THEME.

MOLECULAR BASES
HERITAGE AND VARIABILITY

Сlass objectives:

Know: 1. The structure and function of nucleic acids.

2. Features of the structural organization of the gene for prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
3. The structure and properties of the genetic code.
Be able to: 1. Use the knowledge of the theory of molecular foundations of genetics when
solving problems for coding and decoding

Nucleic acids are naturally occurring chemical compounds that serve as the primary
information-carrying molecules in cells. They play an especially important role in
directing protein synthesis. The two main classes of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
Nucleic acids are giant biomolecules made of monomers called nucleotides. Nucleotides
have three components: pentose sugar (5-carbon sugar), phosphate group, and nitrogenous
base. The nucleic acids are of two major types: natural and synthetic nucleic acids.
The DNA molecule is a polymer of nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of a
nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar (deoxyribose), and a phosphate group. There are four
nitrogenous bases in DNA, two purines (adenine and guanine) and two pyrimidines (cytosine
and thymine). A DNA molecule is composed of two strands.
DNA Biological Functions
• Proteins. A protein is a complex molecule found in the body that is abundant and is vital for
most living functions. ...
• How is DNA linked to proteins? DNA carries the codes for proteins. ...
• Transcription. ...
• Translation. ...
• Modification and folding. ...
• Coding for proteins. ...
• DNA replication. ...
• DNA inheritance.

There are 3 types of RNA, each encoded by its own type of gene.
• mRNA - Messenger RNA: Encodes amino acid sequence of a polypeptide.
• tRNA - Transfer RNA: Brings amino acids to ribosomes during translation.

• rRNA - Ribosomal RNA: With ribosomal proteins, makes up the ribosomes, the organelles that
translate the mRNA.
 Amino acids are the monomers that make up proteins. Specifically, a protein is made up
of one or more linear chains of amino acids, each of which is called a polypeptide.
All proteins are made up of different arrangements of the same 20 kinds of amino acids.
Amino acids are the monomers that make up proteins.
Protein synthesis is the process in which cells make proteins. It occurs in two stages:
transcription and translation. Transcription is the transfer of genetic instructions in DNA to
mRNA in the nucleus.
During translation, ribosomal subunits assemble together like a sandwich on the strand of
mRNA, where they proceed to attract tRNA molecules tethered to amino acids (circles). A long
chain of amino acids emerges as the ribosome decodes the mRNA sequence into a polypeptide,
or a new protein.
The actual order of the amino acids in the protein is called its primary structure and
is determined by DNA. The order of deoxyribonucleotide bases in a
gene determines the amino acid sequence of a particular protein.

Fig. 1 Universal genetic code

Codons are trinucleotide units that present in mRNA and codes for a particular amino acid
in protein synthesis. Anticodon is trinucleotide units that present in tRNA. It is complementary
to the codons in mRNA. Codons transfer the genetic information from the nucleus to the
ribosomes where protein synthesis takes place.
Eukaryotic Gene Expression
 Introns are noncoding sections of an RNA transcript, or the DNA encoding it, that are
spliced out before the RNA molecule is translated into a protein. The sections of DNA (or RNA)
that code for proteins are called exons. Exons are the regions of RNA that are used to produce
amino acids and proteins. Splicing produces a mature messenger RNA molecule that is then
translated into a protein.

Methodical instructions for implementation teaching and research work

In the album, write: Topic: "Molecular basis of heredity and variability."

The task: 1. Solve tasks on the topic.

An example of solving a genetic problem

1. In the translation was attended by 50 molecules of t-RNA. Determine the number of
amino acids included in the composition of the produced protein.

1 tRNA carries 1 amino acid. The answer is 50 amino acids.

2. In the translation was attended by 50 molecules of t-RNA. Determine the number of triplets in
the gene that encodes this protein.

3. In the translation was attended by 50 molecules of t-RNA. Determine the number of

nucleotides in the gene that encodes this protein.

4.The DNA fragment consists of 72 nucleotides. Determine the number of triplets of nucleotides
in mRNA.

