: was working, Roentgen wrapped the cathode aued. Roentgen attributed this to some ining a Visible light. But the fluorescence ofthe crystals ‘ese invisible tays as X-rays. It is now known th: gth. Typical X- ray wavelengths lie between 1 a ENERGY OF X-RAYS yo le rays coming from the cathode ray tube. He named X-rays are electromagnetic wai f Xray ag agnetic waves of very short wave -rays are electromagnetic waves which travel with a 5 i fs peed of 3 x 10° m/s in vaccum. Accor: toquantum theory a wave of wave length A consists of photons. The energy of each photon is = h B= (18) “where h is the planck’s constant Foran X-ray of wavelength of 100 A the energy of photon is ; = 6:6 x 10™™ x 3.x 108 100 x 107 . E=1-98x 107175 -17 = 1:98 X10 py = 12x 10 eV 1-6 x 10°” ~ For an X-ray of wavelength 1 A the energy of photon s 6-6 x 1074 x3 x 108 E=- 10°” B=1:98% 1078 1:98 x10 py 2 1-2 10 eV B= To6x10? Thus 10 keV pro) X-ray energies lie between 0°? keV to about -RAYS ~RRODUCTION OF X * a : ooo jon of X-rays is based upon 4 principe tht when ofa = gh nse, The producti? oi radiates electromasrr rg maniyin fm lerated or de-accelerate ears aa ie ream tube, Coolidge 100 Fra te tbe is shown n Coolidge in 1913- 7 — moving electron gets of Xrays- it was designed @ scanned with OKEN ScannerMODERN Physic, | | [ S| (@) Construction. It consists of @ a highly evacuated glass tube G having two side tubes A and B. waren, (i) The tube A has a F connected to a battery of 6 to 12 volts. When a current is passed through this filament, it emits electrons. (ii) A taget T is made up of a metal (tungston or molybdenum) When re seine by a filament are stopped by a target, a lot of heat 3s generated So the taper is cooled (@) by mounting it in a hollow copper tube which conducts heat away from it very fast and () Greulating water through the tube. 2 @) A oe of high potential to accelerate the electrons between filament and the target, The is connected to negative terminal of H.T. So it is called the cathode. The target connected to Positive terminal acts as the anode. (©) Need of high vacuum in glass tube. A high vacuum of the order of 10-6 mm of mercy in glass Gis necessary for two reasons. @ To prevent collisions of the high speed electrons emitted by the cahotde with gas molecules @) To prevent the oxidation of the filament. (© Working. Now a high potential difference of about 100 kV is applied between the filament and the target. When the filament is heated by passing current through it, it emits electrons. These electrons get accelerated and acquire a very high energy. The design of the filament is such that these electrons ge 1 mmin the target. Thus the electrons suffer avery strong de-acccler; as shown in Fig. 8.1. Most of kinetic energy of electrons (99-89%) is into X-rays. 8&4. QUALITY OF X-RAYS The quality of X-rays may be defined as their penetrating power The i e abil / r The penetrating power is the a 3.20 Xray beam to passthrough a given part of the body. Itis determined by the ae of X-rays. This ‘the quality of X-rays depends upon their energy. , (@) Factor determining the quality of x-rays. Th oe ede rays. The energy of the X- ation and emits X-rays in all directions lost as heat. Only 0-2% gets converted rays depends on the kinetic ¢ rom filament to the target, the ‘i the target, the kinetic energy acquit? KE=4m?=ev a where ¢, m, v are the charge, mass and velocity of pees | Y of the electron. It is clear that this kinetic ene)" electrons depends upon the voltage applied between the cathode and the anode. Therefore the quali X-rays can be controlled by changing the pot de. Therefo ‘ u the potential difference : ne de. increasing the applied voltage the quality of X-rays i inevdane nee elspa yet @ scanned with OKEN Scannerdioica ™ ai (0) Hard an ‘ays. X-rays may be classi 3 : fied ; 4, Hard X-rays. X-rays of high “lassified on the basis of their qual 1, rons with high fre 18h Penetrating power are call ‘cir quality as hard photons with high frequency or short wa called hard X-rays. The hard X-rays ft. are high i q Weler an high voltage between the cathode and aa Hard X-rays are produced by using (targets of high atomic number. ariods. 