ALL THE GRAMMER I NEED TO KNOW

1. Simile: A comparison between two unlike things using "like" or "as" (e.g., "as
brave as a lion")
.
2. Metaphor: A direct comparison between two unlike things without using "like" or
"as" (e.g., "time is a thief").

3. Personification: Giving human characteristics to non-human objects or animals

(e.g., "the wind whispered through the trees")

4. Hyperbole: Exaggerated statements or claims not meant to be taken literally (e.g.,

"I've told you a million times").

5. Onomatopoeia: Words that imitate the sound they represent (e.g., "buzz," "clang,"
"hiss").

6. Alliteration: The repetition of initial consonant sounds in neighboring words (e.g.,

"Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers").

7. Assonance: The repetition of vowel sounds in neighboring words (e.g., "fleet feet
sweep by sleeping geese").

8. Oxymoron: A figure of speech that combines contradictory terms (e.g.,

"bittersweet," "jumbo shrimp").

9. Irony: A contrast between expectation and reality, often with a twist or unexpected
outcome (e.g., "the fire station burned down").

10.Symbolism: The use of symbols to represent ideas or concepts (e.g., a dove

representing peace).

11.Emjambment: The continuation of a sentence without a pause beyond the end of a

line, couplet, or stanza in poetry. (e.g., "I wandered lonely as a cloud / That floats
on high o'er vales and hills,")
12.Antithesis: The juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, often in parallel structure, to
emphasize the differences between them (e.g., "Her smile was as bright as the sun,
but her heart was as cold as ice.").

13.Asoonance :

Definition: Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds in words that are close to each
other, either within the same line or in adjacent lines of a poem or prose. Unlike rhyme,
which involves the repetition of both consonant and vowel sounds, assonance focuses
solely on vowel sounds.

Examples:

1. Example from "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening" by Robert Frost: "The woods
are lovely, dark, and deep," In this line, the repetition of the long "o" sound in "woods,"
"lovely," and "deep" creates assonance, contributing to the serene and tranquil mood of
the poem.
2. Example from "Daffodils" by William Wordsworth: "Beside the lake, beneath the trees,
Fluttering and dancing in the breeze." Here, the repetition of the long "e" sound in
"beside," "trees," and "breeze" creates a gentle and flowing rhythm, enhancing the
imagery of nature's beauty.
3. Example from "Annabel Lee" by Edgar Allan Poe: "And so, all the night-tide, I lie down
by the side Of my darling—my darling—my life and my bride." The repetition of the
long "i" sound in "night-tide," "lie," "side," and "life" creates a haunting and melancholic
atmosphere, underscoring the speaker's deep longing and sorrow.
4. Example from "The Raven" by Edgar Allan Poe: "And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of
each purple curtain" Here, the repetition of the short "u" sound in "silken," "uncertain,"
and "curtain" creates a sense of mystery and unease, adding to the eerie ambiance of
the poem.
5. Example from "The Bells" by Edgar Allan Poe: "The tintinnabulation of the bells, bells,
bells, bells," In this line, the repetition of the short "i" sound in "tintinnabulation" and
"bells" creates a ringing and echoing effect, emphasizing the auditory imagery of the
bells' sound.

PUNCTUATION

Period (.):
 Used to indicate the end of a sentence: "She walked to the store."
 Used in abbreviations: "Dr. Smith"
 Comma (,):
 Used to separate items in a list: "I need to buy apples, bananas, and
oranges."
 Used to set off introductory elements: "However, he arrived late."
 Used to separate independent clauses in a compound sentence: "She went to
the store, and he stayed home."
 Used to set off nonessential information: "The book, which was on sale,
caught her eye."
 Semicolon (;):
 Used to connect closely related independent clauses: "She loves to read; he
prefers to watch movies."
 Used to separate items in a list when the items contain commas: "She visited
Paris, France; Rome, Italy; and Barcelona, Spain."
 Colon (:):
 Used to introduce a list: "Please bring the following items: bread, milk, and
eggs."
 Used to introduce a quotation: "She said: 'I'll see you later.'"
 Apostrophe ('):
 Used to indicate possession: "The cat's tail was fluffy."
 Used in contractions: "It's raining outside."
 Quotation Marks (" "):
 Used to indicate direct speech: He said, "I'll see you later."
 Used to enclose titles of short works: "The Catcher in the Rye"
 Exclamation Point (!):
 Used to indicate strong emotion: "Stop!"
 Used to express emphasis: "I can't believe it!"
 Question Mark (?):
 Used to indicate a direct question: "What time is it?"
 Used in indirect questions: "He asked what time it was?"
 Hyphen (-):
 Used to join compound words: "Well-being"
 Used to indicate a word break at the end of a line: "The end of the word is
unex-pected."
 Used to clarify meaning: "The student is well-prepared."
 Dash (–):
 Used to indicate a sudden change in thought: "The team—exhausted after
the game—celebrated their victory."
 Used to set off parenthetical information: "The book—tattered and worn—
was still a cherished possession."
 Parentheses ( ):
 Used to enclose supplementary information: "The book (which I bought
yesterday) is on the table."
 Used to set off asides within a sentence: "She left early (before the party
ended)."
 Brackets [ ]:
 Used to clarify or add information within a quotation: "She said [to her
surprise] that she had won the prize."
 Used to indicate editorial comments or corrections: "The text [of the
document] was unclear.

LITERATUARY GENERAS

1. Fiction:
 Novels
 Short Stories
 Fairy Tales
 Fables
2. Poetry:
 Sonnets
 Free Verse
 Narrative Poetry
 Lyrical Poetry

3. Drama:
 Tragedy
 Comedy
4. Non-fiction:
 Essays
 Biographies
 Autobiographies
 Speeches
 INFINITE AND FINITE VERBS

Finite Verbs:

 Definition: Finite verbs tell us when an action happens and who's doing it. They match
the subject of the sentence in terms of who's doing the action (person) and whether it's
one person or more (number).
 Examples:
1. She dances every Saturday.
2. They are studying for the exam.
3. He will finish his homework later.
4. We have been waiting for hours.
5. The dog barks loudly at night.

Infinite Verbs:

 Definition: Infinite verbs are like the basic form of a verb. They don't tell us when the
action happens or who's doing it. They stay the same no matter who or when.
 Examples:
1. I like to read books.
2. She wants to play soccer.
3. He needs to eat something.
4. They decided to go for a walk.
5. We hope to visit the museum soon.

CONDITIONALS 1, 2 and 3rd

First Conditional:

 Definition: The first conditional is used to talk about real or possible future
situations. It expresses a condition that is likely to happen in the future,
along with its probable result.
 Structure:
 If + present simple verb (condition), will + base form of the verb
(result)
 Example: If it rains tomorrow, we will stay indoors.

Second Conditional:

 Definition: The second conditional is used to talk about hypothetical or

unlikely present or future situations. It expresses a condition that is not
likely to happen or is improbable, along with its hypothetical result.
 Structure:
 If + past simple verb (condition), would + base form of the verb
(result)
 Example: If I won the lottery, I would buy a big house.

Third Conditional:

 Definition: The third conditional is used to talk about hypothetical or

imaginary past situations. It expresses a condition that did not happen in
the past, along with its hypothetical result.
 Structure:
 If + past perfect verb (condition), would have + past participle of the
verb (result)
 Example: If they had studied harder, they would have passed the exam.

SENTECE TYPES

Simple Sentence:

 Definition: A simple sentence consists of one independent clause and

expresses a complete thought. It contains a subject and a predicate.
 Example: The cat sleeps.

Compound Sentence:
 Definition: A compound sentence consists of two or more independent
clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions (such as "and," "but," or "or").
 Example: The cat sleeps, and the dog barks.

Complex Sentence:

 Definition: A complex sentence consists of one independent clause and

one or more dependent clauses. Dependent clauses cannot stand alone as
complete sentences.
 Example: Although the cat sleeps, the dog barks.

