Subject : MATHEMATICS

Paper 1 : ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

Chapter 7 : Factorizations in Integral Domains

Module 5 : The ring of Gaussian integers

Anjan Kumar Bhuniya

Department of Mathematics
Visva-Bharati; Santiniketan
West Bengal

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 The ring of Gaussian integers

Learning Objectives: 1. Z[i] is an Euclidean domain.

2. Division Algorithm in Z[i].
3. Finding gcd in Z[i].
4. Irreducible elements of Z[i].
Gauss introduced the complex numbers of the form a+ib which are now known as the Gaussian
integers. The collection Z[i] = {a + ib | a, b ∈ Z} of all Gaussian integers is a subring of C and
hence an integral domain. Also note that Z[i] contains Z as a subring. Our goal in this module
is to generalize different fundamental properties of Z like division algorithm, greatest common
divisors, prime integers, fundamental theorem of arithmetic etc. to Z[i]. Here we consider the ring
Z[i] of all Gaussian integers as a model, to discuss computation of gcd, characterization of prime
and irreducible elements and expressing every nonzero nonunit element as a product of irreducible
elements, in an integral domain other than Z. As we can expect, it is the fact that though the basic
ideas are the same, often the techniques are different.
Theorem 0.1. The ring Z[i] = {a + ib | a, b ∈ Z} of Gaussian integers is a Euclidean domain.
Proof. Define v : Z[i] −→ Z] by:

v(a + ib) = a2 + b2 for every a + ib ∈ Z[i].

Note that if α = a + ib then

v(α) = αα, where α = a − ib.
It follows that for every α, β ∈ Z[i],

v(αβ) = αβαβ = ααββ = v(α)v(β)

and hence if β 6= 0, then v(β) ≥ 1 and v(αβ) = v(α)v(β) ≥ v(α).

To show that v satisfies Division Algorithm, let α, β ∈ Z[i] with β 6= 0. Considering α, β as
elements of C and rationalizing the denominator, it follows that
α
= r + is, where r, s ∈ Q.
β
1
Choose integers a, b such that |r − a| ≤ 2
and |s − b| ≤ 21 . Then

α = β(r + is)
= β(a + ib) + β((r − a) + i(s − b))
= βγ + δ

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where γ = a + ib and δ = β((r − a) + i(s − b)). Since a, b ∈ Z, so γ ∈ Z[i] and δ = α − βγ ∈ Z[i].
Finally, we have
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v(δ) = v(β)((r − a)2 + (s − b)2 ) ≤ v(β) < v(β).
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It follows immediately that:

Theorem 0.2. The ring Z[i] of Gaussian integers is a PID.

Hence gcd of any two nonzero elements exists in Z[i]. In a PID, every associate of a gcd is also
a gcd. So let us first characterize the units in Z[i].

Theorem 0.3. 1, −1, i, −i are the only units in Z[i].

Proof. Suppose that a + ib is a unit in Z[i]. Then there is c + id ∈ Z[i] such that (a + ib)(c + id) = 1.
It follows that (a2 + b2 )(c2 + d2 ) = 1. Hence a2 + b2 = 1 and so a = ±1, b = 0 or a = 0, b = ±1.
Thus 1, −1, i, −i are the only units in Z[i].

