COLLEGE OF HEALTH SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY,

WAMBA, NASARAWA STATE

DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNITY HEALTH

COURSE TITLE: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

COURSE CODE: CHEW 231

PRESENTED BY

PAM LINDA DAVID

COHSTEW/CHEW/024/0019

MARCH, 2024
 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

[1] EXPLAIN IN DETAILS THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

THE FOLLOWING GLANDS
c) Pineal gland
d) Thymus gland
e) Placenta

a) Pineal Gland:
- Anatomy: The pineal gland is a small, pea-shaped gland located deep in
the brain, between the two hemispheres. It is part of the endocrine
system.
- Physiology: The pineal gland primarily produces and secretes the
hormone melatonin. Melatonin helps regulate sleep-wake cycles
(circadian rhythms) and is involved in seasonal rhythms. The secretion of
melatonin is stimulated by darkness and inhibited by light. The pineal
gland also has some roles in sexual development and maturation,
although its exact functions in these areas are still being studied.
b) Thymus Gland:
- Anatomy: The thymus gland is located in the upper part of the chest,
behind the breastbone and in front of the heart. It is relatively large in
infants and children but gradually shrinks in size as a person ages.
- Physiology: The thymus gland plays a crucial role in the immune system,
particularly in the development and maturation of T-lymphocytes (T-
cells), which are important for immune response. The thymus gland
produces hormones like thymosin, which helps stimulate the development
of T-cells from precursor cells in the bone marrow. T-cells are essential
for recognizing and fighting infections and cancer cells.
c) Placenta:
- Anatomy: The placenta is a temporary organ that develops in the uterus
during pregnancy. It is connected to the fetus by the umbilical cord and to
the uterine wall by numerous blood vessels.
- Physiology: The placenta plays several crucial roles during pregnancy. It
provides oxygen and nutrients to the fetus, removes waste products from
the fetal blood, and produces hormones that help maintain the pregnancy.
These hormones include human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), which
helps sustain the early pregnancy, and estrogen and progesterone, which
help regulate the menstrual cycle and support the growth of the fetus. The

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 placenta also acts as a barrier, protecting the fetus from potentially
harmful substances in the mother's blood.

[2] EXPLAIN THE MECHANISM OF HORMONE ACTION

The mechanism of hormone action can vary depending on the type of hormone
(e.g., peptide hormones, steroid hormones) and the target cells they act upon.
However, a general overview of hormone action involves the following steps:
1. Hormone Secretion: Hormones are secreted by endocrine glands into the
bloodstream in response to specific signals, such as changes in blood
levels of certain substances or nervous system signals.

2. Circulation: Once in the bloodstream, hormones travel to target cells or

tissues throughout the body. Hormones can act on cells near the site of
secretion (paracrine signaling) or on distant cells (endocrine signaling).

3. Recognition by Target Cells: Hormones exert their effects by binding to

specific receptors on the surface of target cells or inside the cells. These
receptors are proteins that are specific to particular hormones.

4. Initiation of Signal Transduction: Binding of a hormone to its receptor

initiates a series of intracellular events known as signal transduction. This
process converts the hormonal signal into a cellular response.

5. Cellular Response: The signal transduction pathway ultimately leads to

a cellular response, which can include changes in gene expression,
alterations in enzyme activity, or modifications in cell function.

6. Feedback Mechanisms: Hormone action is often regulated by feedback

mechanisms. For example, when hormone levels reach a certain
threshold, the production of that hormone may be inhibited to maintain
homeostasis.

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 The mechanism of hormone action can also involve different types of
hormones:
1. Peptide Hormones: Peptide hormones typically bind to cell surface
receptors, which then activate intracellular signaling pathways. These
pathways can involve second messenger molecules such as cyclic AMP
(cAMP) or calcium ions (Ca2+).

2. Steroid Hormones: Steroid hormones are lipid-soluble and can diffuse

across cell membranes. Once inside the cell, they bind to intracellular
receptors in the cytoplasm or nucleus. The hormone-receptor complex
then acts as a transcription factor, regulating gene expression and protein
synthesis.

3. Amino Acid-Derived Hormones: Hormones derived from amino acids,

such as thyroid hormones and catecholamines (e.g., adrenaline), can act
through various mechanisms, including binding to cell surface receptors
or intracellular receptors.