Compound-Complex Sentence:

 Definition: A compound-complex sentence consists of two or more

independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.
 Example: While the cat sleeps, the dog barks, and the bird sings.

CLAUSES AND PHRASES THEIR TYPES

Phrases:

1. Noun Phrase:
 Definition: A noun phrase functions as a noun in a sentence. It includes a noun
along with determiners, modifiers, and complements.
 Identifying Trick: Look for words that act as subjects, objects, or complements in
a sentence.
 Examples:
 The big black dog chased the squirrel.
  Her favorite hobby is reading mystery novels.
 The old oak tree stood tall in the yard.
2. Verb Phrase:
 Definition: A verb phrase functions as a verb in a sentence. It consists of the
main verb along with auxiliary (helping) verbs and complements.
 Identifying Trick: Look for the main verb and any accompanying helping verbs.
 Examples:
 She has been singing for hours.
 They will have completed the project by tomorrow.
 We are planning to visit the museum next weekend.
3. Adjective Phrase:
 Definition: An adjective phrase functions as an adjective in a sentence. It
provides additional information about a noun or pronoun.
 Identifying Trick: Look for words or phrases that describe or modify nouns or
pronouns.
 Examples:
 The incredibly beautiful sunset painted the sky.
 I found a pair of shoes in the store that were on sale.
 She wore a dress with intricate embroidery.
4. Adverbial Phrase:
 Definition: An adverbial phrase functions as an adverb in a sentence. It modifies
verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs by providing information about time, place,
manner, or degree.
 Identifying Trick: Look for words or phrases that answer questions about how,
when, where, or to what extent an action is performed.
 Examples:
 He ran as fast as he could to catch the train.
 They arrived at the party just in time for dinner.
5. Appositive Phrase:
 Definition: An appositive phrase is a noun or noun phrase that renames
or adds more information about another noun in the sentence. It provides
additional detail or clarification.
 Identifying Trick: Look for a noun or noun phrase that immediately
follows another noun and provides additional information about it.
 Examples:
 My friend Sam, a talented artist, painted a beautiful mural.
 The movie Titanic, a classic romance, won multiple Academy
Awards.
 Alice, my sister, is studying medicine at university.
 My dog, Max, loves to play fetch in the park.

6. Prepositional Phrase:
 Definition: A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, its object, and
any modifiers. It shows the relationship between its object and another
word in the sentence.
 Identifying Trick: Look for a group of words that begins with a
preposition and ends with its object, often a noun or pronoun.
 Examples:
 She walked to the park with her dog.
 The keys are on the table near the door.
 We went for a walk along the river.
 He jumped over the fence to escape the dog.

 She sings with so much passion during her performances.

Clauses:

1. Independent Clause:
 Definition: An independent clause is a group of words that forms a complete
sentence and can stand alone. It contains both a subject and a predicate and
expresses a complete thought.
 Identifying Trick: Look for sentences that can stand alone and express a
complete idea.
 Examples:
 The sun shines brightly.
 She enjoys reading novels.
 They went for a walk in the park.
2. Dependent Clause:
 Definition: A dependent clause is a group of words that contains both a subject
and a predicate but cannot stand alone as a sentence. It depends on an
independent clause to complete its meaning.
 Identifying Trick: Look for clauses that cannot stand alone as sentences and
begin with subordinating conjunctions.
 Examples:
 Although it was raining, they went for a walk.
 When she finishes her homework, she can watch TV.
 Because he was tired, he went to bed early.
3. Adverbial Clause:
  Definition: An adverbial clause functions as an adverb in a sentence, providing
information about time, place, manner, condition, contrast, purpose, or reason. It
begins with a subordinating conjunction.
 Identifying Trick: Look for clauses that begin with subordinating conjunctions
(e.g., when, where, because, although) and answer questions about how, when,
where, or why an action is performed.
 Examples:
 Since it was raining, we stayed indoors.
 After the movie ended, we went out for dinner.
 Although he studied hard, he didn't pass the exam.
4. Adjective Clause:
 Definition: An adjective clause provides additional information about a noun or
pronoun in the main clause. It begins with a relative pronoun (e.g., who, which,
that) or a relative adverb (e.g., where, when, why).
 Identifying Trick: Look for clauses that begin with relative pronouns or relative
adverbs and provide descriptive information about a noun in the main clause.
 Examples:
 The book that he borrowed from the library is due tomorrow.
 This is the house where I grew up.
 She remembered the day when she first met him.
5. Noun Clause:
 Definition: A noun clause functions as a noun in a sentence, acting as the
subject, object, or complement of a verb, adjective, or adverb.
 Identifying Trick: Look for clauses that function as nouns in a sentence and can
be replaced by a single noun or pronoun.
 Examples:
 I know what you did last summer.
 He asked where the nearest gas station was.
 Her dream is to travel the world.

HOW TO KNOW IF CLAUSE OR PHRASE

1. Clause:
 Definition: A clause is a group of words that contains both a subject and a
predicate (verb) and can express a complete thought.
 Identifying Tip: Look for a subject (who or what the sentence is about) and a
verb (action or state of being). A clause can stand alone as a sentence if it
expresses a complete idea.
  Example: "She sings beautifully." - This sentence contains the subject "she" and
the verb "sings," expressing a complete thought. It is an independent clause.
2. Phrase:
 Definition: A phrase is a group of words that does not contain both a subject
and a predicate (verb) and does not express a complete thought on its own.
 Identifying Tip: Look for a group of words that provides additional information
about nouns, verbs, adjectives, or adverbs in a sentence. A phrase cannot stand
alone as a sentence.
 Example: "The beautiful sunset" - This group of words functions as a noun
phrase, providing additional information about the noun "sunset" but does not
contain a verb and cannot stand alone as a sentence.

USE OF FANBOYS FOR INDEPENDENT CLAUSES / COMPUND

SENTENCE

FANBOYS conjunctions are indeed used to connect independent clauses, not phrases.
They are coordinating conjunctions that join clauses to form compound sentences. So,
they are used with clauses, specifically independent clauses.

If you were asking about which types of clauses FANBOYS conjunctions are used with,
they are used with independent clauses.

