CTM-631 Sustainable Design and Value Analysis

Q1. Explain the Various challenges in sustainable construction?

Sol:- There are many challenges and opportunities associated with sustainable construction.
These challenges and opportunities stem mainly from the need for balancing the main
sustainability dimensions namely economic, social and environmental issues. The construction
industry needs to strike the right balance between environmental
performance and economic performance. Several methodologies, techniques and
tools such as Life Cycle Costing LCC and Life Cycle Assessment LCA for buildings
are available for this purpose. The achievement of this balance is not easy and it is not
withoutcost. There has been an intense debate among researchers and practitioners on the
benefits and costs of sustainable construction. It seems that no consensus will be reached
soon, and two opposite views with regard to the challenges and opportunities of
sustainability still prevail. While sustainability is seen as making good business and
economic sense by some industry players, it is regarded as a burden by others. Environmental
legislationand regulation must not be viewed as obstacles to competitive advantage. Tough
standards trigger innovation and upgrading, instead. Tough regulations can force
organisations into innovating to produce less polluting or more efficient products with
high value. According to this perspective the adoption of sustainable practices is no
longer a cost but a catalyst for constant innovation and new market opportunities. First, the
construction output has been in decline in developed
world; secondly, although there has been a steady growth of the output in developing
countries, it must be recognised that the attainment of sustainability is considerably. difficult in
these countries; and thirdly, the construction sector depends on the
implementation of sustainability measures from other sectors of the economy such as
the manufacturers of construction materials and components.
Many agree that fear not greed has driven most environmental programmes within
companies. Apart from the challenges posed by costs,
construction organisations have to deal with issues that characterise construction
projects such as different locations with specific requirements in terms of
environmental management. The main conclusion was that the reality lies between the two
extremes positions, that is,
the implementation of environmental management is both a challenge and an
opportunity.

Q2. Write short note on:

a. Energy Efficient Building
Sol: Energy efficient building involves constructing or upgrading buildings that are able to
get the most work out of the energy that is supplied to them by taking steps to reduce
energy loss such as decreasing the loss of heat through the building envelope. Energy
efficient homes, whether they are renovated to be more efficient or a built with energy
efficiency in mind, pose a significant number of benefits. Energy efficient homes are less
expensive to operate, more comfortable to live in, and more environmentally friendly.
 Inefficiencies that are not removed in the building process can pose issues for years.
However, keeping energy efficient building design in mind when construction is underway
is a more effective way to approach making a home more efficient, which is less expensive
for a homeowner in the long run. Building codes exist around the world to ensure that
buildings are energy efficient to a certain degree, however sometimes it is wise to go above
and beyond these recommendations to have an even more energy efficient home.[3] As well,
since a house operates as a system, a home must be looked at as a whole in order to fully
increase the energy efficiency. For example, expensive heating and cooling equipment do
nothing to improve the energy performance of the house if insulation isn't keeping heat in
during the winter and out in the summer.

b. Green building
Sol:- A ‘green’ building is a building that, in its design, construction or operation, reduces or
eliminates negative impacts, and can create positive impacts, on our climate and natural
environment. Green buildings preserve precious natural resources and improve our quality of
life. There are a number of features which can make a building ‘green’. These include:
 Efficient use of energy, water and other resources
 Use of renewable energy, such as solar energy

 Pollution and waste reduction measures, and the enabling of re-use and recycling
 Good indoor environmental air quality
 Use of materials that are non-toxic, ethical and sustainable
 Consideration of the environment in design, construction and operation
 Consideration of the quality of life of occupants in design, construction and operation
 A design that enables adaptation to a changing environment

Any building can be a green building, whether it’s a home, an office, a school, a hospital, a
community centre, or any other type of structure, provided it includes features listed above.
However, it is worth noting that not all green buildings are – and need to be - the same. Different
countries and regions have a variety of characteristics such as distinctive climatic conditions,
unique cultures and traditions, diverse building types and ages, or wide-ranging environmental,
economic and social priorities – all of which shape their approach to green building.

c. Natural lightning
Sol: Natural lighting, also known as daylighting, is a technique that efficiently brings natural
light into your home using exterior glazing (windows, skylights, etc.), thereby reducing artificial
lighting requirements and saving energy. Natural lighting has been proven to increase health and
comfort levels for building occupants.

d. Rain water Harvesting

 Sol: Rainwater harvesting (RWH) is a simple method by which rainfall is collected for future
usage. The collected rainwater may be stored, utilised in different ways or directly used for
recharge purposes. With depleting groundwater levels and fluctuating climate conditions,
RWH can go a long way to help mitigate these effects. Capturing the rainwater can help
recharge local aquifers, reduce urban flooding and most importantly ensure water availability
in water-scarce zones. Though the term seems to have picked up greater visibility in the last
few years, it was, and is even today, a traditional practice followed in rural India. Some ancient
rainwater harvesting methods followed in India include madakas, ahar pynes, surangas,
taankas and many more.

Q3. Explain about Solar Panel System in detail?

Sol: Solar panels (also known as "PV panels") are used to convert light from the sun, which is
composed of particles of energy called "photons", into electricity that can be used to power
electrical loads. Solar panels can be used for a wide variety of applications including remote
power systems for cabins, telecommunications equipment, remote sensing, and of course for the
production of electricity by residential and commercial solar electric systems. Solar panels
collect clean renewable energy in the form of sunlight and convert that light into electricity
which can then be used to provide power for electrical loads. Solar panels are comprised of
several individual solar cells which are themselves composed of layers of silicon, phosphorous
(which provides the negative charge), and boron (which provides the positive charge). Solar
panels absorb the photons and in doing so initiate an electric current. The resulting energy
generated from photons striking the surface of the solar panel allows electrons to be knocked out
of their atomic orbits and released into the electric field generated by the solar cells which then
pull these free electrons into a directional current. This entire process is known as the
Photovoltaic Effect. An average home has more than enough roof area for the necessary number
of solar panels to produce enough solar electricrity to supply all of its power needs excess
electricity generated goes onto the main power grid, paying off in electricity use at night.

Benefits of Solar Panels

Using solar panels is a very practical way to produce electricity for many applications. The
obvious would have to be off-grid living. Living off-grid means living in a location that is not
serviced by the main electric utility grid. Remote homes and cabins benefit nicely from solar
power systems. No longer is it necessary to pay huge fees for the installation of electric utility
poles and cabling from the nearest main grid access point. A solar electric system is potentially
less expensive and can provide power for upwards of three decades if properly maintained.
Besides the fact that solar panels make it possible to live off-grid, perhaps the greatest benefit
that you would enjoy from the use of solar power is that it is both a clean and a renewable source
of energy. With the advent of global climate change, it has become more important that we do
whatever we can to reduce the pressure on our atmosphere from the emission of greenhouse
gases. Solar panels have no moving parts and require little maintenance. They are ruggedly built
and last for decades when porperly maintained.
Last, but not least, of the benefits of solar panels and solar power is that, once a system has paid
for its initial installation costs, the electricity it produces for the remainder of the system's
lifespan, which could be as much as 15-20 years depending on the quality of the system, is
absolutely free! For grid-tie solar power system owners, the benefits begin from the moment the
system comes online, potentially eliminating monthy electric bills or, and this is the best part,
actually earning the system's owner additional income from the electric company.

Q4. Describe about Solar HVAC System with suitable diagram in detail?
Sol: A solar powered HVAC system is an installed air-conditioning unit that is powered,
primarily, by solar panels. For homeowners that do not have any sort of solar systems (PV)
currently installed on their homes, a solar powered HVAC can offset some of your utility costs.
First and foremost, HVAC stands for heating, ventilation, and air conditioning. This system
provides heating and cooling to residential and commercial buildings. You can find HVAC
systems anywhere from single-family homes to submarines where they provide the means for
environmental comfort.

HVAC stands for heating, ventilation, and air conditioning. This system provides heating and
cooling to residential and commercial buildings. You can find HVAC systems anywhere from
single-family homes to submarines where they provide the means for environmental comfort.
Becoming more and more popular in new construction, these systems use fresh air from outdoors
to provide high indoor air quality. The V in HVAC, or ventilation, is the process of replacing or
exchanging air within a space. This provides a better quality of air indoors and involves the
removal of moisture, smoke, odors, heat, dust, airborne bacteria, carbon dioxide, and other gases
as well as temperature control and oxygen replenishment.