5. The DNA fragment consists of 72 nucleotides. Determine the number of amino acids included
in the composition of the produced protein.

An example of solving a genetic problem

6. How many pairs of nucleotides included in the exons of the α - chains of the protein. If it
is known that the α-chain consists of 100 amino acids.
3 nucleotides encode 1 amino acid. The answer is 300 pairs of nucleotides.

7. How many pairs of nucleotides included in the exons of the β-chains of the protein. If it is β-
chain includes 150 amino acids.

8. Protein B - monomer. The gene encoding this protein includes its introns are 5 to 10 thousand
nucleotides, and exon 4 for 270 base pairs. How many nucleotides is included in the coding
zone of the protein?

9. Protein B - monomer. The gene encoding this protein includes its introns are 5 to 10 thousand
nucleotides, and exon 4 for 270 base pairs. How many nucleotides is included in the non- coding
zone of the protein?

10. Protein B - monomer. The gene encoding this protein includes its introns are 5 to 10
thousand nucleotides, and exon 4 for 270 base pairs. How many pairs of nucleotides (exons and
its introns are) is included with this gene?

11. Protein B - monomer. The gene encoding this protein includes its introns are 5 to 10
thousand nucleotides, and exon 4 for 270 base pairs. How many amino acids included in the
composition of the protein?
12. In the translation was attended by 60 molecules of t-RNA. Determine the number of amino
acids included in the composition of the produced protein

13. In the translation was attended by 60 molecules of t-RNA. Determine the number of triplets
in the gene that encodes this protein.

14. In the translation was attended by 40 molecules of t-RNA. Determine the number nucleotides
in the gene that encodes this protein.

15. One strand of a DNA molecule has the following sequence 5’- ACGTATGA- 3’.
The complementary strand must be:
1) 5’-TGCATACT-3’
2) 5’-TCATACGT-3’
3) 5’-UCAUACGT-3’
4) 5’-ACGTATGA-3’

16. If a double-stranded DNA molecule contains 12% cytosine, then it must contain % guanine.

17. A nucleic acid with the base composition of 45% adenine, 45% cytosine, 5% thymine and
5%
guanine is:
1) double-stranded DNA
2) double-stranded RNA
3) single-stranded DNA
4) single-stranded RNA

18. A nucleic acid with the base composition of 30% adenine, 20% cytosine, 30% thymine and
20% guanine is:
1) double-stranded DNA
2) double-stranded RNA
3) single-stranded DNA
4) single-stranded RNA

19. A nucleic acid with a base composition of 22% adenine, 20% cytosine, 30% uracil and 28%
guanine is:
1) double-stranded DNA
2) double-stranded RNA
3) single-stranded DNA
4) single-stranded RNA

20. One strand of a DNA molecule has the following sequence 5’- ACGTATGA- 3’.
The complementary strand must be:
1) 5’-TGCATACT-3’
2) 5’-TCATACGT-3’
3) 5’-UCAUACGT-3’
4) 5’-ACGTATGA-3’

21. A fragment of one of the strands of DNA has the following structure: GGCTCTGCTTAA.
Build on it m-RNA and determine the sequence of amino acids in the fragment of the protein
molecule (use table of genetic code).
22. A fragment of m-RNA has the following structure: CUAUAGGUGCAG. Define the
anticodon t-RNA and sequence of amino acids encoded in the fragment. Also write a fragment of
the DNA molecule, which was synthesized this RNA (use table of genetic code).

Upload to the TASK file on Moodle (Сarry out task).

 THEME. PEDIGREE ANALYSIS FOR AUTOSOMAL TRAITS.

Class objectives:
Know: 1. Features of a person as a genetic object.
2. The essence of the main methods of studying heredity and variability in humans.
Be able to: Analyze pedigree schemes with different variants of autosomal inheritance.

Methodical recommendations to the topic for implementation

teaching and research work
Write to the album:
Theme: Pedigree Analysis for Autosomal Traits.