TRANSITIONAL DEVICES TYPES

1. Addition:
 Explanation: Addition transitional devices signal the inclusion of
further information or ideas. They emphasize continuity or expansion
of thought.
 Examples:
 Additionally, Furthermore, Moreover, In addition, Also, Not
only...but also
 Further Explanation: These transitional devices reinforce the
previous point or introduce new supporting details. They help build
upon the existing information and provide a smoother transition to
additional content.
2. Contrast:
  Explanation: Contrast transitional devices highlight differences or
opposing viewpoints between ideas. They introduce a shift in
direction or emphasis.
 Examples:
 However, Nevertheless, On the other hand, Conversely, In
contrast, Yet
 Further Explanation: These transitional devices acknowledge an
alternative perspective or present an unexpected contradiction to the
preceding information. They serve to balance the narrative and offer a
more nuanced understanding.
3. Comparison:
 Explanation: Comparison transitional devices draw parallels or
similarities between ideas. They facilitate the exploration of shared
characteristics.
 Examples:
 Similarly, Likewise, In the same way, Just as, Compared to, As
with
 Further Explanation: These transitional devices establish connections
between disparate elements by highlighting commonalities. They aid
in the development of coherent arguments or discussions.
4. Emphasis:
 Explanation: Emphasis transitional devices underscore the
significance or importance of a particular point. They reinforce key
ideas or assertions.
 Examples:
 Indeed, Certainly, Clearly, Undoubtedly, Of course, Especially
 Further Explanation: These transitional devices add weight to a
statement, clarifying its significance within the context of the
discussion. They help direct the reader's attention to essential
elements of the argument.
5. Sequence:
 Explanation: Sequence transitional devices indicate the order or
sequence of events, ideas, or steps in a process. They facilitate the
organization of information.
  Examples:
 Firstly, Secondly, Next, Then, Finally, In conclusion
 Further Explanation: These transitional devices establish a clear
progression of thought, guiding the reader through a series of related
points. They enhance readability and comprehension by structuring
the text logically.
6. Summary:
 Explanation: Summary transitional devices provide a concise
recapitulation or synthesis of preceding information. They
encapsulate key points or arguments.
 Examples:
 In conclusion, To sum up, Overall, All in all, To conclude, Briefly
 Further Explanation: These transitional devices signal the
culmination of a discussion or presentation, offering closure and
reinforcing the main takeaway. They help reinforce the coherence and
unity of the text.
7. Effect:
 Explanation: Effect transitional devices demonstrate cause-and-effect
relationships between ideas or events. They clarify the consequences
or outcomes.
 Examples:
 Therefore, Consequently, As a result, Thus, Hence, Accordingly
 Further Explanation: These transitional devices highlight the logical
progression from a preceding action or condition to its resultant
effect. They aid in understanding the implications of the presented
information.
8. For this reason:
 Explanation: "For this reason" transitional phrase explicitly states the
cause or rationale behind a statement or action. It provides
justification or explanation.
 Examples:
 For this reason, For that reason, Because of this, Due to this,
Owing to this, Consequently
  Further Explanation: This transitional phrase explicitly links a
preceding assertion or observation to its underlying cause or
motivation. It clarifies the logical basis for a particular claim or
decision.
9. Time:
 Explanation: Time transitional devices denote specific points in time
or temporal relationships between events. They establish temporal
sequences or chronologies.
 Examples:
 Meanwhile, Afterwards, Simultaneously, Subsequently,
Eventually, At the same time
 Further Explanation: These transitional devices situate events or
actions within a temporal framework, elucidating their temporal
proximity or sequence. They facilitate the reader's comprehension of
the temporal progression of the narrative

IDIOMS AND SOME COMMON ONES

Definition: An idiom is a group of words that mean something different from what the
words actually say. It's like a secret code in language that people understand without
having to explain it. Idioms make language more interesting and fun to use!

Examples:

1. Break a leg: This idiom doesn't mean literally breaking your leg; it's a way of saying
"good luck" before a performance.
 Example: "Break a leg at your audition tomorrow! You're going to do great."
2. Piece of cake: This idiom doesn't refer to dessert; it means something is very easy.
  Example: "Don't worry about the math test; it'll be a piece of cake for you."
3. Bite the bullet: This idiom doesn't mean biting an actual bullet; it means enduring a
difficult situation with courage.
 Example: "I have to bite the bullet and tell my boss I made a mistake on the
project."
4. Cost an arm and a leg: This idiom doesn't mean losing body parts; it means something is
very expensive.
 Example: "I'd love to go on a vacation to Europe, but the airfare costs an arm
and a leg."
5. Hit the nail on the head: This idiom doesn't involve actually hitting a nail; it means
describing something exactly right.
 Example: "You hit the nail on the head with your analysis of the problem; that's
exactly what's going on."
6. Once in a blue moon: This idiom means something that happens very rarely or almost
never.
 Example: "I only see my old friends from college once in a blue moon."
7. Caught red-handed: This idiom means to be caught in the act of doing something wrong
or illegal.
 Example: "The thief was caught red-handed stealing from the store."
8. Jump on the bandwagon: This idiom means to join or support something that has
become popular or fashionable.
 Example: "After seeing all the positive reviews, many people jumped on the
bandwagon and started using the new social media app."
9. Hit the hay: This idiom means to go to bed or go to sleep.
 Example: "I'm exhausted after a long day at work; I think I'll hit the hay early
tonight."
10. Cost an arm and a leg (repeated from earlier for additional context): Something that is
very expensive.
 Example: "I'd love to buy that designer handbag, but it costs an arm and a leg."

TENSES

Present Tense:

1. Simple Present:
 Interrogative: Helping verb (Do/Does), Verb form (Base form)
 Affirmative: No helping verb, Verb form (Base form)
  Negative: Helping verb (Do/Does), Verb form (Base form)
2. Present Continuous:
 Interrogative: Helping verb (Am/Is/Are), Verb form (Present participle)
 Affirmative: Helping verb (Am/Is/Are), Verb form (Present participle)
 Negative: Helping verb (Am/Is/Are), Verb form (Present participle)
3. Present Perfect:
 Interrogative: Helping verb (Have/Has), Verb form (Past participle)
 Affirmative: Helping verb (Have/Has), Verb form (Past participle)
 Negative: Helping verb (Have/Has), Verb form (Past participle)
4. Present Perfect Continuous:
 Interrogative: Helping verb (Have/Has), Verb form (Been + Present participle)
 Affirmative: Helping verb (Have/Has), Verb form (Been + Present participle)
 Negative: Helping verb (Have/Has), Verb form (Been + Present participle)

Past Tense:

5. Simple Past:
 Interrogative: Helping verb (Did), Verb form (Second form)
 Affirmative: No helping verb, Verb form (Second form)
 Negative: Helping verb (Did), Verb form (Base form)
6. Past Continuous:
 Interrogative: Helping verb (Was/Were), Verb form (Present participle)
 Affirmative: Helping verb (Was/Were), Verb form (Present participle)
 Negative: Helping verb (Was/Were), Verb form (Present participle)
7. Past Perfect:
 Interrogative: Helping verb (Had), Verb form (Past participle)
 Affirmative: Helping verb (Had), Verb form (Past participle)
 Negative: Helping verb (Had), Verb form (Past participle)
8. Past Perfect Continuous:
 Interrogative: Helping verb (Had), Verb form (Been + Present participle)
 Affirmative: Helping verb (Had), Verb form (Been + Present participle)
 Negative: Helping verb (Had), Verb form (Been + Present participle)

Future Tense:

9. Simple Future:
 Interrogative: Helping verb (Will/Shall), Verb form (Base form)
 Affirmative: Helping verb (Will/Shall), Verb form (Base form)
 Negative: Helping verb (Will/Shall), Verb form (Base form)
10. Future Continuous:
 Interrogative: Helping verb (Will be/Shall be), Verb form (Present participle)
 Affirmative: Helping verb (Will be/Shall be), Verb form (Present participle)
 Negative: Helping verb (Will be/Shall be), Verb form (Present participle)
11. Future Perfect:
 Interrogative: Helping verb (Will have/Shall have), Verb form (Past participle)
 Affirmative: Helping verb (Will have/Shall have), Verb form (Past participle)
 Negative: Helping verb (Will have/Shall have), Verb form (Past participle)
12. Future Perfect Continuous:
 Interrogative: Helping verb (Will have been/Shall have been), Verb form (Been + Present
participle)
 Affirmative: Helping verb (Will have been/Shall have been), Verb form (Been + Present
participle)
 Negative: Helping verb (Will have been/Shall have been), Verb form (Been + Present
participle)

EXAMPLE OF TENSES

5. Simple Past:
 Interrogative: Did you finish the project yesterday?
 Affirmative: You finished the project yesterday.
 Negative: You did not finish the project yesterday.
6. Past Continuous:
 Interrogative: Were you sleeping when I called you?
 Affirmative: You were sleeping when I called you.
 Negative: You were not sleeping when I called you.
7. Past Perfect:
 Interrogative: Had you already eaten when I arrived?
 Affirmative: You had already eaten when I arrived.
 Negative: You had not eaten when I arrived.
8. Past Perfect Continuous:
 Interrogative: Had you been waiting long when the bus finally arrived?
 Affirmative: You had been waiting long when the bus finally arrived.
 Negative: You had not been waiting long when the bus finally arrived.