The three main functions of an HVAC system are interrelated, especially when providing
acceptable indoor air quality and thermal comfort. Your heating and air conditioning system is
often one of the most complicated and extensive systems in your home, but when it stops
working you’ll know soon enough! There are nine parts to your HVAC system that you should
be familiar with the air return, filter, exhaust outlets, ducts, electrical elements, outdoor unit,
compressor, coils and blower.

Air Return

Your air return is the part of your system that marks the starting point of the ventilation cycle.
This return sucks in air, draws it through a filter, and then passes it into the main system. Pro tip:
Make sure to dust your returns frequently as debris and dust can easily build up on your filters.

Filter

Your filter is the second part of the air return in which the air is drawn through. Pro tip: Make
sure to change your filters regularly to keep your system in tip-top shape.

Exhaust Outlets

Another part of your system is the exhaust outlets where the exhaust created by the heating
system is expelled. Pro tip: Check your chimney flue or vent stack annually and tune it up if
necessary.

Ducts

Your ducts are the channels in which the heated or cooled air passes through. Pro tip: Get your
ducts cleaned every 2 to 5 years in order to keep everything in working condition.

Electrical Elements

This part of your system can be a bit trickier, but often problems originate here first. Pro tip: If
something isn’t working right check for a tripped breaker or dead batteries in your thermostat.

Outdoor Unit

This is likely the part of your system you think of when someone mentions an HVAC system.
The outdoor unit houses the fan which provides air flow. Pro tip: Keep your unit clear of debris
and vegetation as it can cause serious problems if plants are sucked into your fan.

Compressor

As a part of the outdoor unit, the compressor is responsible for converting refrigerant from a gas
to liquid and sends it to the coils. Pro tip: If something isn’t working quite right, check your
compressor. It is often the cause of many system failures.

Coils
Usually another part of the outdoor unit, coils cool the air as it passes through with a little help
from the refrigerant. Pro tip: Check your coils annually. If they freeze up you may want to check
your filter and/or refrigerant levels.

Blower

The blower draws in warm air through the main section of the unit. Pro tip: The more efficiently
this air moves through, the more durable your system will be.

Since we now know that HVAC stands for heating, ventilation, and air conditioning, we know
that those are the three main parts included in the entire system. The heating element usually
refers to a furnace or boiler. It includes a pipe system for the fluid carrying the heat or duct work
if you’re working with a forced air system. The ventilation element is either natural or forced and
when it is forced it is more often than not used for air cleaning purposes as well. As many of us
know the third and final element of an HVAC system is air conditioning which is the exact
opposite of heating. It’s main focus is to remove the existing heat from the interior of the home.

Q5. Discuss the topic “Cost Benefit Analysis” in detail?

Sol: cost-benefit analysis is the process of comparing the projected or estimated costs and
benefits (or opportunities) associated with a project decision to determine whether it makes sense
from a business perspective. Generally speaking, cost-benefit analysis involves tallying up all
costs of a project or decision and subtracting that amount from the total projected benefits of the
project or decision. (Sometimes, this value is represented as a ratio.)If the projected benefits
outweigh the costs, you could argue that the decision is a good one to make. If, on the other
hand, the costs outweigh the benefits, then a company may want to rethink the decision or
project.Cost-benefit analysis is a form of data-driven decision-making most often utilized in
business, both at established companies and startups. The basic principles and framework can be
applied to virtually any decision-making process, whether business-related or otherwise.

Advantages of Cost-Benefit Analysis

 It is data-driven: Cost-benefit analysis allows an individual or organization to evaluate a

decision or potential project free of opinions or personal biases. As such, it offers an
agnostic and evidence-based evaluation of your options, which can help your business
become more data-driven and logical in how it operates.
 It makes decisions simpler: Business decisions are often complex by nature. By reducing a
decision to costs versus benefits, the cost-benefit analysis can make them less complex.
 It can uncover hidden costs and benefits: Cost-benefit analysis forces you to sit down and
outline every potential cost and benefit associated with a project, which can help you
uncover less-than-obvious factors, such as indirect or intangible costs.

Limitations of Cost-Benefit Analysis

  It’s difficult to predict all variables: While cost-benefit analysis can help you outline
the projected costs and benefits associated with a business decision, it’s challenging to
predict all the factors that may impact the outcome. Changes in market demand, materials
costs, and global business environment can occasionally be fickle and unpredictable,
especially in the long term.
 It’s only as good as the data used to complete it: If you’re relying on incomplete or
inaccurate data to finish your cost-benefit analysis, the results of the analysis will be
similarly inaccurate or incomplete.
 It’s better suited to short- and mid-length projects: For projects or business decisions
that involve longer timeframes, cost-benefit analysis has greater potential of missing the
mark, for several reasons. It typically becomes more difficult to make accurate
predictions the further out you go. It’s also possible that long-term forecasts will not
accurately account for variables such as inflation, which could impact the overall
accuracy of the analysis.
 It removes the human element: While a desire to make a profit drives most companies,
there are other, non-monetary reasons an organization might decide to pursue a project or
decision. In these cases, it can be difficult to reconcile moral or “human” perspectives
with the business case.

The Cost-Benefit Analysis Process

A cost-benefit analysis should begin with compiling a comprehensive list of all the costs and
benefits associated with the project or decision.

The costs involved in a CBA might include the following:

 Direct costs would be direct labor involved in manufacturing, inventory, raw materials,
manufacturing expenses.
 Indirect costs might include electricity, overhead costs from management, rent, utilities.
 Intangible costs of a decision, such as the impact on customers, employees, or delivery
times.
 Opportunity costs such as alternative investments, or buying a plant versus building one.
 Cost of potential risks such as regulatory risks, competition, and environmental impacts

Cost benefit analysis is a process used primarily by businesses that weighs the sum of the
benefits, such as financial gain, of an action against the negatives, or costs, of that action.
The technique is often used when trying to decide a course of action, and often incorporates
dollar amounts for intangible benefits as well as opportunity cost into its calculations. CBA is
an easy tool to determine which potential decision would make the most financial sense for
the business or individual. The process also takes indirect benefits or costs into consideration,
like customer satisfaction or even employee morale. And opportunity cost often plays a big
role when deciding between several options. When listing potential costs and benefits,
companies or analysts will often factor in things like labor costs, social benefits and other
factors that may not be immediately obvious.
Q6. Describe the term “Economic performance analysis” in detail?
Sol: Nowadays, economics control any of decision making and future projection. For the last two
decades, energy supply has suffered from a series of oil crises. This makes reservoir and
production engineers directing their attention to study the economic performance of oil fields.
This was and still accompanied by the need to update reserves and develop producing fields at a
fair investment and good revenues. Engineering and financial groups paid a great effort to unitize
both engineering and financial views, regarding the definitions and classification of cost
elements. Historical data of cost and prices are used to predict future performance ofboth factors
considering their interaction, which in conjunction with the production forecast portrays a
dynamic value of economic limit forecast. The major advantage of this method of economic
analysis performance is that itmakes the process of economic limit evaluation to be easier and
quick for engineers. Moreover, the study, for the first time, enables the productionreport to have
cost elements of the production units (wells, platforms, formations, and fieldsThe evaluation of
workover success is also included.
One of the specific areas that petroleum engineers would not like for a longtime to be involved in
is the economics. However, for the last years, a lot of manuscripts that address the economic
performance of oil industry have appeared in the literature. The present study focuses many
economic problems, which face reservoir, production and process engineer throughout his daily
activities. Meetings and discussions among members of both groups lead to some sort of
unification, regarding the economic and engineering views. One ofthe most important
achievements of this study is the unification of engineering and financial codes for producing
elements. Other questions, handled by the current study consider the determination of net cash
flow (NCF) for a specific project; work over evaluation; the detection of economic limit (EL) for
wells;and finally the analysis of costs. Therefore, the paper highlights some aspectsof economic
performance analysis and points out some of its sensitivities.

Q7. Discuss the term “Economic feasibility analysis” in detail?