Autosomal dominance is a pattern of inheritance characteristic of some genetic

diseases. "Autosomal" means that the gene in question is located on one of the numbered, or
non-sex, chromosomes. "Dominant" means that a single copy of the disease-associated mutation
is enough to cause the disease.
 In autosomal recessive inheritance, a genetic condition occurs when one variant is
present on both alleles (copies) of a given gene. Enlarge. Autosomal recessive inheritance is a
way a genetic trait or condition can be passed down from parent to child.
 Fig. 1. Comparison of autosomal dominant and autosomal recessive inheritance.

Example. Do a pedigree analysis. Indicate the type of inheritance of the trait, generation
and probability of birth of healthy children in the proband's family.
The trait under study is found in both men and women, therefore it is an autosomal type of
inheritance. The symptom is not found in every generation and healthy parents have sick
children. Therefore, this sign is recessive. Hence the type of inheritance is autosomal recessive.

А – unaffected P Aa x Aa
a – affected gam A, a A, a
F1 AA, Aa, Aa, aa
75% healthy children

1. Determine the type of inheritance of the studied traits and the genotype of the proband in
the following pedigrees.
2. Determine the type of inheritance of the trait and indicate the possible genotypes of all
members of the pedigree.

3. Determine the type of inheritance of the trait and indicate the possible genotypes of all
members of the pedigree.
4. Determine the type of inheritance of the trait and indicate the possible genotypes of all
members of the pedigree.

THEME. PEDIGREE ANALYSIS FOR SEX-LINKED INHERITANCE.

Class objectives:
Know: 1. Features of a person as a genetic object.
2. The essence of the main methods of studying heredity and variability in humans.
Be able to: Analyze pedigree schemes with different variants of Sex-linked inheritance.

Methodical recommendations to the topic for implementation

teaching and research work
Write to the album:
Theme: Pedigree Analysis for Sex-linked inheritance.
 X-linked recessive inheritance refers to genetic conditions associated with mutations in
genes on the X chromosome. A male carrying such a mutation will be affected, because he
carries only one X chromosome. A female carrying a mutation in one gene, with a normal gene
on the other X chromosome, is generally unaffected.
ENLARGETHIS IMAGE IN NEW WINDOW
X-linked recessive inheritance is a way a genetic trait or condition can be passed down from
parent to child through mutations (changes) in a gene on the X chromosome. In males (who only
have one X chromosome), a mutation in the copy of the gene on the single X chromosome
causes the condition. Females (who have two X chromosomes) must have a mutation on both X
chromosomes in order to be affected with the condition. If only the father or the mother has the
mutated X-linked gene, the daughters are usually not affected and are called carriers because one
of their X chromosomes has the mutation but the other one is normal. Sons will be affected if
they inherit the mutated X-linked gene from their mother. Fathers cannot pass X-linked recessive
conditions to their sons.

When completing this pedigree with Y linked inheritance, the trait is carried on
the Y chromosome and is transmitted from father to son only. When writing genotypes we still
use X and Y as symbols for the chromosomes passed on from the previous generation, but only
the Y chromosome will have an allele for the gene.

Example. Do a pedigree analysis. Indicate the type of inheritance. Determine the genotype of
sick sons. Determine the genotype of the parents in the first generation and the genoty of their
sick son.

The disease occurs only in men. Healthy fathers give birth to sick sons. Therefore, this disease is
recessive linked to the X chromosome.
XA - unaffected P XA X a x X A Y
X a - affected gam XA , Xa XA , Y
F1 X X , XAY , XA Xa , XaY
A A

75% unaffected 25% affected

1. Do a pedigree analysis. Indicate the type of inheritance. Determine the genotype of

sick males.
2. Do a pedigree analysis. Indicate the type of inheritance. Determine the genotype of
sick males.

3. Do a pedigree analysis. Indicate the type of inheritance. Determine the genotype of

sick males.

4. Do a pedigree analysis. Indicate the type of inheritance. Determine the genotypes of

the parents and children.
 5. Do a pedigree analysis. Indicate the type of inheritance. Determine the genotypes of
the parents and children.

6. Do a pedigree analysis. Indicate the type of inheritance. Determine the genotypes of

the parents and children.