Future Tense:

9. Simple Future:
 Interrogative: Will you come to the party tomorrow?
  Affirmative: You will come to the party tomorrow.
 Negative: You will not come to the party tomorrow.
10. Future Continuous:
 Interrogative: Will you be working late tonight?
 Affirmative: You will be working late tonight.
 Negative: You will not be working late tonight.
11. Future Perfect:
 Interrogative: Will you have finished the report by Monday?
 Affirmative: You will have finished the report by Monday.
 Negative: You will not have finished the report by Monday.
12. Future Perfect Continuous:
 Interrogative: Will you have been waiting long by the time I arrive?
 Affirmative: You will have been waiting long by the time I arrive.
 Negative: You will not have been waiting long by the time I arrive.

PARTS OF SPEECH

NOUN

1. Proper Noun:
 Definition: A proper noun refers to the specific name of a particular person, place,
or thing.
 Example: John (person), London (place), Eiffel Tower (thing).
2. Common Noun:
 Definition: A common noun refers to a general name given to every person,
place, or thing of the same kind or class.
 Example: boy (person), city (place), book (thing).
3. Concrete Noun:
 Definition: A concrete noun refers to things that have physical existence and can
be perceived by the senses.
 Example: table, tree, car.
4. Abstract Noun:
 Definition: An abstract noun refers to things that are intangible and cannot be
perceived through the five senses.
 Example: love, happiness, courage.
5. Collective Noun:
 Definition: A collective noun refers to a group of people, animals, or things.
 Example: team (group of players), herd (group of cattle), fleet (group of ships).
6. Material Noun:
  Definition: A material noun refers to substances from which things are made.
 Example: gold, wood, plastic.
7. Countable Noun:
 Definition: A countable noun refers to things that can be counted and have
singular and plural forms.
 Example: apple (singular), apples (plural), dog (singular), dogs (plural).
8. Uncountable Noun:
 Definition: An uncountable noun refers to things that cannot be counted
individually and do not have a plural form.
 Example: water, air, rice.
9. Compound Noun:
 Definition: A compound noun is formed by combining two or more words to
create a new word with its own meaning.
 Example: toothpaste, basketball, swimming pool.
10. Possessive Noun:
 Definition: A possessive noun shows ownership or possession.
 Example: Sarah's book, cat's tail, company's logo.
11. Appositive Noun:
 Definition: An appositive noun renames or identifies another noun or pronoun.
 Example: My friend Alice (Alice renames "friend"), the city of Paris (Paris renames "city").

FURTHER EXPLANATION OF APPOSITIVE NOUN

( NEXT PAGE)

Appositive Noun:

An appositive noun is a type of noun that serves to rename or identify another noun or
pronoun in a sentence. It provides additional informati

about the noun or pronoun it follows, often helping to clarify or specify its meaning.
Appositive nouns are typically set off by commas to separate them from the rest of the
sentence.

Example:

 My friend Alice, a talented artist, painted a beautiful mural on the wall.

 In this example, "a talented artist" is the appositive noun that renames or identifies the
noun "Alice." It provides additional information about Alice by specifying her talent as
an artist. The appositive noun adds detail and depth to the sentence without changing
its essential meaning.

PRONOUNS : THEIR TYPES AND EXAMPLES

1. Demonstrative Pronouns:
 Definition: Demonstrative pronouns point to specific people, places,
or things.
 Examples:
 [This] is my favorite book. [This refers to the book]
 [Those] are the best cupcakes I've ever tasted. [Those refers to
the cupcakes]
2. Interrogative Pronouns:
 Definition: Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions.
 Examples:
 [Who] is coming to the party tonight? [Who refers to the
person]
 [Which] movie did you watch last night? [Which refers to the
movie]
3. Indefinite Pronouns:
 Definition: Indefinite pronouns refer to non-specific people or things.
 Examples:
 [Everybody] loves a good mystery. [Everybody refers to people
in general]
 [Someone] left their umbrella in the hallway. [Someone refers to
an unspecified person]
4. Relative Pronouns:
 Definition: Relative pronouns introduce relative clauses and connect
them to the main clause.
 Examples:
 The woman [who] lives next door is a doctor. [Who refers to the
woman]
 This is the cake [that] I baked for you. [That refers to the cake]
5. Personal Pronouns:
 Definition: Personal pronouns replace specific nouns and indicate
the role of the person or thing in the sentence.
 Examples:
 [She] is going to the store to buy groceries. [She refers to a
specific female]
 [We] are planning a trip to the beach next weekend. [We refers
to a specific group]
6. Possessive Pronouns:
 Definition: Possessive pronouns show ownership or possession.
 Examples:
 This phone is [mine]; that one is [yours]. [Mine and yours refer
to ownership]
 Is this book [yours]? [Yours refers to ownership]
7. Reciprocal Pronouns:
 Definition: Reciprocal pronouns indicate mutual action or
relationship between two or more people or things.
 Examples:
 The two friends hugged [each other] tightly. [Each other refers
to the friends]
 The team members support [one another] in times of need.
[One another refers to the team members]
8. Intensive Pronouns:
 Definition: Intensive pronouns emphasize a preceding noun or
pronoun.
 Examples:
 I made this cake [myself]. [Myself emphasizes I]
 She [herself] solved the difficult math problem. [Herself
emphasizes She]
9. Reflexive Pronouns:
 Definition: Reflexive pronouns refer back to the subject and are used
when the subject performs an action on itself.
 Examples:
  He injured [himself] while playing basketball. [Himself refers to
He]
 They treated [themselves] to a fancy dinner to celebrate their
anniversary. [Themselves refers to They]

CONJUCTIONS: THEIR TYPES AND EXAMPLES

1. Coordinating Conjunctions:
 Definition: Coordinating conjunctions join words, phrases, or
independent clauses that are of equal importance within a sentence.
 Examples:
 [And] I went to the store. [And joins two independent clauses]
 She likes tea [but] not coffee. [But joins two contrasting ideas]
 Uses: Coordinating conjunctions are used to connect similar elements
in a sentence, such as words, phrases, or independent clauses, to
show relationships like addition, contrast, choice, or consequence.
2. Subordinating Conjunctions:
 Definition: Subordinating conjunctions join an independent clause
with a dependent (subordinate) clause.
 Examples:
 I will go for a walk [after] I finish my work. [After introduces the
dependent clause]
 She always feels sleepy [when] she reads a book. [When
introduces the dependent clause]
 Uses: Subordinating conjunctions are used to establish relationships
of time, cause and effect, condition, concession, and comparison
between the main clause and the subordinate clause.
3. Correlative Conjunctions:
 Definition: Correlative conjunctions come in pairs and join similar
grammatical elements.
 Examples:
 Neither the cat [nor] the dog is at home. [Nor pairs with neither]
  You can [either] have cake [or] ice cream. [Either pairs with or]
 Uses: Correlative conjunctions are used to join elements of equal
importance and to show a relationship between them, such as
alternatives, contrasts, and correlative pairs like either...or,
neither...nor, both...and.
4. Compound Conjunctions:
 Definition: Compound conjunctions are conjunctions that are made
up of two or more words.
 Examples:
 [As long as] you work hard, you will succeed. [As long as
functions as a compound conjunction]
 She will go to the party, [provided that] she finishes her
homework. [Provided that functions as a compound
conjunction]
 Uses: Compound conjunctions are used to combine elements or
phrases to express complex relationships, conditions, or concessions.