[3] DISCUSS OF THE FOLLOWING HORMONES UNDER THE

FOLLOWING HEADINGS
i. Source
ii. Target organs/Tissues
iii. Principal effects

a) Melatonin:
- Source: Produced by the pineal gland in the brain.
- Target Organs/Tissues: Acts on the brain, particularly the
hypothalamus, to regulate the sleep-wake cycle.
- Principal Effects: Regulates the circadian rhythm, promoting sleepiness
and influencing seasonal biological rhythms.

b) Thymosin:
- Source: Produced by the thymus gland.
- Target Organs/Tissues: Acts on lymphoid cells and plays a role in the
development and function of T lymphocytes.
- Principal Effects: Helps in the maturation of T cells, which are
important for the immune response.

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 c) Dihydroepiandrosterone (DHEA):
- Source: Produced by the adrenal glands.
- Target Organs/Tissues: Has effects on various tissues, including the
brain and reproductive tissues.
- Principal Effects: Functions as a precursor to sex hormones like
testosterone and estrogen, and may have roles in mood regulation and
energy levels.

d) Somatostatin:
- Source: Produced by various tissues, including the hypothalamus and
pancreas.
- Target Organs/Tissues: Acts on the pituitary gland and pancreas to
inhibit the release of growth hormone and insulin, respectively.
- Principal Effects: Inhibits the release of several hormones, including
growth hormone and insulin.

e) Pancreatic Polypeptide:
- Source: Produced by pancreatic islet cells (specifically F cells).
- Target Organs/Tissues: Acts on the pancreas and digestive system.
- Principal Effects: Regulates pancreatic secretion and may play a role in
appetite regulation.

f) Inhibin:
- Source: Produced by the ovaries (in females) and testes (in males).
- Target Organs/Tissues: Acts on the pituitary gland to inhibit the release
of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).
- Principal Effects: Inhibits FSH secretion, which helps regulate the
menstrual cycle in females and sperm production in males.

g) Cholecalciferol (Vitamin D3):

- Source: Produced in the skin in response to sunlight exposure and
obtained from dietary sources.
- Target Organs/Tissues: Acts on the intestines, bones, and kidneys.
- Principal Effects: Promotes calcium absorption in the intestines,
regulates calcium and phosphorus levels in the blood, and supports bone
health.

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 h) Calcidiol (25-hydroxyvitamin D):
- Source: Formed in the liver from cholecalciferol.
- Target Organs/Tissues: Acts on the kidneys.
- Principal Effects: Further metabolized to calcitriol, the active form of
vitamin D, which helps regulate calcium and phosphorus metabolism.

i) Angiotensinogen:
- Source: Produced by the liver.
- Target Organs/Tissues: Acts on the kidneys.
- Principal Effects: Converted into angiotensin I, which is further
converted to angiotensin II, a potent vasoconstrictor that helps regulate
blood pressure.

j) Erythropoietin:
- Source: Produced by the kidneys (and to a lesser extent, the liver).
- Target Organs/Tissues: Acts on the bone marrow.
- Principal Effects: Stimulates the production of red blood cells
(erythropoiesis) in response to low oxygen levels in the blood.

k) Hepcidin:
- Source: Produced by the liver.
- Target Organs/Tissues: Acts on the intestines and macrophages.
- Principal Effects: Regulates iron absorption in the intestines and iron
release from macrophages, helping maintain iron homeostasis.

l) (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D):
- Source: Formed in the kidneys from calcidiol.
- Target Organs/Tissues: Acts on the intestines, bones, and kidneys.
- Principal Effects: Increases calcium and phosphorus absorption in the
intestines, promotes bone mineralization, and regulates calcium and
phosphorus levels in the blood.

m) Cholecystokinin (CCK):
- Source: Produced by cells in the small intestine.
- Target Organs/Tissues: Acts on the gallbladder, pancreas, and brain.

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 - Principal Effects: Stimulates the release of bile from the gallbladder and
digestive enzymes from the pancreas, and may also play a role in appetite
regulation.

n) Ghrelin:
- Source: Produced by cells in the stomach.
- Target Organs/Tissues: Acts on the hypothalamus and pituitary gland.
- Principal Effects: Stimulates appetite and promotes the release of
growth hormone.

o) Leptin:
- Source: Produced by adipose (fat) tissue.
- Target Organs/Tissues: Acts on the hypothalamus.
- Principal Effects: Regulates energy balance by suppressing appetite and
increasing energy expenditure.

p) Osteocalcin:
- Source: Produced by osteoblasts (cells that build bone).
- Target Organs/Tissues: Acts on bone tissue and other organs.
- Principal Effects: Plays a role in bone mineralization and may also
influence energy metabolism and insulin secretion.

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