Upload your TASK file on Moodle (Сarry out task).

 THEME. CHROMOSOMIC THEORY
Class objectives:
Know: 1. The main provisions of the chromosome theory and their evidence.
Be able to: 1. Apply theoretical knowledge on a given topic when solving problems.

Methodical recommendations to the topic for implementation

teaching and research work
In the album, record:
Topic: "Chromosomal theory of heredity."

Assignment: Solve the problem of linked inheritance of traits and inheritance of sex-linked
traits
When solving problems on linked inheritance of traits, it should be remembered that genes located
in one chromosome are inherited linked (together). Accepted entry in the form of a fraction (for example,
Вв В в
the genotype of the parent , and the resulting gametes in such an individual , . However, gene
Сс С с
linkage is not always complete. As a result of crossing over, allelic genes are exchanged, while new types
В в
of gametes are formed ( , ), which are called crossover.
с С
In total, an individual with this genotype forms four types of gametes. When crossover gametes are
fertilized, new combinations of characters are formed (manifestation of combinative variability), which
are not found in parental forms. Such organisms are called crossover.
The frequency of divergence of signs in crossing over is directly proportional to the distance
between genes and is determined by the T. Morgan formula:
(a  в)
X= x 100%,
n
where а – the number of recombinant offspring of the I group,
в – the number of recombinant offspring of the II group,
n – the total number of offspring,
Х – the percent recombination frequency for this cross
1% crossing over is equal to 1M (morganide) - the unit of distance between genes in the chromosome.

Tasks for linked inheritance of traits

In fruit flies, the signs of body color and the shape of the wings are linked. The black body color is recessive
in relation to the gray, the short wings to the long ones. In the laboratory, gray long-winged females, heterozygous in
both characters, were crossed with males with a black body and short wings. The offspring included 1394 gray long-
winged individuals, 1418 black short-winged individuals, 287 black long-winged individuals, 288 gray short-
winged individuals. Determine the distance between genes.

B – gray body P Bb/Cc x bb/cc

b - black body gam B/C, b/c, b/c
C - long wings B/c, b/C
c - short wings F Bb/Cc - 1394 gray long-winged
bb/cc - 1418 black short-winged
Bb/cc - 288 gray short-winged
bb/Cc - 287 black long-winged

(a  в)
X= x 100%
n

X = ___288 + 287______ x 100%

 1394+1418+288+287
X = 16.9 % (16.9M)

1. In the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, crossing over is absent in the males. Suppose you are interested in the
relationship between two linked genes on chromosome 2. The genes are for black body (b) and for curved wings (c),
each of which is recessive to the normal (B) body color and normal (C) wing shape. In your laboratory, females that
are heterozygous at the body color and wing shape loci are mated with a black-bodied male with curved wings. The
offspring of these matings were counted, with the following results:
367 normal body, curved wing
131 normal body, normal wing
139 black body, curved wing
363 black body, normal wing
What is the cross-over frequency between these two loci?

2. In fruit flies, the signs of eye color and wing shape are linked. Red eyes are dominant in relation to
dark eye color, and long wings to short ones. When crossing heterozygous for both alleles of red-eyed and
long-winged females with males with dark eyes and short wings, the offspring turned out to be: red-eyed
and long-winged 816, dark-eyed short-winged - 798, red-eyed short-winged - 137, dark-eyed and long-
winged - 135.
Determine the distance between genes.

3.In rats, the dark color is dominates over the light color. The pink eye color is dominates over the red.
Both signs are linked. In the laboratory, from crossing of pink-eyed dark-haired rats with red-eyed light-
haired rats, the offspring were obtained: light red-eyed - 124, dark pink-eyed -126, light pink-eyed - 24,
dark red-eyed - 25.
Determine the distance between genes

4. In rabbits, short hair and spotted pigmentation are dominant characters, long hair and solid color are
recessive characters. Crossed diheterozygous short-haired spotted rabbits with long-haired rabbits with a
solid color. The offspring included: 150 short-haired rabbits with spotted pigmentation; 157 long-haired
rabbits with solid color; 26 long-haired with spotted pigmentation and 28 short-haired rabbits with solid
color.
Determine the distance between genes.