ADJECTIVES: THEIR TYPES

1. Adjectives:
 Definition: Adjectives are words that describe or modify nouns or
pronouns by providing more information about their qualities or
attributes.
 Examples:
 The blue car
 Her beautiful dress
 Types of Adjectives:
 Descriptive Adjectives: These adjectives describe the qualities
or characteristics of a noun.
 Example: The old house
 Demonstrative Adjectives: These adjectives indicate specific
nouns and show their relative position in space or time.
  Example: This book, those people
 Possessive Adjectives: These adjectives show ownership or
possession.
 Example: My dog, her cat
 Quantitative Adjectives: These adjectives indicate the quantity
or amount of a noun.
 Example: Five books, several apples
 Interrogative Adjectives: These adjectives are used to ask
questions about a noun.
 Example: Which book, what color
 Indefinite Adjectives: These adjectives are used to refer to
nonspecific nouns.
 Example: Some people, many reasons
 Adjectives of Number: These adjectives indicate the specific
number or order of a noun.
 Example: First place, three books
 Qualitative Adjectives: These adjectives describe the inherent
qualities or characteristics of a noun.
 Example: A beautiful sunset, An interesting book
2. Differentiating Adjectives from Verbs:
 Position in Sentence: Adjectives typically come before the noun they
modify, whereas verbs come after the subject and can have additional
words (e.g., auxiliary verbs) before them.
 Example: The red (adjective) car speeds (verb) down the street.
 Function in Sentence: Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns to
provide more information about them, whereas verbs express actions,
states, or conditions.
 Example: The tall (adjective) boy plays (verb) soccer every day.
 Word Forms: Adjectives usually don't change form to agree with the
subject, while verbs can change form to agree with the subject in
tense, number, or person.
 Example: The green (adjective) apples are (verb) delicious.
3. Differentiating Adjectives from Pronouns:
  Function in Sentence: Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns to
provide more information about them, whereas pronouns replace
nouns in a sentence.
 Example: His (adjective) hat is on the table. He (pronoun) forgot
to take it.
 Usage: Adjectives always come before a noun they modify, while
pronouns can stand alone in a sentence.
 Example: Beautiful (adjective) flowers are blooming. They
(pronoun) smell wonderful.

INTERJECTION: THEIR TYPES

1. Interjections:
 Definition: Interjections are words or phrases used to express sudden
emotions or sentiments. They often stand alone and are punctuated
with an exclamation mark.
 Examples:
 Wow!
 Ouch!
 Bravo!
 Types of Interjections:
 Exclamatory Interjections: These interjections express strong
emotions or reactions.
 Example: Wow! That was amazing!
 Conversational Interjections: These interjections are used in
everyday conversation to express agreement, understanding, or
acknowledgment.
 Example: Yeah, I agree with you.
 Dismay Interjections: These interjections express shock,
surprise, or disappointment.
 Example: Oh no! I forgot my keys.
 Joyful Interjections: These interjections express happiness,
delight, or excitement.
 Example: Yay! We won the game!
  Pain Interjections: These interjections express physical pain or
discomfort.
 Example: Ouch! That hurt!
 Greeting Interjections: These interjections are used to greet or
acknowledge someone.
 Example: Hello! How are you today?
2. Usage:
 Interjections are often used to add emotion or emphasis to a
sentence.
 They can convey a speaker's mood or attitude.
 Interjections are typically punctuated with an exclamation mark (!) to
indicate strong emotion.

DIFFRENCES OF VERBS

Difference between Helping and Linking Verbs:

1. Helping Verbs:
 Function: Helping verbs, also known as auxiliary verbs, assist the main verb in
forming verb phrases to convey various aspects of the action, such as tense,
mood, voice, or emphasis.
 Examples:
 She has finished her homework. (The helping verb "has" indicates the
completion of an action in the present perfect tense.)
 They will be attending the conference. (The helping verbs "will be"
indicate future continuous tense.)
 Note: Helping verbs work together with the main verb to express more nuanced
meanings or grammatical structures.
2. Linking Verbs:
 Function: Linking verbs connect the subject of a sentence to a subject
complement, which can be a predicate adjective or noun, providing additional
information about the subject's state or identity.
 Examples:
 He is a doctor. (The linking verb "is" connects the subject "He" to the
predicate noun "doctor," describing his identity.)
  The flowers smell wonderful. (The linking verb "smell" connects the
subject "flowers" to the predicate adjective "wonderful," describing their
quality.)
 Note: Linking verbs do not express action but rather establish a relationship
between the subject and the complement.

Difference between Linking and Modal Verbs:

1. Linking Verbs:
 Function: Linking verbs connect the subject of a sentence to a
subject complement, typically a predicate adjective or noun,
indicating a state of being or condition.
 Examples:
 She seems tired. (The linking verb "seems" connects the subject
"She" to the predicate adjective "tired," describing her
condition.)
 The cake tastes delicious. (The linking verb "tastes" connects
the subject "cake" to the predicate adjective "delicious,"
describing its taste.)
 Note: Linking verbs do not indicate action but rather describe the
subject or link it to additional information.
2. Modal Verbs:
 Function: Modal verbs express various degrees of necessity,
possibility, permission, or ability, indicating the speaker's attitude or
perspective towards the action of the main verb.
 Examples:
 You should study for the exam. (Expressing advice or
recommendation)
 He can speak Spanish fluently. (Expressing ability)
 Note: Modal verbs modify the meaning of the main verb and convey
the speaker's judgment, obligation, or capability regarding the action.

Difference between Stative and Linking Verbs:

1. Stative Verbs:
  Function: Stative verbs express a state or condition rather than an
action. They describe thoughts, emotions, senses, or relationships that
are not typically actions.
 Examples:
 She believes in ghosts. (The verb "believes" expresses a state of
belief rather than an action.)
 He owns a large house. (The verb "owns" describes a state of
possession.)
 Note: Stative verbs do not usually take a direct object and are not
used in continuous (progressive) tenses.
2. Linking Verbs:
 Function: Linking verbs connect the subject of a sentence to a
subject complement, such as a predicate adjective or noun, providing
additional information about the subject's state or identity.
 Examples:
 She is happy. (The linking verb "is" connects the subject "She"
to the predicate adjective "happy," describing her emotional
state.)
 The cake tastes delicious. (The linking verb "tastes" connects
the subject "cake" to the predicate adjective "delicious,"
describing its taste.)
 Note: Linking verbs connect the subject to additional information
without indicating action.

VERBS : THEIR KINDS

Types of Verbs:

1. Action Verbs:
 Function: Action verbs express physical or mental actions performed
by the subject.
 Examples:
 She runs every morning. (The verb "runs" denotes physical
action.)
  He thinks deeply about the problem. (The verb "thinks"
denotes mental action.)
2. Linking Verbs:
 Function: Linking verbs connect the subject of a sentence to a
subject complement, providing additional information about the
subject's state or identity.
 Examples:
 She is happy. (The linking verb "is" connects the subject "She"
to the predicate adjective "happy," describing her emotional
state.)
 The cake tastes delicious. (The linking verb "tastes" connects
the subject "cake" to the predicate adjective "delicious,"
describing its taste.)
3. Helping Verbs:
 Function: Helping verbs, also known as auxiliary verbs, assist the
main verb in forming verb phrases to convey various aspects of the
action, such as tense, mood, voice, or emphasis.
 Examples:
 She has finished her homework. (The helping verb "has"
indicates completion in the present perfect tense.)
 They will be attending the conference. (The helping verbs "will
be" indicate future continuous tense.)
4. Modal Verbs:
 Function: Modal verbs express various degrees of necessity,
possibility, permission, or ability, indicating the speaker's attitude or
perspective towards the action of the main verb.
 Examples:
 You should study for the exam. (Expressing advice or
recommendation)
 He can speak Spanish fluently. (Expressing ability)
5. Transitive Verbs:
 Function: Transitive verbs require a direct object to complete their
meaning.
  Examples:
 She ate the cake. (The verb "ate" requires the direct object
"cake.")
 He built a house. (The verb "built" requires the direct object
"house.")
6. Intransitive Verbs:
 Function: Intransitive verbs do not require a direct object to
complete their meaning.
 Examples:
 The bird sings beautifully. (The verb "sings" does not need a
direct object.)
 They laughed loudly. (The verb "laughed" does not require a
direct object.)
7. Phrasal Verbs:
 Function: Phrasal verbs consist of a main verb followed by one or
more particles (prepositions or adverbs), often forming idiomatic
expressions with unique meanings.
 Examples:
 She turned on the lights. (The phrasal verb "turned on" means
to activate.)
 He gave up smoking. (The phrasal verb "gave up" means to
quit.)
8. Stative Verbs:
 Function: Stative verbs express a state or condition rather than an
action. They describe thoughts, emotions, senses, or relationships.
 Examples:
 She believes in ghosts. (The verb "believes" expresses a state of
belief rather than an action.)
 He owns a large house. (The verb "owns" describes a state of
possession.)