Sol: Economic feasibility is a kind of cost-benefit analysis of the examined project, which
assesses whether it is possible to implement it. ... It consists of market analysis, economic
analysis, technical and strategic analysis. This assessment is designed to help the building owner
determine the cost and benefits of the project; it's basically a cost/benefit analysis. When you
examine all these areas, you will be able to identify any potential constraints your commercial
property stands to face. he purpose of an economic feasibility study (EFS) is to demonstrate the
net benefit of a proposed project for accepting or disbursing electronic funds/benefits, taking into
consideration the benefits and costs to the agency, other state agencies, and the general public as
a whole.
The EFS is composed of two required forms:

 Business Case
 Cost Benefit Analysis

The agency must submit its EFS and request for approval to OFM prior to accepting or
disbursing electronic funds/benefits, except where noted in Sections 40.20 and 40.30.
Approval from OFM is required for pilot and permanent projects, and both internet and retail
 projects. When completing the EFS, the agency should consider only those portions of the
proposed project that are related to electronic payment processing.If the project includes
acceptance of credit cards and/or debit cards, the EFS must specify how funds/benefits will
be accepted (such as, over the counter, via the internet, etc.). The EFS must also specify
which card brands will be accepted (such as, VISA, MasterCard, Discover, American
Express, etc.).

Economic feasibility elements include, but are not limited to:

 Increased agency revenue,

 Decreased agency revenue,
 Increased agency costs,
 Decreased agency costs,
 Increased revenue to other agencies and/or the general public,
 Decreased revenue to other agencies and/or the general public,
 Increased costs to other agencies and/or the general public,
 Decreased costs to other agencies and/or the general public, and,
 Other public benefits.

These items are to be described in detail in the Business Case, and the associated dollar amounts
for these items included in the Cost Benefit Analysis. The elements for the agency should be
separated from those of other state agencies and the general public so that the potential funding
requirements can be discerned.

Q8. Describe the Various Advanced Conceptual Estimating Techniques in detail?

Sol: Conceptual estimating is the first pre design effort made to determine a project's cost and is
usually a part of the feasibility analysis of a project. It tells the owner the anticipated costs before
contemplating a project's feasibility and further development. Pros of conceptual estimating
Working with conceptual estimates saves you a lot of time and energy when creating estimates.
Conceptual estimating acts as a cost control by acting as the first preliminary check on cost.
Below are some of the pros of conceptual estimating.
Conceptual estimating combines cost estimating with cost history, and this enables users to
develop quick and accurate estimates. Normalizing a project cost database with inflation and
location makes an old project relevant again as you can compare the related costs on labor,
equipment, and materials.

The first recognized disadvantage of conceptual estimating, like other estimating methods, is the
inexactness of the process.

With the absence of data, there is no other way to evaluate the process other than using opinion.

Below are some of the cons associated with conceptual estimating.

Conceptual estimating is a resource-restricted activity. The primary resources are time, cost, and
information. As conceptual estimating is performed early in the project, the information is
restricted in detail and precision. Therefore, as much as the estimate is essential, it can’t be
accorded much time and resources.

It’s dependant on the validity of the scope. The accuracy and validity of the estimates are
dependent on the information provided by the project scope.

The 3 Major Parts to Project Estimation

 Effort estimation
 Cost estimation
 Resource estimate

While accurate estimates are the basis of sound project planning, there are many techniques used
as project management best practices in estimation as - Analogous estimation, Parametric
estimation, Delphi method, 3 Point Estimate, Expert Judgment, Published Data Estimates,
Vendor Bid Analysis, Reserve Analysis, Bottom-Up Analysis, and Simulation. Usually, during
the early stages of a project life cycle, the project requirements are feebly known and less
information is available to estimate the project.

Q9. Explain the Quick methods to find out Approximate Cost of a project in detail?
Sol: Cost estimation is the summation of individual cost elements, using established methods and
valid data, to estimate the future costs of a program, based on what is known today.
It further defines the basic characteristics of credible cost estimation as including:

 Clear identification of tasks

 Broad participation in preparing estimates
 Availability of valid data
 Standardized structures for the estimates
 Provisions for program uncertainties
 Recognition of inflation
 Excluded costs
 Independent reviews of estimates
 Revision of estimates for significant program changes

Step Process for Cost Estimation

Those twelve steps are outlined below.

1. Define Estimate’s Purpose: Determine the purpose of the estimate, the level of detail
which is required, who receives the estimate and the overall scope of the estimate.
2. Develop Estimating Plan: Assemble a cost-estimating team, and outline their approach.
Develop a timeline, and determine who will do the independent cost estimate. Finally,
create the team’s schedule.
 3. Define Characteristics: Create a baseline description of the purpose, system and
performance characteristics. This includes any technology implications, system
configurations, schedules, strategies and relations to existing systems. Don’t forget
support, security, risk items, testing and production, deployment and maintenance, and
any similar legacy systems.
4. Determine Estimating Approach: Define a work breakdown structure (WBS), and
choose an estimating method that is best suited for each element in the WBS. Cross-
check for cost and schedule drivers; then create a checklist.
5. Identify Rule and Assumptions: Clearly define what is included and excluded from the
estimate, and identify specific assumptions.
6. Obtain Data: Create a data collection plan, and analyze data to find cost drivers.
7. Develop Point Estimate: Develop a cost model by estimating each WBS element.
8. Conduct Sensitivity Analysis: Test sensitivity of costs to changes in estimating input
values and key assumptions, and determine key cost drivers.
9. Conduct Risk and Uncertainty Analysis: Determine the cost, schedule and technical
risks inherent with each item on the WBS and how to manage them.
10. Document the Estimate: Have documentation for each step in the process to keep
everyone on the same page with the cost estimate.
11. Present Estimate to Management: Brief stakeholders on cost estimates to get approval.
12. Update Estimate: Any changes must be updated and reported on. Also, perform a
postmortem where you can document lessons learned.

Challenges of Cost Estimation

There are many factors that are uncertain when cost estimating. For example, if the project is not
like prior ones, then experience won’t help guide you. If the planning horizon is further out, the
greater the uncertainty. That said, the longer the project’s duration, the less in focus cost
estimations will be.
Then there is the team: the level of skill and experience available are going to have a big factor
on overall costs of the project.

Project Cost Estimation Techniques

All of these factors impact project cost estimation, making it difficult to come up with precise
estimates. Luckily, there are techniques that can help with developing a more accurate cost
estimation.

Analogous Estimating
Seek the help of experts who have experience in similar projects, or use your own historical data.
If you have access to relevant historical data, try analogous estimating, which can show
precedents that help define what your future costs will be in the early stages of the project.

Statistical Modeling
There is statistical modeling, or parametric estimating, which also uses historical data of key cost
drivers and then calculates what those costs would be if the duration or another aspect of the
project is changed.
Bottom-Up Estimating
A more granular approach is bottom-up estimating, which uses estimates of individual tasks and
then adds those up to determine the overall cost of the project.

Three-point Estimate
Another approach is the three-point estimate, which comes up with three scenarios: most likely,
optimistic and pessimistic ranges. These are then put into an equation to develop an estimation.

Reserve Analysis
Reserve analysis determines how much contingency reserve must be allocated. This approach
tries to wrangle uncertainty.

Cost of Quality
Cost of quality uses money spent during the project to avoid failures and money applied after the
project to address failures. This can help fine-tune your overall project cost estimation. And
comparing bids from vendors can also help figure out costs.

Dynamic Tools
Whenever you’re estimating costs, it helps to use an online software to collect all of your project
information. Project management software that can be used in congress with many of these
techniques to help facilitate the process. Use online software to define your project teams, tasks
and goals. Even manage your vendors and track costs as the project unfolds. We’ll show you
how.

Q10. Discuss the term “Life cycle Cost Analysis” with suitable example in detail?
Sol: Life-cycle cost analysis (LCCA) is a method for assessing the total cost of facility
ownership. It takes into account all costs of acquiring, owning, and disposing of a building or
building system. LCCA is especially useful when project alternatives that fulfill the same
performance requirements, but differ with respect to initial costs and operating costs, have to be
compared in order to select the one that maximizes net savings. For example, LCCA will help
determine whether the incorporation of a high-performance HVAC or glazing system, which
may increase initial cost but result in dramatically reduced operating and maintenance costs, is
cost-effective or not. LCCA is not useful for budget allocation.