Inheritance problems for sex-linked traits

When solving problems on the inheritance of sex-linked traits, in genetic formulas, along with the
symbols of genes, sex chromosomes are indicated: X and Y.
An example of solving a problem on sex-linked inheritance:
The inheritance of color blindness (color blindness) is due to a recessive gene linked to the X
chromosome. A girl with normal vision marries a healthy man. The girl's father suffered from color
blindness. There were no colorblind among the male relatives. What will be the children in the family
with respect to this sign?

XD – normal vision, P XD Xd x XD Y
Xd – color blindness gam XD, Xd X D, Y
F X DX D, D
X Y, XDXd, Xd Y
___________________ healthy girl healthy boy healthy girl hemophilic boy
F–?

1. In the flies X-linked gene where red eyes is dominant to white eyes. Red eyed female x white
eyed male. Аll the F1 individuals (males and females) have red eyes. What are the genotypes of
the parents?

2. Blindness is a X-linked recessive disorder. A woman who is heterozygous (a carrier) for

blindness marries a normal man. What is the probability (%) that the child will be born with
blindness?

3. In humans, the gene for albinism is recessive. It is located in the autosomes. Hemophilia is a
X-linked recessive disorder. Two normal parents have a diseased child. The child has albinism
and hemophilia. What are the genotypes of the parents?

4. In the flies X-linked gene where red eyes is dominant to white eyes. The homozygote red eyed
female x white eyed male. What are the genotypes of the parents?

5. Hemophilia is a X-linked recessive disorder. A woman who is heterozygous (a carrier) for

hemophilia marries a normal man. What are the genotypes of the parents?

6. In humans, the gene for albinism is recessive. It is located in the autosomes. Hemophilia is a
X-linked recessive disorder. Two normal parents have a diseased child. The child has albinism
and hemophilia. What is the probability (%) that a diseased child?

7. In the flies X-linked gene where red eyes is dominant to white eyes. Red eyed female x white
eyed male. Аll the F1 individuals (males and females) have 50% red eyes and 50% white eyes.
What are the genotypes of the parents?

In humans, the gene for phenylketonuria is recessive. It is located in the autosomes. Hemophilia
is a X-linked recessive disorder. Two normal parents have a diseased child. The child has
phenylketonuria and hemophilia. What are the genotypes of the parents?

Upload your TASK file on Moodle (Сarry out task).

 MONOGENOUS INHERITANCE.
MONOHYBRID ANALYSIS.
Lesson objectives:
Know: 1. Basic genetic concepts.
2. Regularities of monogenic inheritance.

Methodical recommendations to the topic for implementation

teaching and research work

Record in the albums:

Topic: Monogenic inheritance. Monohybrid Analysis.

Task: Solve the problems of monohybrid crossing.

An example of solving the problem:

In wheat, the gene for dwarfism dominates the gene for normal growth. Determine the
genotype and phenotype of the offspring from crossing a homozygous dwarf wheat with a
normal one. The sign is designated by any letter of the Latin alphabet.
Parent forms - P, 1st generation descendants - F1, 2nd generation descendants - F2.

А- dwarf growth Р АА х аа F1 Аа х Аа
а- normal growth gаm А а gаm А,а А,а
F1 Aa F2 AA, Aa, Aa, aa
F1?, F2? dwarfs dwarfs norm

Answer: F1 all plants are dwarf by phenotype, and heterozygous by genotype; F2 by

phenotype 75% dwarf, 25% with normal growth, by genotype 25% homozygous for a dominant
trait (AA), 50% heterozygotes (Aa) and 25% homozygotes for a recessive trait (aa).

Problems Involving One Gene

1.In cats, long hair is recessive to short hair. A true-breeding (homozygous) short-haired
male is mated to a long-haired female. What will their kittens look like?

2.Two cats are mated. One of the parent cats is long-haired (recessive allele). The litter
which results contains two short-haired and three long-haired kittens. What does the second
parent look like, and what is its genotype?