Preposition Types and Differences:

 Types of Prepositions and Differences from Adverbs:

1. Prepositions of Place:
 Definition: Prepositions that describe the location or position of
something in relation to another object.
 Examples:
 The cat is under the table.
 The keys are behind the door.
 Difference from Adverbs of Place: Prepositions of place establish
the relationship between a noun or pronoun and another word,
indicating location, while adverbs of place modify verbs, providing
information about where an action occurs. For example:
 Preposition: The cat is under the table. (Preposition indicating
the relationship between the cat and the table.)
 Adverb: The cat crawled under the table quietly. (Adverb
modifying the verb "crawled," indicating the manner of the
action.)
2. Prepositions of Time:
 Definition: Prepositions that indicate when or at what time something
happens.
 Examples:
 She arrived at 6 o'clock.
 They went swimming after dinner.
 Difference from Adverbs of Time: Prepositions of time establish a
temporal relationship between events or actions, while adverbs of
time modify verbs, indicating when or for how long an action occurs.
For example:
 Preposition: She arrived at 6 o'clock. (Preposition specifying the
time of arrival.)
 Adverb: She arrived early. (Adverb modifying the verb "arrived,"
indicating the time of arrival.)
3. Prepositions of Direction:
 Definition: Prepositions that show the direction in which something
moves.
  Examples:
 They walked towards the beach.
 The bird flew over the mountains.
 Difference from Adverbs of Direction: Prepositions of direction
indicate the path or route of movement, while adverbs of direction
modify verbs, indicating the direction of action. For example:
 Preposition: They walked towards the beach. (Preposition
specifying the direction of their walk.)
 Adverb: They walked quickly towards the beach. (Adverb
modifying the verb "walked," indicating the manner of their
walk.)
4. Prepositions of Location:
 Definition: Prepositions that specify the position of something in
relation to a larger area.
 Examples:
 The school is in the city.
 The park is near the library.
 Difference from Adverbs of Place: Prepositions of location establish
the position of objects in relation to a larger context, while adverbs of
place modify verbs, indicating where an action occurs. For example:
 Preposition: The school is in the city. (Preposition specifying the
location of the school.)
 Adverb: They walked inside the school. (Adverb modifying the
verb "walked," indicating the place of action.)
5. Prepositions of Spatial Relationships:
 Definition: Prepositions that describe the spatial relationship between
objects or places.
 Examples:
 The book is between the two shelves.
 The car is opposite the house.
 Difference from Adverbs of Place: Prepositions of spatial
relationships establish the position of objects in relation to each
 other, while adverbs of place modify verbs, indicating the location of
action. For example:
 Preposition: The book is between the two shelves. (Preposition
specifying the relationship between the book and the shelves.)
 Adverb: She placed the book there. (Adverb modifying the verb
"placed," indicating the location of the action.)

ADVERBS: THEIR KINDS

Adverbs and Their Types:

1. Adverbs of Place:
 Definition: Adverbs that provide information about where an action
occurs.
 Examples:
 She looked here, indicating the specific location.
 He walked downstairs, describing the direction of movement.
2. Adverbs of Time:
 Definition: Adverbs that indicate when or for how long an action
occurs.
 Examples:
 They left early, specifying the time of departure.
 She waited patiently, describing how the action was
performed.
3. Adverbs of Manner:
 Definition: Adverbs that describe how an action is performed.
 Examples:
 He ran quickly, indicating the speed of the action.
 She sings beautifully, describing the quality of performance.
4. Adverbs of Frequency:
 Definition: Adverbs that indicate how often an action occurs.
 Examples:
 They always arrive early, specifying the frequency of arrival.
 He seldom complains, indicating infrequent occurrence.
5. Adverbs of Degree:
 Definition: Adverbs that modify adjectives, verbs, or other adverbs to
indicate the intensity, degree, or extent of an action or quality.
 Examples:
 She is very happy, emphasizing a high degree of happiness.
 He works extremely hard, indicating a high level of effort.
6. Adverbs of Purpose:
 Definition: Adverbs that indicate the reason or purpose for an action.
 Examples:
 He studies hard to pass the exam, indicating the purpose of
studying.
 She spoke clearly to be understood, specifying the purpose of
communication.

SOME SENTENCES SHOWING DIFFENCES OF ADVERBS AND PREPSOTION;

1. She ran quickly. (Adverb modifying the verb "ran" to describe how she ran.)
She is a quick runner. (Adjective describing the noun "runner.")
2. He sings beautifully. (Adverb modifying the verb "sings" to describe how
he sings.) She has a beautiful voice. (Adjective describing the noun
"voice.")

3. The dog barks loudly. (Adverb modifying the verb "barks" to describe how
the dog barks.) It was a loud noise. (Adjective describing the noun "noise.")

4. He speaks English fluently. (Adverb modifying the verb "speaks" to

describe how he speaks.) She is a fluent speaker. (Adjective describing the
noun "speaker.")

5. They waited impatiently. (Adverb modifying the verb "waited" to describe

how they waited.) He is an impatient person. (Adjective describing the
noun "person.")
6. She writes neatly. (Adverb modifying the verb "writes" to describe how she
writes.) It was a neat handwriting. (Adjective describing the noun
"handwriting.")

7. They played well. (Adverb modifying the verb "played" to describe how
they played.) He is a good player. (Adjective describing the noun "player.")

8. He spoke softly. (Adverb modifying the verb "spoke" to describe how he

spoke.) It was a soft voice. (Adjective describing the noun "voice.")

9. She laughed happily. (Adverb modifying the verb "laughed" to describe

how she laughed.) They are happy children. (Adjective describing the noun
"children.")

10. They worked hard. (Adverb modifying the verb "worked" to describe
how they worked.) He is a hard worker. (Adjective describing the noun
"worker.")

GERUNDS AND PARTICUPLES ( THEIR DIFFRENCES AND EXAMPLES)

Gerunds:

 Definition: A gerund is a verb form that functions as a noun in a sentence.

It is formed by adding the "-ing" suffix to a verb.
 Example:
 Running is good exercise. (Here, "running" is a gerund functioning as
the subject of the sentence.)

Participles:

 Definition: Participles are verb forms that function as adjectives or parts of

verb phrases. There are two types: present participles (ending in "-ing") and
past participles (often ending in "-ed", "-en", or irregular forms).
 Examples:
 Present Participle: The running water is cold. (Here, "running"
describes the noun "water".)
 Past Participle: The broken vase lay on the floor. (Here, "broken"
describes the noun "vase".)

Differences:

1. Function:
 Gerunds function as nouns, serving as subjects, objects, or
complements in a sentence.
 Participles function as adjectives, modifying nouns or pronouns, or as
part of verb phrases in progressive or perfect tenses.
2. Formation:
 Gerunds are formed by adding "-ing" to the base form of the verb.
 Participles have different forms: present participles often end in "-
ing", while past participles can end in "-ed", "-en", or other irregular
forms.
3. Usage:
 Gerunds often appear at the beginning of sentences, after
prepositions, or as the object of verbs.
 Participles typically appear before nouns they modify or as part of
verb phrases.

Examples:

 Gerunds:
 Running helps me stay fit.
 She enjoys reading novels.
 Present Participles:
 The running man crossed the street.
 The singing birds woke us up.
 Past Participles:
 The broken window needed to be replaced.
  He was fascinated by the written words on the page.

IDENTIFYING TACTICTS OF THEM:

Identifying Participles:

1. Look for words ending in "-ing" (present participles) or irregular forms ("-ed", "-en", etc.)
within a sentence.
 Example: The running water flowed swiftly.
2. Consider the context of the word: Is it describing a noun or pronoun, indicating an
action or state?
 Example: The excited children played in the park.
3. Determine if the word is modifying a noun or pronoun, functioning as an adjective.
 Example: The man, carrying a heavy bag, walked slowly.