Lowest life-cycle cost (LCC) is the most straightforward and easy-to-interpret measure of
economic evaluation. Some other commonly used measures are Net Savings (or Net Benefits),
Savings-to-Investment Ratio (or Savings Benefit-to-Cost Ratio), Internal Rate of Return, and
Payback Period. They are consistent with the Lowest LCC measure of evaluation if they use the
same parameters and length of study period. Building economists, certified value specialists, cost
engineers, architects, quantity surveyors, operations researchers, and others might use any or
several of these techniques to evaluate a project. The approach to making cost-effective choices
for building-related projects can be quite similar whether it is called cost estimating, value
engineering, or economic analysis.
Life-Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) Method
The purpose of an LCCA is to estimate the overall costs of project alternatives and to select the
design that ensures the facility will provide the lowest overall cost of ownership consistent with
its quality and function. The LCCA should be performed early in the design process while there
is still a chance to refine the design to ensure a reduction in life-cycle costs (LCC).
The first and most challenging task of an LCCA, or any economic evaluation method, is to
determine the economic effects of alternative designs of buildings and building systems and to
quantify these effects and express them in dollar amounts.
There are numerous costs associated with acquiring, operating, maintaining, and disposing of a
building or building system. Building-related costs usually fall into the following categories:

 Initial Costs—Purchase, Acquisition, Construction Costs

 Fuel Costs
 Operation, Maintenance, and Repair Costs
 Replacement Costs
 Residual Values—Resale or Salvage Values or Disposal Costs
 Finance Charges—Loan Interest Payments
 Non-Monetary Benefits or Costs

Only those costs within each category that are relevant to the decision and significant in amount
are needed to make a valid investment decision. Costs are relevant when they are different for
one alternative compared with another; costs are significant when they are large enough to make
a credible difference in the LCC of a project alternative. All costs are entered as base-year
amounts in today's dollars; the LCCA method escalates all amounts to their future year of
occurrence and discounts them back to the base date to convert them to present values.

Initial costs

Initial costs may include capital investment costs for land acquisition, construction, or renovation
and for the equipment needed to operate a facility.
Land acquisition costs need to be included in the initial cost estimate if they differ among design
alternatives. This would be the case, for example, when comparing the cost of renovating an
existing facility with new construction on purchased land.
Construction costs: Detailed estimates of construction costs are not necessary for preliminary
economic analyses of alternative building designs or systems. Such estimates are usually not
available until the design is quite advanced and the opportunity for cost-reducing design changes
has been missed. LCCA can be repeated throughout the design process if more detailed cost
information becomes available. Initially, construction costs are estimated by reference to
historical data from similar facilities. Alternately, they can be determined from government or
private-sector cost estimating guides and databases. The Tri-Services Parametric Estimating
System (TPES) developed models of different facility types by determining the critical cost
parameters (i.e., number of floors, area and volume, perimeter length) and relating these values
through algebraic formulas to predict costs of a wide range of building systems, subsystems, and
assemblies.
Detailed cost estimates are prepared at the submittal stages of design (typically at 30%, 60%, and
90%) based on quantity take-off calculations. These estimates rely on cost databases such as the
Commercial Unit Price Book (C-UPB) or the R. S. Means Building Construction Cost Database.
Testing organizations such as ASTM International and trade organizations have reference data
for materials and products they test or represent.

Energy and Water Costs

Operational expenses for energy, water, and other utilities are based on consumption, current
rates, and price projections. Because energy, and to some extent water consumption, and
building configuration and building envelope are interdependent, energy and water costs are
usually assessed for the building as a whole rather than for individual building systems or
components.
Energy usage: Energy costs are often difficult to predict accurately in the design phase of a
project. Assumptions must be made about use profiles, occupancy rates, and schedules, all of
which impact energy consumption. At the initial design stage, data on the amount of energy
consumption for a building can come from engineering analysis or from a computer program
such as eQuest. EnergyPlus™ (DOE) and DOE-2 require more detailed input not usually
available until later in the design process. Other software packages, such as the proprietary
programs TRACE (Trane), ESPRE (EPRI), and HAP (Carrier) have been developed to assist in
mechanical equipment selection and sizing and are often distributed by manufacturers.
When selecting a program, it is important to consider whether you need annual, monthly, or
hourly energy consumption figures and whether the program adequately tracks savings in energy
consumption when design changes or different efficiency levels are simulated.
Energy prices: Quotes of current energy prices from local suppliers should take into account the
rate type, the rate structure, summer and winter differentials, block rates, and demand charges to
obtain an estimate as close as possible to the actual energy cost.
Energy price projections: Energy prices are assumed to increase or decrease at a rate different
from general price inflation. This differential energy price escalation needs to be taken into
account when estimating future energy costs.

Water Costs: Water costs should be handled much like energy costs. There are usually two types
of water costs: water usage costs and water disposal costs. DOE does not publish water price
projections.

Operation, Maintenance, and Repair Costs

Non-fuel operating costs, and maintenance and repair (OM&R) costs are often more difficult to
estimate than other building expenditures. Operating schedules and standards of maintenance
vary from building to building; there is great variation in these costs even for buildings of the
same type and age. It is therefore especially important to use engineering judgment when
estimating these costs.

Supplier quotes and published estimating guides sometimes provide information on maintenance
and repair costs. Some of the data estimation guides derive cost data from statistical relationships
of historical data (Means, BOMA) and report, for example, average owning and operating costs
per square foot, by age of building, geographic location, number of stories, and number of square
feet in the building. The Whitestone Research Facility Maintenance and Repair Cost Reference
gives annualized costs for building systems and elements as well as service life estimates for
specific building components. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Huntsville Division, provides
access to a customized OM&R database for military construction.

Replacement Costs

The number and timing of capital replacements of building systems depend on the estimated life
of the system and the length of the study period. Use the same sources that provide cost estimates
for initial investments to obtain estimates of replacement costs and expected useful lives. A good
starting point for estimating future replacement costs is to use their cost as of the base date. The
LCCA method will escalate base-year amounts to their future time of occurrence.

Residual Values

The residual value of a system (or component) is its remaining value at the end of the study
period, or at the time it is replaced during the study period. Residual values can be based on
value in place, resale value, salvage value, or scrap value, net of any selling, conversion, or
disposal costs. As a rule of thumb, the residual value of a system with remaining useful life in
place can be calculated by linearly prorating its initial costs. For example, for a system with an
expected useful life of 15 years, which was installed 5 years before the end of the study period,
the residual value would be approximately 2/3 (=(15-10)/15) of its initial cost.

Other Costs

Finance charges and taxes: For federal projects, finance charges are usually not relevant.
Finance charges and other payments apply, however, if a project is financed through an Energy
Savings Performance Contract (ESPC) or Utility Energy Services Contract (UESC). The finance
charges are usually included in the contract payments negotiated with the Energy Service
Company (ESCO) or the utility.
Non-monetary benefits or costs: Non-monetary benefits or costs are project-related effects for
which there is no objective way of assigning a dollar value. Examples of non-monetary effects
may be the benefit derived from a particularly quiet HVAC system or from an expected, but
hard-to-quantify productivity gain due to improved lighting. By their nature, these effects are
external to the LCCA, but if they are significant they should be considered in the final
investment decision and included in the project documentation. See Cost-Effective—Consider
Non-Monetary Benefits Such as Aesthetics, Historic Preservation, Security, and Safety.
To formalize the inclusion of non-monetary costs or benefits in your decision making, you can
use the analytical hierarchy process (AHP), which is one of a set of multi-attribute decision
analysis (MADA) methods that consider non-monetary attributes (qualitative and quantitative) in
addition to common economic evaluation measures when evaluating project alternatives.