3. Mr. and Mrs. Jones have six children. Three of them have attached earlobes (recessive)
like their father, and the other three have free earlobes like their mother. What are the
genotypes of Mr. and Mrs. Jones and of their numerous offspring?

4. In humans, the gene for brown eyes dominates over blue.

a) A homozygous brown-eyed man married a blue-eyed woman. What eye color will their
children have?
b) A heterozygous brown-eyed woman married a heterozygous brown-eyed man. Can a
child from this marriage be blue-eyed? What is the likelihood of this symptom in children?

5. The absence of small molars is inherited as a dominant autosomal trait.

 What is the probability of having children with this anomaly in a family where both
parents are heterozygous for this trait?

6. In humans, the polydactyly gene (six-fingered) dominates over the gene that determines
the normal structure of the hand:
a) in a family where the mother has a normal hand structure, and the father has six fingers,
one child has six fingers, and the other has five fingers. Determine the genotype of the parents.
b) in a family where the mother is six-fingered and the father is five-fingered, a child with
a normal hand structure was born. What is the likelihood of having the next baby without
anomalies?

7. In humans, the ability to dominate the right hand dominates over the ability to dominate the
left hand. A right-handed man whose mother was left-handed married a right-handed woman who had
three brothers and sisters, two of whom are left-handed. Determine the possible genotypes of the
woman and the likelihood that the children born from this marriage will be left-handed.

8.The gray color of the body of the fruit fly dominates over black:
a) in a series of experiments on crossing a gray fly with a black one, 117 gray individuals
and 120 black ones were obtained. Determine the genotypes of the parental forms.
b) when gray flies were crossed, the offspring turned out to be 1392 gray individuals and
467 black individuals. Determine the genotypes of the parental forms.

9. Albinism (lack of pigment) is inherited in humans as an autosomal recessive trait. In a

family where one of the spouses is albino, and the other is normal in relation to the disease under
study, an albino child was born. What is the likelihood of having your next child with an albino?

10. The albinism allele is recessive to the normal pigmentation allele. An albino child was
born to parents with normal pigmentation. What is the probability of having a child with normal
pigmentation in a family?

11. Syndactyly (fusion of fingers) in humans is inherited as an autosomal dominant trait.

Parents with finger fusion gave birth to a child with normal finger structure. What is the
likelihood of having the next child with normal toes in this family?

Task: Solve the problems of monohybrid crossing and pleiotropy. Solve problems for
multiple alleles.
Pleiotropy
In genetics, Pleiotropy is defined as the expression of multiple traits by a single gene.
Pleiotropy is derived from a Greek word meaning more ways.
A simple example of a Pleiotropy is phenylketonuria is a disease. It is a genetic disorder caused
by the low metabolism of the amino acid phenylalanine in the body cells.
 An example of solving the problem:
1. In humans, the dominant mutation of brachydactyly manifests itself in the form of
shortened fingers as a result of the fusion of the first and second phalanges. However, in a
homozygous state, it leads to the death of the embryo. What is the probability of having a child
with brachydactyly from a marriage of a man with shortened fingers and normal development of
the fingers?
А- brachydactyly Р Аa х аа
а- normal gаm А, a а
AA - death F1 Aa, aa
F1?, F2? brachydactyly norm
50%

2. Platinum foxes are valued higher than silvery ones, which is dictated by fashion.
Therefore, fur farms are trying to get more platinum puppies.
Which pairs are most profitable to cross to obtain platinum foxes, if it is known that
platinum and silver by allelic autosomal genes, platinum dominates over silver, but in the
homozygous state the platinum gene causes the death of the embryo?

Incomplete Dominance:
A dominant allele may not completely suppress other allele, hence a heterozygote is
phenotypically distinguishable (intermediate phenotype) from either homozygotes.