Example 0.4. In Z[i], we find a greatest common divisors of 9 + 5i and 5 + i by the Euclidean
Algorithm. Now v(9 + 5i) = 106 and v(5 + i) = 26 and we have 9+5i 5+i
= (9+5i)(5−i)
26
= 50
26
16
+ 26 i=
2 10 2 10
(2+i)−( 26 + 26 i) which implies that 9+5i = (5+i)(2+i)−( 26 + 26 i)(5+i) = (5+i)(2+i)+(0−2i),
where v(0 − 2i) < v(5 + i).
Again we have −2i5+i
= i(5+i)
2
= − 12 + 25 i = (−1 + 2i) + ( 12 + 12 i) which implies that 5 + i =
(−2i)(−1 + 2i) + (1 − i), where v(1 − i) < v(−2i).
−2i
Finally, we have 1−i = −2i(1+i)
2
= 1 − i which implies that −2i = (1 − i)(1 − i) + 0.
Hence, 1 − i is a greatest common divisor of 9 + 5i and 5 + i. Since Z[i] is an integral domain,
so any gcd(9+5i, 5+i) is an associate of 1−i. In Z[i], there are only four units, namely 1, −1, i, −i.
Hence 1 − i, −1 + i, 1 + i and −1 − i are all gcds of 9 + 5i and 5 + i.

Since Z[i] is a principal ideal domain, so an element a + ib in Z[i] is a prime element if and
only if it is irreducible. Now we characterize the irreducible elements of Z[i].

Lemma 0.5. Let a + ib ∈ Z[i]. If a2 + b2 is a prime number, then a + ib is an irreducible element

in Z[i].

Proof. Suppose a + ib = (x + iy)(s + it). Then (x2 + y 2 )(s2 + t2 ) = a2 + b2 which implies that
x2 + y 2 = 1 or s2 + t2 = 1, since a2 + b2 is a prime integer. It follows that either x + iy is a unit or
s + it is a unit. Therefore a + ib is an irreducible element.

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 The converse of this result does not hold. For example, consider α = 3i. We show that it is a
prime element in Z[i], but v(α) = 32 is not a prime integer. Let a + ib, c + id ∈ Z[i] be such that

3i = (a + ib)(c + id)
⇒ (a2 + b2 )(c2 + d2 ) = 9
⇒ a2 + b2 = 1 or c2 + d2 = 1 [since a2 + b2 6= 3]
⇒ a + ib is a unit or c + id is a unit.

Thus α is irreducible.
We conclude this module with a complete characterization of irreducible elements in Z[i]. For
this we need following three lemmas, one of which is the famous Fermat’s Two-squares Theorem.
In the year 1640, Fermat stated this theorem without proof. Euler in the year 1755 first published
a proof of this theorem. Here we give a proof of this number theoretic result as an application of
the properties of Z[i].

Lemma 0.6. If p = 4n + 1 is a prime number, then there exists an integer m such that p | m2 + 1.

Lemma 0.7 (Fermat’s Two-squares Theorem). Let p be an odd prime. Then p = a2 + b2 for some
a, b ∈ Z if and only if p ≡ 1(mod p).

Proof. First we assume that p = a2 + b2 for some a, b ∈ Z. Since p is a odd prime, if either of a and
b is odd other must be even and conversely. Suppose that a = 2m + 1 and b = 2n. Then

p = a2 + b2 = 4m2 + 4m + 1 + 4n2 = 4(m2 + m + n2 ) + 1

implies that p ≡ 1(mod 4).

Conversely, assume that p ≡ 1(mod 4). Then there is m ∈ Z such that m2 ≡ −1(mod p), and
so p | m2 + 1 = (m + i)(m − i). If p | m + i, then m + i = p(c + id) which leads to the contradiction
pd = 1. Hence p - m + i. Similarly p - m − i. Therefore p is not a prime element in Z[i]. Since Z[i]
is a PID, irreducible elements and prime elements of Z[i] are the same. It follows that p is not an
irreducible element of Z[i], and hence there are α = a + ib, β = c + id ∈ Z[i] neither of which is a
unit such that p = αβ. Then p2 = (a2 + b2 )(c2 + d2 ). Since both α and β are nonunits, a2 + b2 > 1
and c2 + d2 > 1. Thus the only possibility is a2 + b2 = p.

Lemma 0.8. If α ∈ Z[i] is irreducible, then there is a unique prime number p such that α | p in
Z[i].