Identifying Gerunds:

1. Look for words ending in "-ing" that are functioning as nouns, such as subjects, objects,
or complements.
 Example: Swimming is her favorite hobby.
2. Consider the role of the word in the sentence: Is it performing a noun-like function?
 Example: Reading helps improve vocabulary.
3. Check if the word follows a preposition or is the object of a verb.
 Example: He is interested in writing poetry.

INFINITIVES:

Infinitives:

 Definition: An infinitive is the base form of a verb (e.g., "to run," "to eat," "to sleep"). It
is often used to express purpose, intention, or future action.
 Identification:
1. Look for the word "to" followed by the base form of a verb.
 Example: She likes to read books.
2. Consider the context of the verb: Is it expressing an action, intention, or purpose
without indicating tense?
 Example: He wants to travel the world.
 3. Determine if the word is functioning as a noun, adjective, or adverb within the
sentence structure.
 Example: His goal is to become a doctor.

Bare Infinitives:

 Definition: Bare infinitives are the base form of a verb without the preceding "to." They
are used in certain constructions, such as after modal verbs (can, could, will, would, etc.)
and certain other verbs (make, let, hear, see, etc.).
 Identification:
 Look for the base form of a verb without "to" that follows a modal verb or certain
other verbs.
 Example: She can read the book.

Examples:

 Infinitives:
 To run a marathon requires dedication.
 I plan to visit my grandparents next weekend.
 Bare Infinitives:
 She will sing at the concert.
 Let him go to the party

TIPS TO IDENTIFY:

Identifying Infinitives:

1. Look for the word "to" followed by the base form of a verb.
 Example: She likes to swim in the ocean.
2. Consider the purpose or intention expressed by the verb phrase.
 Example: He wants to learn Spanish.
3. Determine if the verb phrase is functioning as a noun, adjective, or adverb within the
sentence structure.
 Example: His goal is to win the competition.

Detailed Examples:

1. To + Verb:
  Infinitive: To swim in the ocean is her favorite activity.
 In this example, "to swim" acts as the subject of the sentence, functioning
as a noun phrase.
2. Purpose/Intention:
 Infinitive: He went to the store to buy some groceries.
 Here, "to buy" expresses the purpose or intention behind going to the
store.
3. Function in Sentence Structure:
 Infinitive: Her dream is to travel the world.
 In this case, "to travel" functions as the predicate nominative, renaming
the subject "dream."

Identifying Bare Infinitives:

1. Look for the base form of a verb without the preceding "to."
 Example: She can swim very well.
2. Pay attention to certain verbs or constructions that commonly use bare infinitives, such
as modal verbs (can, could, will, would, etc.) and causative verbs (make, let, have, help,
etc.).
 Example: They made him clean the entire house.

Detailed Examples:

1. Base Form of Verb:

 Bare Infinitive: She will sing at the concert tonight.
 Here, "sing" is the bare infinitive used after the modal verb "will."
2. Following Modal Verbs:
 Bare Infinitive: He can play the guitar.
 The modal verb "can" is followed by the bare infinitive "play."

IDENTIFYING BARE INFINITIVES :

1. Look for Certain Verbs: Bare infinitives often follow specific verbs, such as modal verbs
and causative verbs. When you encounter these verbs in a sentence, the following verb
is likely to be a bare infinitive.
 Example: She can sing beautifully.
2. No "To" Before the Verb: Unlike infinitives, bare infinitives do not have "to" before the
base form of the verb. If you see a verb without "to" after a certain verb, it's likely a bare
infinitive.
  Example: They made him clean the entire house.
3. Contextual Meaning: Consider the meaning conveyed by the verb in the sentence. Bare
infinitives are often used to express actions that are necessary, possible, permitted, or
intended.
 Example: He must finish his homework by tonight.
4. Auxiliary Verbs: Bare infinitives can also follow auxiliary verbs in certain constructions.
Look for auxiliary verbs like "do," "does," "did," "will," etc., followed by a base verb form.
 Example: He does like chocolate ice cream.
5. Pay Attention to Sentence Structure: Bare infinitives are typically used in certain
grammatical structures, such as infinitive phrases or clauses. If you identify these
structures, you're likely dealing with a bare infinitive.
 Example: She asked him to leave immediately.

ARTICLES ( THEIR USES AND TYPES):

Definite Article (the):

1. Specificity:
 The definite article "the" is used when referring to a particular noun
that is specific or known to both the speaker/writer and the
listener/reader.
 Example: "Please pass me the book on the table." (Here, "the book"
refers to a specific book that both the speaker and the listener know
about.)
2. Unique Items:
 "The" is used when referring to unique or specific items, such as
geographical features, famous buildings, or specific works of art.
 Example: "I visited the Eiffel Tower during my trip to Paris."
3. Superlatives:
 "The" is used before superlative adjectives to refer to the highest or
lowest degree of something.
 Example: "He is the tallest person in our class."
4. Before Ordinal Numbers:
  "The" is used before ordinal numbers to refer to a specific member of
a group in a sequence.
 Example: "She won the first prize in the competition."

Indefinite Articles (a, an):

1. Generalization:
 Indefinite articles "a" and "an" are used to refer to any member of a
general group or class.
 Example: "She bought a new car yesterday." (Here, "a new car" refers
to any new car, not a specific one.)
2. First Mention:
 Indefinite articles are used when mentioning something for the first
time, indicating that it is not previously known or specified.
 Example: "I saw a dog in the park." (Here, "a dog" refers to any dog,
as it is the first mention of a dog in the conversation.)
3. Before Vowel Sounds:
 "An" is used instead of "a" before words that begin with a vowel
sound.
 Example: "She's eating an apple." (Here, "an apple" refers to any
apple, but "an" is used because "apple" begins with a vowel sound.)

SOME ADDITIONAL TYPES OF MODAL VERBS :

1. Modal Verbs of Likelihood:

 Will: He will probably arrive soon.
 Would: She would likely help if you asked.
 May: It may rain later this evening.
 Might: They might come to the party tonight.
  Could: He could possibly finish the project by tomorrow.
 Must: It must be cold outside if everyone is wearing jackets.
 Can't: She can't be serious about that decision.
2. Modal Verbs of Ability:
 Can: He can swim very well.
 Could: I could speak French when I was younger.
 May: She may be able to help you with that.
 Might: He might be able to fix the problem.
 Must: He must be very strong to lift that weight.
 Should: You should be able to solve this puzzle easily.
3. Modal Verbs of Permission:
 Can: Can I borrow your pen?
 May: May I use your phone for a moment?
 Could: Could I have a moment of your time?
 Might: Might I suggest a different approach?
 Must: You mustn't enter this area without permission.
 Should: Should I go ahead and book the tickets?
4. Modal Verbs of Obligation:
 Must: He must finish his homework before going out.
 Have to: She has to attend the meeting tomorrow.
 Should: You should apologize for your mistake.
 Ought to: They ought to help their neighbors in times of need.
 Need to: We need to leave early to avoid traffic.
5. Modal Verbs of Advice:
 Should: You should try to get more sleep.
 Ought to: He ought to be more careful while driving.
 Had better: We had better leave now to catch the train.
 Would: I would recommend reading this book.
6. Modal Verbs of Politeness:
 Would: Would you like some tea?
 Could: Could you please pass the salt?
 May: May I help you with your bags?
 Might: Might I have a moment of your time?
 RULES TO FOLLOW FOR SUMMARY,PARAGRAPH,DIALOGUE
EMAIL AND APPLICATION

