
I a1 cos 
35
 Let us take three instances for example
Ef1
Ia1 jIa1Xs
θ1 δ1
Vt
I a1 cos 
36
 Ef1= under-excited, leading current
 jIa1Xs at 900 to Ia1
Ef1
Ia1 jIa1Xs
θ1 δ1
Vt
I a1 cos 
37
 Ef2= nominal excitation, upf current
Ef1 Ef2
Ia1 jIa1Xs
jIa2Xs
θ1 δ1
Ia2 Vt
I a1 cos 
38
 Ef3= over-excited, lagging current
Ef1 Ef2 Ef3

Ia1 jIa1Xs
jIa2Xs jIa3Xs
θ1 δ1
Ia2 Vt
Ia3
I a1 cos 
39
 Ef3 > Ef2 > Ef1
 δ 3 < δ2 < δ1
 Ia3 =lagging, Ia2 = upf, Ia1 =leading
Ia3, Ia1 > Ia2 (current is minimum with upf)
Ef1 Ef2 Ef3

Ia1 jIa1Xs
jIa2Xs jIa3Xs
θ1 δ1
Ia2 Vt
Ia3
I a1 cos 
40
 Summary
 With increasing excitation (field current), the armature current goes
from leading to lagging through unity power factor
 Armature current magnitude is minimum at upf
Ef1 Ef2 Ef3

Ia1 jIa1Xs
jIa2Xs jIa3Xs
θ1 δ1
Ia2 Vt
Ia3
I a1 cos 
41
V-curve of alternator
Plot of field current vs. armature current
 Summary
 With increasing excitation (field current), the armature current goes
from leading to lagging through unity power factor
 Armature current magnitude is minimum at upf
Ia
Unity pf
Lagging
pf
Leading
pf Nominal excitation
If
Under-excited Over-excited
42
V-curve of alternator
At higher load
 At higher load, the alternator delivers more active power
So current increases (graph shifts upwards)
Power factor also improves at a given field current (shifts right)
Ia
80% load
40% load
Unity pf Low-load
Lagging
pf
Leading
pf
If
Under-excited Over-excited
43
Hunting in alternators
Under normal operation of an alternator, mechanical speed of the rotor
and speed of the RMF in stator are equal.
Thus, the relative speed between stator RMF and the rotor is zero.
If the machine deviates from this condition, then synchronizing power
and synchronizing torque comes into play.
Such deviations can be due to sudden changes in load or speed of the
turbine.
This causes sudden variations in
• Power angle
• Power factor
• Armature current
• Active power
 There may be overshoots and undershoots in alternator power output
(due to inertia) before it attains the new stable operating state
 This is called hunting
44
Hunting in alternators
• Un-damped hunting in alternators
In a practical power system, oscillations due to hunting in alternators are

damped out due to various electrical and mechanical power losses
present in the system.
45
Capability curve of alternators
The capability curve of an alternator determines the limit within
which the machine can operate safely under steady state.
Various boundaries of safety limits that are set on the machine:
MVA rating: the load should be within the MVA rating of the
machine otherwise the stator heating will exceed the limit
MW rating: the active load should be within the turbine rating
Field current rating: field current should be within a specific limit so
that excessive rotor heating can be avoided
46
Ia=Constant
Ef=Constant
Ef
jIaXs
Vt
δ Ia
θ
Phasor diagram
47
Q
Let,
P = Active power
Q = Reactive power E
 S = Apparent power  3Vt I a
X
Hence, S 2  P 2  Q 2   3Vt I a 
2
B
 3Vt I a
 The semicircle gives the locus of
A Z
maximum MVA rating of the machine D
 ED = lagging pf (0,0) P
 DF = leading pf
 D = unity pf
 As the radius AB moves from A to E, the
armature current becomes more lagging
wrt Vt and the pf reuces to zero
F
 Similarly, when radius AB moves from D
to F, the armature current becomes more
leading wrt Vt and the pf reuces to zero
 As the armature current moves from O
leading to lagging pf, the field current
increases 48
 Thus, at lagging pf, the copper loss in Q
rotor field and therefore, rotor heating is 0.85 lag pf
more
E
 Therefore the value of field current
should be kept within the limit such that C
the rotor heating remains within the safe X
B
limit
 As Ef ∞ If  3Vt I a
 Therefore, setting the limit of If is A Z
equivalent to setting the limit of Ef D
(0,0) P
O
49
Xs Xs Q
OA  OA   Vt OC   OC   Ef
3Vt 3Vt 0.85 lag pf
 The steady state limit of a E
synchronous machine is at C
Ef C′ δ=90⁰
X
 But the machine must B
operate within a safe
 3Vt I a
margin which is less than
A′ 90⁰ A Z
D
Vt (0,0) P
 Let, δ=δmax is the steady
state margin
F
δmax δmax
O′ O
50
Xs Xs Q
OA  OA   Vt OC   OC   Ef
3Vt 3Vt 0.85 lag pf
 For a given power output E
limit, higher the value of C
Ef C′ power angle δ, lower will
X
be the value of induced emf B
Ef
 3Vt I a
 So the steady state power
A′ output limit can also be set A Z
D
by the value of Ef(min)
Vt (0,0) P
corresponding to that
particular value of δmax
F
δmax δmax
O′ O
51
 The region enclosed by the
capability curve XBD is the
operating region of the machine
 XB = rotor heating limit
 BD = armature heating limit
 B is the operating point at rated pf
which is around 0.85 pf lag
 For low pf XB sets the limit of
operation
 For high pf BD sets the limit of
operation
 If the cooling system of the machine

is improved, the capability curve can
be increased to a region enclosed
byX′B′D′
52
Thank You
53

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Synchronous Machines

Load current shared by the two alternators is inversely proportional to

• If excitation of one of these

The two alternators will share the

Magnitude of EA and EB will

But EA will lead EB δ

Since A receives more

Thus, A now delivers more

Thus, current sharing will

Both at the same pf angle δ

Hence reactive power sharing,

Changing excitation keeping active load constant

 “Under-excited”alternator delivers leading current

Ef1 Ef2 Ef3

Ef1 Ef2 Ef3

Ef1 Ef2 Ef3

• Un-damped hunting in alternators

In a practical power system, oscillations due to hunting in alternators are

 If the cooling system of the machine

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