Proof. First note that v(α) > 1, since α is a nonunit. Then, by the Fundamental Theorem of
Arithmetic, αᾱ = v(α) = p1 p2 · · · pn where the pi , i = 1, 2, · · · , n are the prime numbers. Thus
α | p1 p2 · · · pn . Since Z[i] is a Euclidean domain and α is a prime element, so α | pi for some prime
number pi . If q 6= pi is a prime number such that α | q, then gcd(pi , q) = 1 implies that α | 1 which
contradicts that α is a nonunit. Thus the result follows.

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Theorem 0.9. Let α = a + ib ∈ Z[i] be a nonzero nonunit element. Then α is irreducible if and
only if it satisfies either of the following three conditions:

1. α = 1 + i, 1 − i, −1 + i or −1 − i;

2. α = up where u is a unit in Z[i] and p is a prime number of the form 4n + 3;

3. v(α) is a prime number of the form 4n + 1.

Proof. Let p be the unique prime number such that α | p. Then p = αβ for some β ∈ Z[i] which
implies that v(α)v(β) = p2 . So it follows that

a2 + b2 = p or a2 + b2 = p2 .

Since p is a prime number, p 6≡ 0(mod 4). Hence we have the following three cases:

(i) p ≡ 1(mod 4): In this case p is of the form 4n+1. Since v(α) = p or v(α) = p2 , so it is sufficient
to show that v(α) 6= p2 . On the contrary, assume that v(α) = p2 . Then v(α)v(β) = p2 implies
that v(β) = 1. Thus it follows that β = 1, −1, i or −i. Now αᾱ = p2 = (αβ)2 implies that
ᾱ = αβ 2 = ±α. This contradiction shows that v(α) 6= p2 and so a2 + b2 = p.

(ii) p ≡ 2(mod 4): In this case the only value of p is 2, and so

a2 + b2 = 2 or a2 + b2 = 4.

Since a, b ∈ Z, the later case can not occur. Thus a2 + b2 = 2 which implies that a = ±1 and
b = ±1. hence α = 1 + i, 1 − i, −1 + i or −1 − i.

(iii) p ≡ 3(mod 4): Then, by the Fermat’s Two-squares Theorem, a2 + b2 = p can not occur, and
so v(α) = p2 . Then v(α)v(β) = p2 implies that v(β) = 1 forcing β to be a unit in Z[i]. Thus
α = pu where u is a unit.

For the converse, first assume that α = up where u is a unit in Z[i] and p is a prime number of
the form 4n + 3. Let α = βγ where β, γ ∈ Z[i]. Then v(α) = v(β)v(γ) implies that v(β)v(γ) = p2 .
Since p ≡ 3(mod 4), it follows by the Fermat’s Two-squares Theorem that v(β) 6= p and v(γ) 6= p.
Thus either v(β) = 1 or v(γ) = 1, equivalently either β is a unit or γ is a unit. Hence α is irreducible.
For the other two cases, v(α) is prime and hence α is irreducible by Lemma 0.5.

1 Summary
• The ring Z[i] = {a + ib | a, b ∈ Z} of Gaussian integers is a Euclidean domain with the
valuation v : Z[i] −→ Z] defined by:

v(a + ib) = a2 + b2 for every a + ib ∈ Z[i].

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• The ring Z[i] of Gaussian integers is a PID.

• 1, −1, i, −i are the only units in Z[i].

• If a2 + b2 is a prime number, then a + ib is an irreducible element in Z[i].

• The converse of this result does not hold. For example, consider α = 3i which is a prime
element in Z[i], but v(α) = 32 is not a prime integer.

• Let α = a + ib ∈ Z[i] be a nonzero nonunit element. Then α is irreducible if and only if it

satisfies either of the following three conditions:

(i) α = 1 + i, 1 − i, −1 + i or −1 − i;
(ii) α = up where u is a unit in Z[i] and p is a prime number of the form 4n + 3;
(iii) v(α) is a prime number of the form 4n + 1.