2. Soft X-rays. X-rays having low A ‘are low energy photons ‘vith Tow fre ting Power or quality are called soft X-rays, Th: 7 Tequency or long wavelength. Th: ys. Therefore soft (@) low applied voltage igth. They may be produced by using () targets of low atomic number, Roughly speaking X-rays of wave} ‘i tAwill be soft. ength << 1A will be hard X-rays. X-rays with wavelength > > 15. INTENSITY OF X-RAYS oo intensity of X-ray | i tenet y wile rays cepends upon the number of electrons falling on the target. The number of Beers omicd by flames 1 depends upon the current in filament circuit. As the filament current is inceased end. This aren cerated per second by the filament. Therefore more clectrons strike the 7c Bet se ond “ eee the intensity of emitted X- rays. Thus we can control the intensity of age ming Current. It may be noted that a change in filament current does not affect the $6. PROPERTIES OF X-RAYS feet DS Racial The following are some of the important properties of X-rays. ) X-rays are electrically neutral and are not deflected by electric or magnetic fields. They are highly penetrating and invisible. They can pass through solids such as wood, flesh, ebonite etc. but can’t pass through human bones. ap are electromagnetic waves having a wide range of wavelengths from 0-1 A to more than 100A. ‘They cause fluorescence in many materials such as zinc suphide, barium platinocyanide etc. They affect a photographic plate very strongly. ‘They can ionise gases indirectly. They travel in straight line with the speed of light. They can not be focussed by a lens. They eject electrons on striking the surface of certain metals. This phenomenon is called _ photoelectric effect. They show the phenomenon of interference and diffraction under suitable conditions. (11). They produce chemical and biological changes by the ionisation and exciation. 12) ‘They produce a slight amount of heat on passing through matter. } They produce secondary X-rays on striking metals. ENSITY AT A GIVEN WAVELENGTH define the intensity of X-rays emitted at a waclength as follows. small - Jength 2. Suppose 2 length range da from A d/210A + dA/2 about a wavel i PI amount of Shag) outed er sec in this small range di of wavelength. ‘Then intensity a ha is given by @ scanned with OKEN Scanneri i MODERN PHYsicg (83) aE 1@=| 8.8. X-RAY SPECTRUM —ECTRUM We know that X-rays are produced when high velocity clectrons hit the target. If we plot a graph between X-ray intensity 1(a) and wavelength 4 it will have the general shape as shown in Fig. 8.2. This curve is called X-ray, Spectrum. It is evident from this curve that there exists a wavelength Ajj, below which there is no Fadiation. Amin is called the cut off wavelength. The X-ray spectrum consists of two distinct (2) Continuous spectrum. The continuous Part ABCDE of the curve is called continuous or ite spectrum. It consists of r: Wavelengths between A,piq and infinity. The con- Ainuous spectrum arises because of the rapid de-acceleration of the electrons by the target. (2) Characteristic spectrum. The sharp peaks observed in the curve at particular wavelengths are known as characteristic X-rays. They arise when an orbital electron jumps between the orbit of the atoms in the target. The position of peaks depends on the nature of target material. 8.9. MECHANISM FOR PRODUCTION OF CONTINUOUS SPECTRUM When a fast moving electron strikes a target, it ex- Periences an attractive force due to the nucleus of the target atom. This force changes the path of the electron as shown in fig, 8.3. The deviation of electron from its straight line Path is equivalent to its collision with the nucleus. So the electron loses some of its kinetic energy because of the nanoET collision. The lost kinetic energy appears as X-ray photon. NUCLEUS IfEis the initial kinetic energy of electron and E’ is the final kinetic energy then E — E’ is the energy carried by the Xray photon. If v is frequency of photon then the energy of X-ray photon is - hy =E-E' ou(8.4) This clectron may suffer several collisions with various nuclei before coming to rest. Each collision will be accompanied by the emission of X-ray photon, Therefore a number of Photons of different frequencies will bee emitted. Since there are large nuniber of electrons in the beam and each electron suffers collision in a different way, they give rise to photons of almost all wavele, . - rs up the continuous spec nghts. These photons produced by many Expression for shortest wavelength in continuous spectrum. The existence of the cut off wavelength be explained on the basis of classical theory, ‘According; to