SUMMARY:
1. Use Third-Person Point of View: Summaries are typically written in the third person,
maintaining a neutral and objective perspective. Avoid using first-person pronouns (I,
we) or second-person pronouns (you) in your summary.
2. Maintain Present Tense: Summaries are often written in the present tense, even if the
original text is in a different tense. This helps create a sense of immediacy and relevance.
3. Use Clear and Concise Language: Write your summary using clear, straightforward
language that is easy to understand. Avoid using overly complex vocabulary or technical
jargon unless necessary.
4. Include Essential Information Only: Focus on summarizing the main points and key
details of the text. Omit irrelevant or minor details that do not contribute to the central
theme or argument.
5. Capture the Tone of the Original: Try to capture the tone and style of the original text
in your summary. If the original text is formal, maintain a formal tone in your summary.
If it is informal or conversational, reflect that in your writing.
6. Avoid Personal Bias: Keep your summary objective and unbiased. Present the
information without inserting your own opinions, interpretations, or judgments.
7. Be Accurate and Factual: Ensure that your summary accurately reflects the content of
the original text. Avoid misrepresenting or distorting information to fit your own
agenda.
8. Provide Proper Attribution: If you are summarizing someone else's work, be sure to
provide proper attribution to the original author or source. Use citations or references as
needed, following the appropriate citation style guidelines.
9. Check for Plagiarism: Avoid copying verbatim text from the original source. Paraphrase
the information in your own words while still maintaining the original meaning.

EMAIL WRITING:

PATTERN ;
From: sender@abcmail.com
To: receiver@xyzmail.com
4 th March, 2022.

Subject: Request for Funds for Admission Fee

 Dear father,

Your loving son

,X.Y.Z

POINTS TO KEEP IN MIND :

1. Follow Instructions:
 Carefully read and follow any instructions provided by your teacher or the exam
prompt.
 Ensure that you address all the required elements in your email.
2. Use Formal Language:
 Since it's a school setting, use formal language appropriate for academic or
professional contexts.
 Avoid slang, abbreviations, or overly casual language.
3. Include Proper Greeting and Closing:
 Begin your email with a formal greeting, such as "Dear [Recipient's Name],"
 End the email with a formal closing, such as "Sincerely," or "Best regards,"
followed by your name.
4. State Purpose Clearly:
 Clearly state the purpose of your email in the opening paragraph.
 Provide context or background information as necessary to help the recipient
understand the situation.
5. Be Polite and Respectful:
 Maintain a polite and respectful tone throughout the email.
 Use phrases such as "please" and "thank you" to convey politeness.
6. Stay On Topic:
 Keep your email focused on the topic or subject specified in the prompt or
assignment.
 Avoid including irrelevant information or going off on tangents.
7. Provide Relevant Details:
 Include any relevant details or information required to address the topic of the
email.
 Be concise but thorough in your explanations.
8. Proofread Carefully:
 Proofread your email carefully before submitting it.
  Check for spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors to ensure clarity and
professionalism.
9. Respect Privacy:
 Respect the privacy of others and avoid sharing personal or sensitive information
unless necessary for the assignment.
10. Follow Formatting Guidelines:
 If specific formatting guidelines are provided, such as font size or spacing
requirements, ensure that you adhere to them.

PARAGRAPH WRITING :

1. Unity of Idea: Each paragraph should focus on a single main idea or topic, expressed in
a clear topic sentence.
2. Coherence: Ensure that the sentences within the paragraph are logically connected and
flow smoothly from one to the next.
3. Conciseness: Keep your paragraphs concise and avoid unnecessary repetition or
redundancy.
4. Supporting Details: Include relevant supporting details, examples, or evidence to
develop and expand upon the main idea.
5. Transitions: Use transitional words and phrases to connect ideas within the paragraph
and maintain coherence.
6. Structure: Follow a logical structure, such as chronological order, spatial order, or order
of importance, depending on the purpose of the paragraph.
7. Consistency: Maintain consistency in tone, style, and tense throughout the paragraph.
8. Clarity: Ensure that your writing is clear and easy to understand, avoiding overly
complex sentences or vocabulary.
9. Purpose: Each paragraph should serve a specific purpose, whether it's to introduce,
explain, illustrate, or conclude.
10. Proofreading: After writing your paragraph, review it carefully for errors in grammar,
punctuation, and spelling, and make revisions as needed.

DIALOGUE WRITING :
1. Character Differentiation:
 Clearly differentiate between the speakers by using their names or identifiers
(e.g., "Teacher:", "Student 1:", "Student 2:").
 Use distinct speech patterns, vocabulary, and tones for each character to make
them unique.
2. Purposeful Dialogue:
  Ensure that the dialogue serves a specific purpose, such as advancing the plot,
revealing character traits, or conveying important information.
 Avoid idle chitchat or irrelevant conversation.
3. Natural Flow:
 Make the dialogue sound natural and realistic by mimicking how people actually
speak.
 Use contractions, pauses, interruptions, and other conversational elements to
create a sense of authenticity.
4. Show, Don't Tell:
 Use dialogue to show emotions, conflicts, and relationships between characters
rather than explicitly stating them.
 Let the characters' words and actions reveal their thoughts and feelings.
5. Use Dialogue Tags Wisely:
 Use dialogue tags (e.g., "said," "asked," "replied") to attribute speech to specific
characters.
 Avoid overusing fancy dialogue tags or adverbs, as they can distract from the
dialogue itself.
6. Avoid Exposition Dump:
 Avoid using dialogue solely for the purpose of conveying exposition or backstory.
 Instead, sprinkle necessary information naturally throughout the conversation.
7. Punctuation and Formatting:
 Use proper punctuation for dialogue, including quotation marks, commas,
periods, and paragraph breaks.
 Start a new paragraph each time the speaker changes to improve readability.
8. Conflict and Tension:
 Introduce conflict or tension into the dialogue to make it more engaging and
dynamic.
 Explore disagreements, misunderstandings, or differing perspectives between
characters.
9. Subtext and Nuance:
 Include subtext and nuance in the dialogue to add depth and complexity to the
characters and their interactions.
 Allow for ambiguity and interpretation, leaving room for readers to infer
meanings beyond the literal words spoken.
10. Read Aloud and Revise:
 Read the dialogue aloud to ensure that it sounds natural and flows well.
 Revise and edit the dialogue as needed to improve clarity, coherence, and
impact.
 APPLICATION:.

PATTERN:
The Headmaster,
School A.B.C.
City D. E. F

Subject: Application for Sick Leave Respected

Sir,

Yours obediently,
X.Y.Z
Dated: 7th March, 2022

POINTS TO KEEP IN MIND IN APPLICATION :

1. Follow Instructions:
 Carefully read and follow any instructions provided by your teacher or the exam
prompt.
 Ensure that you address all the required elements in your email.
2. Use Formal Language:
 Since it's a school setting, use formal language appropriate for academic or
professional contexts.
 Avoid slang, abbreviations, or overly casual language.
3. Include Proper Greeting and Closing:
 Begin your email with a formal greeting, such as "Dear [Recipient's Name],"
 End the email with a formal closing, such as "Sincerely," or "Best regards,"
followed by your name.
4. State Purpose Clearly:
 Clearly state the purpose of your email in the opening paragraph.
 Provide context or background information as necessary to help the recipient
understand the situation.
5. Be Polite and Respectful:
 Maintain a polite and respectful tone throughout the email.
 Use phrases such as "please" and "thank you" to convey politeness.
6. Stay On Topic:
 Keep your email focused on the topic or subject specified in the prompt or
assignment.
  Avoid including irrelevant information or going off on tangents.
7. Provide Relevant Details:
 Include any relevant details or information required to address the topic of the
email.
 Be concise but thorough in your explanations.
8. Proofread Carefully:
 Proofread your email carefully before submitting it.
 Check for spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors to ensure clarity and
professionalism.
9. Respect Privacy:
 Respect the privacy of others and avoid sharing personal or sensitive information
unless necessary for the assignment.
10. Follow Formatting Guidelines:
 If specific formatting guidelines are provided, such as font size or spacing
requirements, ensure that you adhere to them.

ADDITIONAL CONCEPTS