C. Parameters for Present-Value Analysis

Discount Rate

In order to be able to add and compare cash flows that are incurred at different times during the
life cycle of a project, they have to be made time-equivalent. To make cash flows time-
equivalent, the LCC method converts them to present values by discounting them to a common
point in time, usually the base date. The interest rate used for discounting is a rate that reflects an
investor's opportunity cost of money over time, meaning that an investor wants to achieve a
return at least as high as that of her next best investment. Hence, the discount rate represents the
investor's minimum acceptable rate of return.
The discount rate for federal energy and water conservation projects is determined annually by
FEMP; for other federal projects, those not primarily concerned with energy or water
conservation, the discount rate is determined by The Office of Management Budget. These
discount rates are real discount rates, not including the general rate of inflation.

Cost Period(s)

Length of study period: The study period begins with the base date, the date to which all cash
flows are discounted. The study period includes any planning/construction/implementation
period and the service or occupancy period. The study period has to be the same for all
alternatives considered.
Service period: The service period begins when the completed building is occupied or when a
system is taken into service. This is the period over which operational costs and benefits are
evaluated. In FEMP analyses, the service period is limited to 40 years.
Contract period: The contract period in ESPC and UESC projects lies within the study period. It
starts when the project is formally accepted, energy savings begin to accrue, and contract
payments begin to be due. The contract period generally ends when the loan is paid off.

Discounting Convention

In OMB and FEMP studies, all annually recurring cash flows (e.g., operational costs) are
discounted from the end of the year in which they are incurred; in MILCON studies they are
discounted from the middle of the year. All single amounts (e.g., replacement costs, residual
values) are discounted from their dates of occurrence.

Treatment of Inflation
An LCCA can be performed in constant dollars or current dollars. Constant-dollar analyses
exclude the rate of general inflation, and current-dollar analyses include the rate of general
inflation in all dollar amounts, discount rates, and price escalation rates. Both types of
calculation result in identical present-value life-cycle costs.

Constant-dollar analysis is recommended for all federal projects, except for projects financed by
the private sector (ESPC, UESC). The constant-dollar method has the advantage of not requiring
an estimate of the rate of inflation for the years in the study period. Alternative financing studies
are usually performed in current dollars if the analyst wants to compare contract payments with
actual operational or energy cost savings from year to year.

D. Life-Cycle Cost Calculation

After identifying all costs by year and amount and discounting them to present value, they are
added to arrive at total life-cycle costs for each alternative:
LCC = I + Repl — Res + E + W + OM&R + O

LCC = Total LCC in present-value (PV) dollars of a given alternative

I = PV investment costs (if incurred at base date, they need not be discounted)
Repl = PV capital replacement costs
Res = PV residual value (resale value, salvage value) less disposal costs
E = PV of energy costs
W = PV of water costs
OM&R = PV of non-fuel operating, maintenance and repair costs
O = PV of other costs (e.g., contract costs for ESPCs or UESCs)

Q11. Explain the various techniques of economic evaluation in detail?

Sol : Economic Evaluation is the comparative analysis/evaluation of two or more interventions

in terms of their cost and consequences

 It is the evaluation or assessment of different programs based on their input given Vs

results/outcomes generated
 Economic evaluation is also known as economic appraisal
 The most fundamental/basic concept of these economic evaluations are that both the costs
and benefits of all the available options are taken into account
 However, the cost and benefit vary according to the viewpoint adopted in the analysis

Importance of Economic Evaluations:

 At present, resources are being limited while on the other hand, costs of programs are
rising in addition with more innovative and technological advancements. Thus, economic
evaluation has become a necessary and a dire need
 Economic evaluation also helps to prioritize the programs and make the best decision for
optimal resource allocation
 Economic evaluations are important tools for assessing economic feasibility and
efficiency of health interventions
Types/Methods of Economic Evaluation:

 There are major 4 different types of economic evaluation methods. They are:
o Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA)
o Cost Effective Analysis (CEA)
o Cost Utility Analysis (CUA)
o Cost Minimization Analysis (CMA)

 Each of this analysis involves systematic identification and measurement of the costs and
consequences of the interventions

1. Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA)

 In this method of evaluation, cost of the intervention is compared with the benefit
incurred from the intervention
 Both costs and benefit is measured in terms of monetary units
 The net benefit is measured as: Net benefit= Benefit – Costs
 Therefore, if the benefit exceeds the cost incurred during the intervention, the
intervention should be continued

2. Cost Minimization Analysis (CMA)

 In this method of analysis, costs of two or more interventions achieving identical

outcome is measured. The intervention incurring the lowest cost is then chosen
 It should be strictly noted that the intervention can only be conducted when the outcomes
of the comparing interventions are same

3. Cost Effective Analysis (CEA)

 In this method of analysis, cost is measured against the effectiveness of the intervention
(effectiveness is the final consequence)
 The consequences of the comparing interventions may vary here (different than cost
minimization analysis where the outcomes of interventions were identical). However,
these consequences can be expressed in common natural units like life years gained,
saved years of life etc or improvement in functional status (units of cholesterol, blood
pressure etc.)
 The limitation of this analysis is that it is difficult to compare the interventions with
differing natural effects. Eg: interventions which are focused on looking at life years
saved cannot be compared with other interventions which are focusing on improving the
physical functioning

4. Cost Utility Analysis (CUA)

 In this method of analysis, cost incurred in the intervention is measured against the
“utility” related to health
  Utility refers to the Quality Adjusted Life Years (QALY), Disability Adjusted Life Years
(DALY)
 This method is specially used when there are multiple objectives of the program and
when both quality of life and quantity of life are important to know
 It is also used to make policy level decisions

Q12. Discuss the term “Sustainable Construction” in detail?

Sol: Sustainable construction is the practice of creating a healthy environment that’s based on
ecological principles. The goal is to reduce the industry’s impact on the environment by utilizing
sustainable development practices, employing energy efficiency, and taking advantage of green
technology. Although many different business sectors are doing what they can to be more
sustainable, the construction sector is unique because it has the chance to significantly affect the
way these practices are applied. This is because of the large amounts of materials and energy that
the industry uses.

Methods
Sustainable construction isn’t just about using the newest materials; it’s also about using building
methods that enhance renewable and sustainable efforts. Some of these methods include:

 Cutting materials precisely in order to reduce waste

 Controlling waste management, such as separating and recycling waste
 Constructing green buildings
 Adaptive reuse projects that transform old buildings
 Managing construction sites to improve the environment
 Examples include treating water on-site, no smoking, recycling food containers, etc.
 Conserving Energy
 Selecting sustainable and recycled materials

Sustainable construction is developing each and every day, with more demand for cleaner and
greener spaces. As the effects of climate change increase, sustainability becomes even more
important. While there are challenges, the benefits involved with sustainable construction can
create a pathway to a cleaner future.Large construction companies aren’t the only ones that can
change their methods for the betterment of the environment. Regular people working on their
own private projects can also focus on utilizing sustainable construction methods. Whether it’s
using the right equipment, implementing value engineering to determine sustainable material
alternatives or simply doing your best to be energy efficient, anyone can help progress
sustainability efforts.

Materials used in sustainable construction

There are endless ways in which construction companies can
improve sustainability and reduce their carbon footprint, such as:

 Using renewable energy

 Using on-site water treatment plants to minimise waste
 Recycling and building with renewable or waste materials, e.g; cigarette butt bricks.
Q13. Briefly Explain the term “Construction Cost analysis and Estimating” in detail?
Sol: A construction cost analysis is an analysis performed by a construction company or its
workers to accurately identify where the company or project is using or 'spending' its money and
resources - and whether or not this money is being well spent. The purpose of a cost analysis is
to identify the parts of a project or parts of a business which are not getting good return on
investment.

While companies and workers can rely on their gut and instincts to partially inform management
and others as to how well components of projects are being managed, you will want to quantify
as much of the process as possible - and you will want to know and understand exactly what you
are trying to analyse and figure out before you go ahead and do any analysis.

Construction cost analysis is the same as almost any type of analysis in that you can cut and slice
the analysis in a number of ways. There's a couple of ways to approach cost analysis; one is to
look forward (which is more so estimating), and the other is to look back.
The other major consideration is whether you are doing a business cost analysis where you factor
in overhead and business costs, or whether you are looking at project efficiency specifically, in
which case you will focus on project delivery costs.