classical theory of radiation the spectrum should contain all frequencies beteen 0 to e. But according 1g Quantum theory energy is emitted in the form of photons. The wavelength of the wave measures the energy carried by each photon. Suippose an electron loses all its kinetic energy in one collisi re ton is emitted with maximum energy Eq. (8.4) becomes ion. Then E’ = 0 and the photo! @ scanned with OKEN ScannerUsing €4- (8.7) we can write eq, (8.6) as eV = she ‘Thus Amin is given by Since h, c and e are constants, the cu o=e(8.9) , the cut off wavel depend onthe target material. Therefor itis the sane Gee ee od OF Ne that 2g does the complete conversion of electron’s kinetic a MECHANISM FOR PRODUCTION OF CHARACTERISTIC X-RAY SPECTRUM. When the bombarding electrons in the X- i SNe cocirons ofthe aaa in the X-ray tube strike the target they have suficient energy to shill This leaves the atom ippose an incident electron knocks out an orbital electron from be tha vacancy in the K shell as nin Fig. (8.40). The atom ‘now in an excited state. fore electron from any of higher shells L, shells can fall into the vacant in the K shell. This is ac- ied by emission of ener- -fyin the form of radiations as ‘iva ‘in Fig. (8.4c) Fig. 8.4. PRODUCTION OF CHARACTERISTIC RADIATION __., Suppose an electron from the upper L shell falls into the K shell vacaney. Then the amount of energy radiated will be hy, = Ey - Ex where E,, and Ey, are the energies of L and K shells respectively. The transition of the electron from to K shell creates a new vacancy in the L shell. This vacancy is filled by another electron jumping la higher shell say M with emission of energy as radiations. The amount of energy emitted will be Ivy = Ey — Ev. “where Eyy is the energy of M shell. This process continues and we g oo. Onding to various electron jumps. 7 ‘amount of energy radiated in each transition is determined bythe ference in ener of 8 re ‘energy of various shells depend on the atomic number of the target ator. ‘Therefore the s characteristic of the target element. Every ‘element has its own cl cet a series of spectral lines ofinvolved rnaracteristic Xr —— @ scanned with OKEN Scannerth mensional it differs from ordinary grottsg which is that the diffracting contre® crystal do not lic in one plane. In other words facts as a space grating rather than B om ratiDg: atoms. | Within a crystal there are aye ‘Some planes are rich in ato Thiscan be scen by consideringtwo din: gonal array of atoms as shown in fig. (8.10), Supose the distance between tw i isa. Consider the lines such as ‘ABand CD. ‘The atoms along these lines are at a distance of ia. The adjacent atoms along lines GH and EF ev aapart. Thus there are more atoms on the fines AB and CD than on the lines GH and EF. ‘These lines correspond to planes in athree dimen- sional crystal. Itis possible to choose planes in a crystal such that atoms in such planes are regularly spaced. These ‘planes are called Brage planes. These planes are responsible for Bragg reflection. Thus Bragg planes are those planes in the crystal which are responsible for Bragg reflection. 1. DIFFRACTION FORMULA OR BRAGG’S LAW Consider a beam of X-rays of wavelength J falling on a crystal at a glancing angle 8. Let d be the g between adjacent lattice planes. Suppose the X-ray AP is reflected along PA’ by atom P in the 1Y; while the X-ray BQ is reflected along QB’ from Q in the adjacent plane X2 Y> (Fig. (8.11)} ays PA’ and QB’ have some path difference and they will interfere constructively only ifthis path ce A is equal to an integral multiple of the wavelength of the incident X-ray. That is Aand n= 1,230 ~ (8.19) find path difference between PA" and QB’ drop PL and PM perpendiculars to BQ and B'O (8.15) : A=LQ+QM From the right angled triangle PLO ing = LO sind = BQ LQ = PQ sind =d sind QM = PO sing = d sind. A =d sind +d sin 0 = 2d sino ¢q. (8.14) we have, E Qdsino= nd (8.16) d @ scanned with OKEN ScannerCHAPTER -2: CRYSTALLGRAPHY Session 3 : Determination of crystal structure u sing X- ay diffraction X-RAY DIFFRACTION : 4) Diffraction is defined as bending of light rays at an opaque object to produce geometrical shadow region containing alternatively placed maxima and minima b) X-rays are electromagnetic waves like light. So, should exhibit interference and diffraction phenomena. ©) Wavelength of X-rays is of the order of 1 A°. So, to get an observable diffraction pattem, we need a diffraction grating in which width of the slit is of the order of 1 A°. 