1. In plants with wide leaves, when crossed with each other, always give in the offspring only
plants with wide leaves, and plants with narrow leaves in the offspring have plants with only
narrow leaves. When crossing a narrow-leaved individual with a broad-leaved one, the offspring
with leaves of intermediate width turned out. What will be the offspring from crossing two
individuals with leaves of intermediate width?
2. In plants the red color does incomplete dominance over white, and in the heterozygotes, the
pink color of the flower is formed. The offspring of the two plants contained 50% pink-flowered
plants and 50% white-flowered plants. What are the genotypes and phenotypes of all the plants?
3. In cattle, RR = red, Rr = roan, and rr = white. What are the predicted color phenotypes and
their frequencies for the offspring from crosses between:
a. a red bull and a white cow
b. a red bull and a roan cow
c. a roan bull and a roan cow
Inheritance of blood groups
Codominance
Some alleles are both expressed in the same phenotype, this is called codominance.
 Both codominant alleles are shown with upper case letters in genetic diagrams, but the letters
used are different. For example, feather colour in hens may be white, black or speckled (it has
both white feathers and black feathers).
The alleles can be shown as W for white and B for black.
There are three possible genotypes: WW, BB and BW.
There are also three possible phenotypes: WW = white, BB = black, and BW = speckled.
Blood groups
The gene controlling human ABO blood groups has three alleles (multiple Alleles) , not just two:

• IA and IB are not dominant over one another

• both are dominant over IO
This table shows the possible genotypes (alleles present) and phenotypes (blood group):

Blood type Genotype

I (О)
IO IO

II (A)
IA IA or IA IO

III (B)
IB IB or IB IO

IV (АВ) IA IB
So to inherit blood group A you must receive an IA allele from one parent and either an IA or an
IO allele from the other. To inherit blood group B you must receive an IB allele from one parent
and either an IB or an IO allele from the other. To inherit blood group AB you must receive an
IA allele from one parent and an IB allele from the other. To inherit blood group O you must
receive an Io from both parents.

An example of solving the problem:

1. In a particular family, one parent has Type A blood, the other has Type B. They have four
children. One has Type A, one has Type B, one has Type AB, and the last has Type O. What are
the genotypes of all six people in this family?
IO - 1 group Р IA IO х IB IO
IA - 2 group gаm IA ,IO IB , IO
I B - 3 group F1 I I A B O
I IO IA IO IBIO
A
I I B - 4 group 4 group 1 group 2 group 3 group

2. In humans, the ABO blood groups are controlled by three alleles (only two of which occur in
any one individual): the alleles for A and B type blood are co-dominant toward each other, and
both are dominant to the allele for O type blood.
a. If a person with type AB blood marries someone with type O blood, what are the possible
phenotypes of their offspring? In the following, determine the genotypes of the parents:
b. One parent has type A and the other has type B, but all four blood groups are represented in
the children.
c. Both parents have type A, but 3/4 of the children are A and 1/4 are O.
d. One parent has type AB and the other has type B, but of the children 1/4 have type A, 1/4 have
type AB, and 1/2 have type B.
3. Hospital mix up: Two boys, baby 1 has blood type O and baby 2 has blood type A, one set of
parents are both type A and the other set have types AB and O. Match the baby with its parents.
Exception.
4. A woman with type A blood has parents who are both type AB and a husband who is a type B.
What is the probability that their first child will be a son with type O blood?

Inheritance of Rh factor

The Rh factor genetic information is also inherited from our parents, but it is inherited
independently of the ABO blood type alleles. There are 2 different alleles for the Rh factor
known as Rh and rh. Someone who is "Rh positive" has at least one Rh allele, but could have
two. Their genotype could be either RhRh or Rhrh. Someone who Rh-negative people has a
genotype of rhrh.

Rh factor Possible genotypes

RhRh
Rh-positive people
Rhrh
Rh-negative people rhrh

1. Rh-positive woman, whose father was Rh-negative, married Rh-negative man. What is the probability
that the child will inherit the father's Rh factor?
2. Heterozygous parents are Rh positive. What blood types can you expect in children? Could a Rh
negative child be born in such a family? What is the likelihood of having a Rh negative baby?