Many construction companies will use historic data and cost analysis to inform their estimates
and to perform detailed cost-benefit analyses for specific project and works.
For example, many companies perform formal cost-benefit analyses based on tendering, bidding
and scope of work information, whereby the company weighs the benefits against the costs
(some of these costs and benefits are direct and obvious while some are softer and more
nuanced), and decides whether to move forward.
We will leave looking forward and estimating to another day, as it's a major topic in and of itself.
A good example of a backward or historic cost analysis, which is more pertinent for us today,
would be when a construction company conducts a building construction costs analysis. Some
construction companies don't build 'buildings', and some only play a small part in a specific
phase, but it's easy and informative to look at a cost analysis in this way.
In order to perform a building construction cost analysis, the construction company will likely
break down the costs into major categories like labour, materials, supplies.
They may also look at performance in terms of functions or phases, or something else.

The company will then reconcile all of their cost data, probably compare it to what was
estimated or forecast, and then talk about and discuss what they were able to achieve by
spending that money in that area.

Q14. Give a Brief Explanation on Site waste Management with suitable example?
Sol: Waste management is a burning issue in the modern world. The avoidance and reduction of
waste is a very important part of waste management.

We can find good techniques across the globe and good illustrations can help in establishing the
new aspects of reuse and recycling. Waste management is the collection, transport, processing,
recycling, and/or disposal of waste materials produced by human activity.

Waste management reduces the effect of waste on the environment, health, and so on. It can also
help reuse or recycle resources, such as; paper, cans, glass, and so on. There is various type of
waste management that include the disposal of solid, liquid, gaseous, or hazardous substances.

There are many things that need to be taken into consideration when discussing waste
management, such as disposal methods, recycling methods, avoidance and reduction methods,
and transportation of waste. The process of waste management involves treating solid and liquid
waste. During the treatment, it also offers a variety of solutions for recycling items that aren’t
categorised as trash.

Methods of waste disposal:

Non-biodegradable and toxic wastes like radioactive remnants can potentially cause irreparable
damage to the environment and human health if not strategically disposed of. Waste disposal has
been a matter of concern, the main problem growth in population and industrialization. Here are
a few methods of waste disposal.
Landfills: Throwing daily waste/garbage in the landfills is the most popularly used method of
waste disposal used today. This process of waste disposal focuses attention on burying the waste
in the land.

Recycling: Recycling is the process of converting waste products into new products to prevent
energy usage and consumption of fresh raw materials. Recycling is to reduce energy usage,
reduce the volume of landfills, reduce air and water pollution, reduce greenhouse gas emissions,
and preserve natural resources for future use.

Composting:

Composting is an easy and natural bio-degradation process that takes organic wastes i.e. remains
of plants and garden and kitchen waste and turns into nutrient-rich food for your plants.

Incineration:

Incineration involves the combustion of waste materials. With this method, the waste material is
heated to very high temperatures and is converted into materials such as heat, gas, steam, and
ash.

Q15. How we can Reuse and Recycle the waste material?

Sol: Recycling involves the collection of used and discarded materials processing these materials
and making them into new products. It reduces the amount of waste that is thrown into the
community dustbins thereby making the environment cleaner and the air more fresh to breathe.

Surveys carried out by Government and non-government agencies in the country have all
recognized the importance of recycling wastes. However, the methodology for safe recycling of
waste has not been standardized. Studies have revealed that 7 %-15% of the waste is recycled. If
recycling is done in a proper manner, it will solve the problems of waste or garbage. At the
community level, a large number of NGOs (Non Governmental Organizations) and private sector
enterprises have taken an initiative in segregation and recycling of waste (EXNORA
International in Chennai recycles a large part of the waste that is collected). It is being used for
composting, making pellets to be used in gasifiers, etc. Plastics are sold to the factories that reuse
them.

The steps involved in the process prior to recycling include

a) Collection of waste from doorsteps, commercial places, etc.
b) Collection of waste from community dumps.
c) Collection/picking up of waste from final disposal sites.

Most of the garbage generated in the household can be recycled and reused. Organic kitchen
waste such as leftover foodstuff, vegetable peels, and spoilt or dried fruits and vegetables can be
recycled by putting them in the compost pits that have been dug in the garden. Old newspapers,
magazines and bottles can be sold to the kabadiwala the man who buys these items from homes.

In your own homes you can contribute to waste reduction and the recycling and reuse of certain
items. To cover you books you can use old calendars; old greeting cards can also be reused.
Paper can also be made at home through a very simple process and you can paint on them.

Waste recycling has some significant advantages. It

leads to less utilization of raw materials.
reduces environmental impacts arising from waste treatment and disposal.
makes the surroundings cleaner and healthier.
saves on landfill space.
saves money.
reduces the amount of energy required to manufacture new products.

Q16. Discuss the term Green building design and delivery in detail?
Sol: Green building is a whole-systems approach for designing and constructing buildings that
conserve energy, water, and material resources and are more healthy, safe, and comfortable.
Many think of solar panels when they think of “green” building. The reality is that
environmentally sustainable building goes far beyond energy consumption. Building materials
and use of landfills during construction can have detrimental effects on volunteers, home owners
and the environment.
Green building offers a response to the realization that the way we have been building everything
from houses to skyscrapers is not sustainable. Many health problems today stem from, or are
aggravated by poor indoor air quality and exposure to toxic substances contained in commonly
used building products. Green building practices can eliminate these health damaging conditions.

Benefits:

Adopting even one or two green strategies can have significant benefits for the home owner as
well as for the environment:

a. Energy efficiency is one of the primary advantages of green building. Energy consumption can
be dramatically slashed. Below are a few of the strategies that go into making a house
exceptionally energy efficient.

b. Orient the house to reduce solar gain in summer and capture the sun’s light and warmth in
winter.

c. Carefully sized overhangs or awnings will protect windows from the summer sun while
admitting the sun’s warming rays in winter when it is at a lower angle known as a ground-source
heat pump system, consumes no fossil fuels at all, and provides outstanding performance year-
round with an extraordinarily low operating cost.

d. Maximize natural light to reduce the need for electrical usage during the day

e. Compact fluorescent lights (CFL’s) are big energy savers. Incandescent bulbs are highly
inefficient, converting just 10% of the energy they use into light — the other 90% produces only
heat. GEL’s are up to six times more efficient and last up to ten times longer. Choose CFL’s with
warm color temperatures (around 2, 7000 to 3,000° Kelvin) which are indistinguishable from
incandescent lights.

f. Cut energy consumption further with clean, renewable energy from photovoltaic panels.
During periods when the panels produce more power than the house is using, the electric meter
will actually run backwards. In some locales, wind generated electricity is also an option

g. All newly built homes to produce more energy than they consumed by 2020. Renovate all
existing buildings to save energy. Ban incandescent light bulbs by 2010. Reduce green house-gas
emissions by 20% by 2020.

h. Increase renewable energy from 9% to 20-25% of total energy consumptions by 2020.

i. Bring transport emissions back to 1990 levels. Reduce vehicle speed limits by 10 kilometers
per hour. Taxes and incentives to favour clean cars. Shift half of haulage by road to rail and
water within 15 years. Develop rail and public transport.

j. Reduce air pollutants quantitatively.

k. Create a national network of green corridors and nature reserves.

l. Increase organic farming from 2% to 6% of total acreage production by 2010 and to 20% by
2020.

m. Ecological groups to be stakeholders, like trade unions, in government negotiati

Design Considerations:

The following are considered in designing green buildings:

Design an energy-efficient building:

Use high levels of insulation, high- performance windows, and tight construction. In southern
climates, choose glazing’s with low solar heat gain.

Design buildings to use renewable energy:

Passive solar heating, day lighting, and natural cooling can be incorporated cost-effectively into
most buildings. Also consider solar water heating and photovoltaic-or design buildings for future
solar installations.

Optimize material use:

Minimize waste by designing for standard ceiling heights and building dimensions. Avoid waste
from structural over-design (use optimum-value engineering/advanced framing). Simplify
building geometry. Design water-efficient, low-maintenance landscaping: Conventional lawns
have a high impact because of water use, pesticide use, and pollution generated from mowing.
Landscape with drought-resistant native plants and perennial groundcovers.