4) A crystal which consists of three dimensional arrays of regularly spaced atoms can be used as a grating to study diffraction of X-rays. As the separation between the atoms is of the order of 1 A°, we will get an observable pattern. ©) Hence when X-rays are made incident on the crystal, observable diffraction pattern is obtained. So, crystal acts as a three dimensional diffraction grating with X-rays. BRAGG’S LAW OF X-RAY DIFFRACTION ; W. L. Bragg and W. H. Bragg considered the planes having same miller indices (i.e. parallel planes) which are also called as Bragg planes, They used crystal as a reflection grating. Monochromatic X-rays of wavelength 2, were made to be incident on atomic planes in the crystal. The angle between X-rays and the atomic plane is called as glancing angle (0). X-rays reflected from series of atomic planes interfere with each other to produce diffraction pattern Consider an X-ray PA reflectéd at point A on plane | as ray AK and ray OB reflected at an point Bas ray BS. Draw perpendicular AC and AD on OB and BS respectively, a CB=BD=dsin@ Bragg's law of X-ray diffraction @ scanned with OKEN ScannerThe reflected rays may interfere constructively to produce maxima or destructively to produce minima depending the path difference between them, : Path difference between ray AR and BS is — A CB + BD dsin® + dsin® = 2dsin@ Condition for maximum is — path difference A= nX — where n= 1,2,3,4,...... for 1%, 2", 3" order maximum respectively. (1) ie. 2dsin® = nd - This is known as Bragg’s law of X-ray diffraction. BRAGG X-RAY SPECTROMETER: Bragg’s apparatus to study X-ray diffraction, in which he used crystal as a reflection grating is called Bragg’s X-ray spectrometer. In this apparatus, monochromatic X-rays obtained from: X-ray tube are allowed to pass through narrow slits S; and S to obtain a narrow beam. This‘narrow beam is allowed to strike a crystal which is mounted on a circular turn-table. The crystal is rotated by means of the turn-table in order to change the glancing angle at which X-rays are incident at atomic planes in the crystal. Reflected X-rays are collected by the ionization chamber. A scale is provided on the circular tum-table which can be used to measure glaricing angle 0. turntable ionisation chamber Bragg's X-ray spectrometer @ scanned with OKEN Scanner‘When the intensity of X-rays increases for any value of 8, sudden rise in ionization current is obtained. The graph of ionization current vs. glancing angle is plotted. The peak values of ionization current correspond to n" order maxima. ionisation current glancing angle @ lonisation current vs. glancing angle Let us consider that, first order spectrum for three planes (100), (110) and (111) is obtained at angle 01, @; and @; respectively. We select (100), (110) and (111) planes because these plane are rich enough in terms of atoms and exist in abundance. 2dsin@ = nd dee oh sind £ dys? duo i dy = By comparing these valués with known ratios for various crystal structures, we can identify the crystal structure. ~ ico: dio dua 1 sc 1 ¥ 5 1 BCC 1 v2 5 FCC 1 : aa # For NaCl, first order maxima for (100), (110) and (111) planes are obtained as 5.9°, 8.4° e.] Fe and 32° respectively. @ scanned with OKEN Scanner“4m idy dy, = EO sind, “ sind, ° sind, ~ sinS.9 * Ginga * nda = 9.73: 6.84 : 11.04 = r:41 , 2 a ae Hence NaCl follows FCC structure, Bragg’s reflection of the first order was observed at 21.7° for parallel planes of a crystal under test. If the wavelength of X-rays used is 1.54 A°, find the interplanar spacing for tl planes in the crystal. n= 1, 4=21.7, 8 = 1544 = 154 x 10m, According to Bragg’s law of x-ray diffraction, 2dsind = na on = th = Lb EIO” a 6s 10 = 2.083 4° 2 sind 2x sin(21.7°) The spacing between the principle planes in a crystal of NaC1 is 2.82 A”, It is found that t first order Bragg’s reflection occurs at 10°. a) What is the wavelength of X-rays? b)..At what angle, the second order reflection occurs? What is the highest order of reflection seen? d= 282A° =.282x10"m, n= 1, 8 = 10° a) Accorditig to Bragg’s law oo 2dsinO = nad 2dsin@ _ 2 x 2.82 x 10" x sin10° = 0.979 x 10" = 0.979 4° ry 1 2dsind = nd ing = BA _ 2% 0.979 x 10° on LOR oa 2x 2.82 x19? ~ 9347 @ = sin“ (0.347) = 2031° @ scanned with OKEN Scanner©) For the