Week 1, Module 1

Introduction to Analytical Chemistry

Analytical Chemistry has evolved dramatically over the past few decades, from the
traditional notion held for centuries to that of a modern, active discipline of Chemistry.
Changes have revolved mainly around new ways of describing the discipline, and its aims
and objectives, a broader notion of real basic references, the definition of the results of
research and development activities and a holistic approach to analytical properties.
The following are the objectives:
1. Discuss the role of analytical Chemistry in the different of science
2. Discuss the importance of Analytical Chemistry in the advancement of science and
technology.
WHAT IS ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY?
Analytical Chemistry – is a measurement science consisting of a set of powerful ideas
and methods that are useful in all fields of science and medicine. Analytical chemistry
answer and questions “What is it?” and “How much is it?.” This means that is deals with
both qualitative and quantitative information in an analysis.
Qualitative analysis – establishes the chemical identity of the species in the sample.
Quantitative analysis – determines the relative amounts of these species, or the analytes,
in numerical terms.
Analytes – are the components of a sample that are to be determined.
Application of Analytical Chemistry using Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis
a. The concentrations of oxygen and carbon dioxide are determined in millions of
blood samples every day and used to diagnose treat illnesses.
b. Quantities of hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and carbon monoxide present in
automobile exhaust gases are measured to determine the effectiveness of smog-
control devices.
c. Quantitative determination of nitrogen of foods establishes their protein content
and thus their nutritional values.
THE ROLE OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
In 1894, Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald stated that, “Analytical chemistry, or the art of
recognizing different substances and determining their constituents, takes a prominent
position among the applications of science, since the questions which it enables us to
answer arise wherever the chemical processes are employed.”
Figure 1. The relationship between analytical chemistry, other branches of chemistry, and
the other sciences. The central location of analytical chemistry signifies its importance
and the breadth of its interactions with many other disciplines.

Chemistry
Biochemistry
Organic and
Biology Inorganic
Physics
Botany Chemistry
Astrophysics
Genetics
Astronomy
Microbiology
Biophysics
Molecular Biology
Zoology

Engineering
Geology
Geophysics Civil
Paleontology
Mechanical
Paleobiology
Electrical

Analytical
Chemistry

Environmental Medicine
Sciences Clinical
Ecology Medicinal
Meteorology Pharmacy
Oceanology Toxicology

Material
Agriculture Crop Science
and Animal Science
Mettalurgy
Food Science
Soil Science Polymers
Solid Science
Solid State
Archaelogy
Anthropology
Forensics
CLASSIFYING QUNATITATIVE ANALYTICAL METHODS
Calculating the results of typical quantitative analysis:
a. Mass or the volume of the sample to be analyzed
b. Measurement of some quantity that is proportional to the amount of the amalyte in
the sample.
ANALYTICAL METHODS
1. Gravimetric methods – determine the mass of the analyte or some compound
chemically related to it.
2. Volumetric method – the volume of solution containing sufficient reagent to react
completely with analyte is measured.
3. Electroanalytical methods – involve the measurement of such electrical properties
as voltage, current, resistance, and quantity of electrical charges.
4. Spectroscopic method – based on measurement of the interaction between
electromagnetic radiation by analytes.
There are many other groups of miscellaneous methods that includes the
measurement of such quantities as mass-to-charge ratio of molecules by mass
spectrometry, rate of radioactive decay, heat of reaction, rate of reaction, sample
thermal conductivity, optical activity, and refractive index.
STEPPING THROUGH A TYPICAL QUATITATIVE ANALYSIS
1. Picking a method
2. Acquiring the sample
3. Processing the sample
a. Preparing a laboratory sample
b. Defining replicate samples
4. Eliminating inferences
5. Calibration and measurements
6. Calculating the result
7. Evaluating the results by estimating their reliability
 Figure 2. Flow diagram showing the steps in a quantitative analysis. There are number
of possible paths through the steps in quantitative analysis. Depending on the
complexity of the sample and the chosen method, various other way may be
necessary.

Select Method

Acquire sample

Process sample

Is the sample No Carry out chemical

soluble? dissolution

Change chemical No Measurable

form property?

Yes

Eliminate inferences

Measure property

Calculate results

Estimate reliability
of results
1. Picking a method. Method to be used is the most critical aspect of quantitative
analysis. One of the questions to be considered in the selection process is the level
of accuracy required. Another factor to be considered is the number of samples to
be analyzed.
Remember: The complexity of the sample and the number of the components in
the sample always influence the choice of method to some degree.
2. Acquiring the sample. When acquiring a sample, an analysis must be performed
on a sample whose composition truthfully represents that of bulk of materials from
which it was taken.
During this process it is important to consider the materials, assay, and the
analyzation process.
A material is heterogenous if its An assay is the process of determining
constituent parts can be distinguished how much of a given sample is the
visually or with the aid of microscope. materials indicated by its name. for
Coal, animal tissue, and soil are example, a zinc ally is assayed for its zinc
heterogenous materials. content, and its assay is a particular
numerical value.

We analyze samples and we determine substances. For example, a blood sample is

analyzed to determine the concentrations of various substances such as blood gases
and glucose. We therefore speak of the determination of blood gases or glucose, not
the analysis of blood gases or glucose.

Example:
A railroad car containing 25 tons of silver ore. Buyer and seller must agree on a
price, which will be based primarily on the silver content of the shipment.

Materials: The ore itself is inherently heterogenous, consisting of many lumps that
vary in size as well as in silver content.
Assay: Assay must be done in shipment and must be performed on a sample that
weighs in gram and must be done using sampling.
Analysis: In order to achieve significance, this small sample must have a
composition that is representative of the 25 tons or approximately 22,700,000 g of
ore in shipment.

Sampling involves obtaining a small mass of a materials whose composition

accurately represents the bulk of the material being sampled.

3. Processing the sample. The third step in an analysis is to process the sample.
We need first to prepare the laboratory sample may it be solid or liquid sample and
try them before the analysis.
For solid laboratory samples, we must consider the storing period, particle size,
and the time to be consumed before the analysis.
 For liquid samples, it must be allowed to stand in open containers, the solvent may
evaporate and change the concentration of analytes. If an analyte is a gas
dissolved in a liquid, the sample must be kept inside a second sealed container.

Quantitative measurement requires average of the replicates. Replicate sample

are the portions of a material of approximately the same size that are carried
through analytical procedure at the same time and in the same way.
4. Eliminating interferences. Interference is a species that causes an error in an
analysis by enhancing or attenuating the quantity being measured. Techniques or
reactions that work for only one analyte are said to be specific. Techniques or
reactions that apply for only a few analytes are selective.
The matrix, or the sample matrix is all of the components in the sample obtaining
analytes.
5. Calibration and measurement. All analytical results depend on the final
measurement of X. The property must vary in a known and reproducible way with
the concentration (𝑐𝐴) of the analyte. Ideally, the measurement of the property is
directly proportional to the concentration. That is,

𝑐𝐴 = 𝑘𝑋

where:
k – is the proportionality constant

With two exceptions, analytical methods require the empirical determination of k

with chemical standard for which 𝑐𝐴 is known. The process of determining k is thus
an important step in most analysis and is coined as calibration.

6. Calculating results. Calculating results such as the means, weighted mean,

errors, sample errors, and data analyses can now be determined using the excel.
7. Evaluating results by estimating their reliability.

In Analytical chemistry, AN ANALYTICAL RESULT WITHOUT ESTIMATE OF

RELIABILITY IS OF NO VALUE.