Take pictures of the drawings, upload them

to the TASK file on Moodle (Сarry out task).
 TOPIC. Low of Independent Assortment.
The objectives of the class:
Know: 1. Regularities of di-and polyhybrid crossing.
Be able to: 1. Use theoretical knowledge on this topic when solving problems.

Example of solving the problem

In Guinea pigs, the curly hair gene dominates the smooth animal hair gene, and the black animal
hair color dominates the white one. Yet homozygous black pig is crossed with a white-haired pig.
Determine the genotype of F1 and F2.

B – curly hair Р1 BBРР х bbрр

b – smooth animal hair gаm BР bр
P – black F1 BbPP
р – white All F1 have the same phenotype (yet
F1-? F2-? black), diheterozygous genotype

Р2 ВbPp х ВbPp
gam ВP,Bp,bP,bp ВP,Bp,bP,bр

F2- To determine the genotypes, you should use the grid Pennetta.
gam ВP Bp bP bp
ВP BBPP BBPp BbPP BbPp
curly hair curly hair curly hair curly hair
black black black black
Bp BBPp BBpp BbPp Bbpp
curly hair curly hair curly hair curly hair
black white black white
bP BbPP BbPp bbPP bbPp
curly hair curly hair smooth hair smooth hair
black black black black
bp BbPp Bbpp bbPp bbpp
curly hair curly hair smooth hair smooth hair
black white black white

Then we count the number of individuals with different phenotypes. 9/16 (56.25%) – whirly black:
3/16 (18.75%) – whirly white, 3/16 (18.75%) – smooth black, 1/6 (6.25%) - smooth white, i.e. it has a
split in the ratio 9:3:3:1. for each feature, the split is 3:1.

Solve the problems:

1. In dogs black color is dominant over brown, and short hair over long. What percentage of black
Shorthair pups can be expected from crossing two individuals that are heterozygous for both traits?
1. In humans the achondroplasia phenotype is dominant. Normal size is recessive to dwarf size, which is
dominant. Parents have diheterozygous genotype. What are the genotypes of the parents?

2. Phenotype of the plants: broad leaves (dominant), narrow leaves (recessive); long stem (dominant) and
short stem (recessive). Parents have diheterozygous genotype. What are the genotypes of the parents?

3. Phenotype of the plants: broad leaves (dominant), narrow leaves (recessive); long stem (dominant) and
short stem (recessive). The F1 plants, when crossed with each other, give progeny of four phenotypic
classes in a 9:3:3:1 ratio. What are the genotypes of the parents?
4. Phenotype of the plants: broad leaves (dominant), narrow leaves (recessive); long stem (dominant) and
short stem (recessive). Two diheterozygous plants are crossed. What percentage (%) of broad leaves long
stem and was obtained in the offspring ?

5. Phenotype of the flies: brown body (dominant), black body (recessive); wingless wings (dominant),
normal wings (recessive). The female parent is brown and wingless and the male parent is black with
normal wings. All of the flies in the F1 generation are brown and have wingless wings. What are the
genotypes of the parents?

6. Phenotype of the flies: brown body (dominant), black body (recessive); wingless wings (dominant),
normal wings (recessive). The female parent is the homozygote brown and the heterozygotes wingless
and the male parent is black with normal wings. What are the genotypes of the parents?

7. In humans, the gene for polydactyly (six-finger) is dominant over the gene that determines the normal
structure of the hand. The gene for green eyes is dominant over the gene that determines the blue eyes.
The female parent is the homozygote polydactyly (six-finger) and the homozygote green eyes and the
male parent is normal structure of the hand with and the heterozygotes green eyes. What is the probability
(%) that the child will be born polydactyly (six-finger) of the hand and green eyes?

8. In humans, myopia dominates normal vision, and brown eyes over blue: a) the only child of myopic
brown-eyed parents has blue eyes and normal vision. Determine the genotypes of all three family
members; b) a blue-eyed, nearsighted man whose mother had normal vision married a brown-eyed
woman with normal vision. The first child from this marriage is brown-eyed, short-sighted, the second is
blue-eyed, short-sighted. Determine the genotypes of parents and children.

Upload to the TASK file on Moodle (Сarry out task).