Mote it easy for occupants to recycle waste:

Make provisions for storage and processing of recyclables—recycling bins near the kitchen,
under sink compost receptacles, and the like. Look into the feasibility of gray water: Water from
sinks, showers, or clothes washers (gray water) can be recycled for irrigation in some areas. If
current codes prevent gray-water recycling, consider designing the plumbing for easy future
adaptation.

Design for durability:

To spread the environmental impacts of building over as long a period as possible, the structure
must be durable. A building with a durable style (“timeless architecture”) will be more likely to
realize a long life.

Design for future reuse and adaptability:

Make the structure datable to other uses, and choose materials and components that can be
reused or recycled.

Avoid potential health hazards—radon, mold, pesticides:

Follow recommended practices to minimize radon entry into the building and provide for future
mitigation if necessary. Provide detailing to avoid moisture problems, which could cause mold
and mild growth.

Renovate older buildings:

Conscientiously renovating existing buildings is the most sustainable construction.

Create community:

Development patterns can either inhibit or contribute to the establishment of strong communities
and neighborhoods. Creation of cohesive communities should be a high priority.

Q17. Explain the Various Design Methods of High Performance Building in detail?
Sol: Basic methods for designing high-performance building facades include:
• Orienting and developing geometry and massing of the building to respond to solar
position;
• Providing solar shading to control cooling loads and improve thermal comfort;
• Using natural ventilation to enhance air quality and reduce cooling loads;
• Minimizing energy used for artificial lighting and mechanical cooling and heating by
optimizing exterior wall insulation and the use of day lighting.

Orientation
The orientation of a building determines its exposure to sunlight. Since the angle of the earth
relative to the sun varies throughout the year and the sun moves across the sky during the day,
solar exposure on a facade is continually changing. Strategies for controlling solar heat gain
depend on the building’s orientation. As stated in the previous section, solar heat gain can
benefit buildings in colder climates during winter months. In warmer climates, on the other hand,
interior spaces need to be shaded from direct sunlight much of the year. The optimal orientation
of the building, from the perspective of solar heat gain, balances desirable solar heat gain during
winter months with solar shading during summer months. In very hot climates, solar heat gain
must be kept as low as possible during the entire year, but especially during summer months. In
cool climates, more balance is needed across the seasons. In winter months, solar exposure
should be used to passively heat the building.
Material Selection: Material selection is an important factor in designing sustainable facades.
Improving thermal performance of building envelopes and minimizing thermal bridging are
extremely important design strategies for sustainable facades. Thermal bridging within a wall
occurs where a highly conductive material, such as a metal support, penetrates the facade’s
insulation layer. This can significantly affect the thermal performance of the wall, and lower its
effective thermal resistance. Thermal bridging can occur in all types of facades. Thermally
unbroken aluminum mullions in curtain walls are highly conductive and transfer heat from the
exterior to the interior, reducing the overall thermal performance of the facade.

Heat transfer through facades: it follows a basic principle of physics: heat flows from higher
to lower temperatures. This takes place through one or more of the following processes:
• Conduction (heat flows between two facade materials in contact with each other);
• Convection (heat is conveyed by air currents within the facade);
The rate of heat transfer through the building skin depends on the difference between the
interior and exterior temperatures and the capacity of the facade to control heat flow. Factors

that influence heat flow within the facade include the overall thermal resistance, material
properties, and air leakage control. Design strategies for controlling heat flow include using a

continuous thermal barrier (insulation layer), filling air gaps between material layers to prevent

conduction, providing a continuous air barrier to prevent heat loss through air leakage, and
avoiding thermal bridging.
Thermal Comfort : Thermal comfort is defined as “that condition of mind which expresses
satisfaction with the
thermal environment” (ASHRAE, 2004). Since it is a condition of mind, comfort is inherently
based on one’s experience and perception; there are large variations in physiological and

psychological responses for different individuals (Arens et al., 2006). Six primary variables
affect

thermal comfort: air temperature, air movement, humidity, mean radiant temperature, occupants’
metabolic rate, and occupants’ clothing (Huizenga et al., 2006). While each of these variables

can be separately measured, the human body responds to them holistically.

Daylight

When considering daylight and visual comfort, designers need to consider illumination
levels, daylight distribution, and protection against direct sunlight and glare. Integration of
building systems is also important, since facades, lighting, shading elements, HVAC systems,

and building controls need to function together to have the largest effect on building

performance. For example, spaces that use natural daylight for perimeter zones and control
artificial lighting with photo-sensors and dimmers reduce the cooling loads for the HVAC
system
and, most likely, the sizes of mechanical equipment and ductwork.

Q18. Describe the Various concepts of Green and Sustainable Building in detail?
Sol: Sustainable buildings minimise energy and water consumption and are a key part of
sustainable urban development that seeks to combat climate change. From large skyscrapers to
novel museums, below we review some of the green buildings that pave the way to more
responsible urban planning. s opposed to the commuter towns that were the result of the
Industrial Revolution and the developmentalism of the 20th century, the new trends in urban
planning include the construction of eco-neighbourhoods which are urban projects that aim to
reduce the impact on the environment and change the living habits of citizens to make them more
responsible for their surroundings. The construction of buildings and other infrastructures using
sustainable technologies and materials is key to this type of initiative.
A green or sustainable building is a building that, because of its construction and features, can
maintain or improve the quality of life of the environment in which it is located. To do this, it is
essential to achieve a high level of efficiency: reducing the consumption of energy, water and
other resources minimises pollution. The LEED certificate (Leadership in Energy and
Environmental Design) is the internationally accepted official recognition that establishes
whether a building deserves to be considered sustainable. A ‘green’ building is a building that, in
its design, construction or operation, reduces or eliminates negative impacts, and can create
positive impacts, on our climate and natural environment. Green buildings preserve precious
natural resources and improve our quality of life. There are a number of features which can make
a building ‘green’. These include:
 Efficient use of energy, water and other resources
 Use of renewable energy, such as solar energy
 Pollution and waste reduction measures, and the enabling of re-use and recycling
 Good indoor environmental air quality
 Use of materials that are non-toxic, ethical and sustainable

 Consideration of the environment in design, construction and operation

 Consideration of the quality of life of occupants in design, construction and operation
 A design that enables adaptation to a changing environment
Any building can be a green building, whether it’s a home, an office, a school, a hospital, a
community centre, or any other type of structure, provided it includes features listed above.
However, it is worth noting that not all green buildings are – and need to be - the same. Different
countries and regions have a variety of characteristics such as distinctive climatic conditions,
unique cultures and traditions, diverse building types and ages, or wide-ranging environmental,
economic and social priorities – all of which shape their approach to green building.

Q19.What do you mean by Rain water Harvesting? Explain the various techniques used
for Rain water harvesting with suitable diagram?
Sol: Rainwater harvesting is the simple process or technology used to conserve Rainwater by
collecting, storing, conveying and purifying of Rainwater that runs off from rooftops, parks,
roads, open grounds, etc. for later use.

Rainwater harvesting systems consists of the following components:

 Catchment- Used to collect and store the captured Rainwater.

 Conveyance system – It is used to transport the harvested water from the catchment to the
recharge zone.
 Flush- It is used to flush out the first spell of rain.
 Filter – Used for filtering the collected Rainwater and remove pollutants.
 Tanks and the recharge structures: Used to store the filtered water which is ready to use.

The process of rainwater harvesting involves the collection and the storage of rainwater with the
help of artificially designed systems that run off naturally or man-made catchment areas like- the
rooftop, compounds, rock surface, hill slopes, artificially repaired impervious or semi-pervious
land surface.

Several factors play a vital role in the amount of water harvested. Some of these factors are:

 The quantum of runoff

 Features of the catchments
 Impact on the environment
 Availability of the technology
 The capacity of the storage tanks
 Types of the roof, its slope and its materials
 The frequency, quantity and the quality of the rainfall
 The speed and ease with which the Rainwater penetrates through the subsoil to recharge
the groundwater.
Advantages of Rainwater Harvesting
The benefits of rainwater harvesting system are listed below.

 Less cost.
 Helps in reducing the water bill.
 Decreases the demand for water.
 Reduces the need for imported water.
 Promotes both water and energy conservation.
 Improves the quality and quantity of groundwater.
 Does not require a filtration system for landscape irrigation.
 This technology is relatively simple, easy to install and operate.
  It reduces soil erosion, stormwater runoff, flooding, and pollution of surface water with
fertilizers, pesticides, metals and other sediments.
 It is an excellent source of water for landscape irrigation with no chemicals and dissolved
salts and free from all minerals.

Disadvantages of Rainwater Harvesting

In addition to the great advantages, the rainwater harvesting system has a few disadvantages like
unpredictable rainfall, unavailability of the proper storage system, etc.
Listed below are few more disadvantages of the rainwater harvesting process.

 Regular Maintenance is required.

 Requires some technical skills for installation.
 Limited and no rainfall can limit the supply of Rainwater.
 If not installed correctly, it may attract mosquitoes and other waterborne diseases.
 One of the significant drawbacks of the rainwater harvesting system is storage limits.

Methods of Rainwater Harvesting

1. Surface Runoff Harvesting
In urban areas, rainwater flows away as surface runoff. This runoff can be caught and used for
recharging aquifers by adopting appropriate methods.

2. Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting

It is a system of catching rainwater where it falls. In rooftop harvesting, the roof becomes the
catchment, and the rainwater is collected from the roof of the house/building.
It can either be stored in a tank or diverted to an artificial recharge system. This method is less
expensive and very useful and, if implemented correctly, helps in augmenting the groundwater
level of the area.
Components of the Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting
The illustrative design of the essential components of the rooftop rainwater harvesting system is
given in the typical schematic diagram shown in Fig 1. The system mainly constitutes of
following sub-components:

Catchment
The surface that receives rainfall directly is the catchment of rainwater harvesting system. It may
be a terrace, courtyard, or paved or unpaved open ground.
The terrace may be a flat RCC/stone roof or sloping roof. Therefore the catchment is the area,
which actually contributes rainwater to the harvesting system.

Transportation
Rainwater from the rooftop should be carried through down to take water pipes or drains to the
storage/harvesting system. Water pipes should be UV resistant (ISI HDPE/PVC pipes) of the
required capacity.
Water from sloping roofs could be caught through gutters and down take the pipe. At terraces,
the mouth of each drain should have wire mesh to restrict floating material.

First Flush
The first flush is a device used to flush off the water received in the first shower. The first
shower of rains needs to be flushed-off to avoid contaminating storable/rechargeable water by
the probable contaminants of the atmosphere and the catchment roof.
It will also help in cleaning of silt and other material deposited on the roof during dry seasons.
Provisions of first rain separators should be made at the outlet of each drainpipe.

Filter
There is always some skepticism regarding Roof Top Rainwater Harvesting since doubts are
raised that rainwater may contaminate groundwater. There is a remote possibility of this fear
coming true if the proper filter mechanism is not adopted.
Secondly, all care must be taken to see that underground sewer drains are not punctured, and no
leakage is taking place in close vicinity.
Filters are used for the treatment of water to effectively remove turbidity, color, and
microorganisms. After the first flushing of rainfall, water should pass through filters.
A gravel, sand, and ‘netlon’ mesh filter is designed and placed on top of the storage tank. This
filter is very important in keeping the rainwater in the storage tank clean. It removes silt, dust,
leaves, and other organic matter from entering the storage tank.
The filter media should be cleaned daily after every rainfall event. Clogged filters prevent
rainwater from easily entering the storage tank and the filter may overflow

Methods of Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting

Various methods of using roof top rainwater harvesting are illustrated in this section.

1. Storage of Direct Use

In this method, rainwater collected from the roof of the building is diverted to a storage tank. The
storage tank has to be designed according to the water requirements, rainfall, and catchment
availability.
Each drainpipe should have a mesh filter at the mouth and first flush device followed by a
filtration system before connecting to the storage tank. Each tank should have an excess water
overflow system.
Excess water could be diverted to the recharge system. Water from storage tanks can be used for
secondary purposes such as washing and gardening etc. This is the most cost-effective way of
rainwater harvesting.
The main advantage of collecting and using rainwater during the rainy season is not only to save
water from conventional sources but also to save energy incurred on transportation and
distribution of water at the doorstep. This also conserves groundwater, if it is being extracted to
meet the demand when rains are on.
2. Recharging Groundwater Aquifers
Groundwater aquifers can be recharged by various kinds of structures to ensure the percolation
of rainwater in the ground instead of draining away from the surface. Commonly used recharging
methods are:-

 Recharging of bore wells

 Recharging of dug wells.
 Recharge pits
 Recharge Trenches
 Soakaways or Recharge Shafts
 Percolation Tanks

3. Recharging of Bore Wells

Rainwater collected from the rooftop of the building is diverted through drainpipes to settlement
or filtration tank. After settlement, filtered water is diverted to bore wells to recharge deep
aquifers. Abandoned bore wells can also be used for recharge.
Optimum capacity of the settlement tank/filtration tank can be designed based on the area of
catchment, intensity of rainfall, and recharge rate. While recharging, entry of floating matter and
silt should be restricted because it may clog the recharge structure.
The first one or two showers should be flushed out through rain separator to avoid
contamination.

Soakway or Recharge Shafts

Soak away, or recharge shafts are provided where the upper layer of soil is alluvial or less
porous. These are the bored hole of 30 cm dia. up to 10 to 15 m deep, depending on the depth
of the pervious layer. Bore should be lined with slotted/perforated PVC/MS pipe to prevent the
collapse of the vertical sides.
At the top of the soakaway, the required size sump is constructed to retain runoff before the
filters through the soakaway. Sump should be filled with filter media

Recharging of Dug Wells

Dug wells can be used as a recharge structure. Rainwater from the rooftop is diverted to drilled
wells after passing it through the filtration bed. Cleaning and desalting of dug well should be
done regularly to enhance the recharge rate. The filtration method suggested for bore well
recharging could be used. Fig 9 shows a schematic diagram of recharging into dug well.

Recharge Trenches
The recharge trench is provided where upper impervious layer of soil is shallow. The recharge
trench excavated on the ground and refilled with porous media like pebbles, boulders, or
brickbats. It is usually made for harvesting the surface runoff.
Bore-wells can also be provided inside the trench as recharge shafts to enhance percolation. The
length of the trench is decided as per the amount of runoff expected.
This method is suitable for small houses, playgrounds, parks, and roadside drains. The recharge
trench can be of size 0.50 to 1.0 m wide and 1.0 to 1.5 m deep. Fig. 10 presents a schematic
diagram of recharging to trenches.

Percolation Tank
Percolation tanks are artificially created surface water bodies, submerging a land area with
adequate permeability to facilitate sufficient percolation to recharge the groundwater. These can
be built on big campuses where land is available, and topography is suitable.
Surface runoff and roof topwater can be diverted to this tank. Water accumulating in the tank
percolates in the solid to augment the groundwater.
The stored water can be used directly for gardening and raw use. Percolation tanks should be
built in gardens, open spaces, and roadside greenbelts of urban areas.

Q20. Describe the term “Sustainable Waste Management” in detail?

Sol: Sustainable waste management refers to the collection, transportation, valorization and
disposal of the various types of waste, in a manner that does not jeopardize the environment,
human health or future generations. It includes any activity involved in the organization of waste
management, from production to the final treatment. It is important to note that there are various
types of wastes, such as municipal, which includes household, commercial and demolition waste;
electronic or e-waste, which includes computer parts; and radioactive waste, among many other
forms of waste. The goal of sustainable waste management is to reduce the amounts of natural
resources consumed, reusing the materials taken from nature as much as it is possible, and
creating as minimal waste as possible. It is our responsibility to maintain sustainability for the
benefit of our environment as well as future generations. A well-functioning sustainable waste
management system, should incorporate feedback loops, focus on processes, embody
adaptability and divert wastes from the disposal.
Sustainable waste management is a key concept of the circular economy and offers many
opportunities and benefits to both the economy, the society and the environment. Sustainable
waste management involves collecting, sorting, treating, recycling, and when properly facilitated
providing a source of energy and resources. It, therefore, creates jobs, improves waste
management methods, and lessens the impact of human activities on the environment, thereby,
improving the air and water quality. It also reduces food wastage, keeps heavy environmental
costs at bay, and prevents some human health conditions, thereby improving the overall human
life.