highest order, maximum value of sin 0 2dsind = nd Mg = 288IN mn | 2x 2.82 x10 x1 5.76 a 0.979x 10° Thus, highest order that can be seen is Dmx = 5 3. Calculate the smallest glancing angle at which k-copper line of 1.549 A° will be reflected from crystal having atomic spacing 4.255 A°. n=1,2 = 1549A° = 1.549x 10m, d = 4.255 A° = 4.255 x 10m. According to Bragg’s law of X-ray diffraction, 2dsinO = nd -10 sing = BA _ Lx1549 x10 Zo ig 2d 2x 4.255 x 10" 6 sin“ (0.182) = 10.48° Calculate the glancing angle on the cube (100) of a rock salt (a = 2.814 A°) corresponding to 2™ order diffraction maximum for X-rays of wavelength 0.714 A®. a=2.814A° = 2.814x 107° m, (hkl) = (100), n=2,4 = 0.714A° = 0.714x 10" m. interplanar spacing is given by - a d, = Mali? + +P According to Bragg’s law of X-ray diffraction, 2814 = 284A? Vi? +040 OYdsind = nd ing = A 2 x 0.714 x 107° ssin@ = 2 = = 0.2537 2x 2.814 x 107° 258 @ = sin“ (0.2537) = 14.70° @ scanned with OKEN Scanner5. In compari paring the wavelen, a gth: ; bives a1 order Brane a $ of two monochromatic X-ray lines, itis found that line A A crystal. Line B of pepe maximum at a glancing angle of 30° to the smooth face of glancing angle of 60° with Wavelength of 0.97 A° gives 3" order reflection maximum at a th the same face of the same crystal. Find wavelength of line A. For line A, n=1, O= 30°, Ana? ; An=? 2dsind = nd, 3 ord A, = 2dsind _ Qdsin30” _ =n I ForlineB, n=3, 9 = 60 d= Ay 2y=097x10"m 2dsinO = n Ay 2x A, x sin60° = 3 x 0.97x10-" _ 3% 097x107" 2 x sin 60° 6. Calculate the maximum order of diffraction if X-rays of wavelength 0.819 A’ is incident on = 1.68 x 107" m = 1.68A° MM a crystal of lattice spacing 0.282 nm Given : A = 0.819 A° = 0.819 x 107%. d= 0.282 nm = 0.282 x 10°m Dax =? / 2dsinO = na ; 2 2d (sin ®)aye SO°2 x 0.282 x 107 x1 _ 6 ge = a F -3,0,819% 107° Maximum number of orders seen is 6 lll @ scanned with OKEN ScannerAPPLIED PHYSICS UNIT-I 1. BONDING IN SOLIDS INTRODUCTION In the gaseous state of matter, individual atoms or molecules can move freely in space with a velocity determined by the temperature. But in solid state, the constituent atoms or molecules that build the solid are confined to a localized region. The principle region between the two states is bonding. In gases, the atoms or molecules are tree whereas in solids they are bound in a particular form because of which, they possess certain physical properties such elasticity, electrical and optical properties. BONDING Bonding is the physical state of existence of two or more atoms together in @ bound form. The supply of external energy is required to get back the bonded atoms to the Free State as energy is needed to break the bonds. This energy is called dissociation (binding) or cohesive energy. Bonding occurs between similar or dissimilar atoms, when an electrostatic interaction between them produces a resultant state whose energy is lesser than the sum of the energies possessed by individual atoms when they are free. TYPES OF BONDING IN SOLIDS Bonds in solids are classified basically into two groups namely primary and secondary bonds. Primary bonds are inter atomic bonds i.e. bonding between the atoms and secondary bonds are intermolecular bonds i.e. between the molecules. Primary bonds ‘The primary bonds are interatomic bonds. In this bonding interaction occurs only through the electrons in the outermost orbit, i.e, the valence electrons. These are further classified into three types Tonic bonding Covalent bonding Metallic bonding @ scanned with OKEN Scannerrere smnIanZWOrId 1. Ionic Bonding : Toni i an electropositive element ae bonding Fesults due to transfer of one o more electrons from 7 leme in electronegative element, of ve the bonding are of dissimilar type, 8 The two types of atoms involved in Example: atom needs one rNSCLerystal, Na atom has only one electron in outer most shell and a Cl molecule sau’ more electron to attain inert gas configuration. During the formation of NaCl Ne and Cle Clectron from the Na atom is transferred to the Cl atom resulting which, both fa and Cl ions attain filled- shell configuration, i . Nat+cl > Na + Cl > ‘NaCl ©) © O©) epics coum neice resenation of he Trolecie of soda Schematic rep {oriation of x fie ori + . A strong electrostatic attraction is set up that bond the Na cation and the Cl anion into a very stable molecule NaCl at the equilibrium spacing. Since Cl exist as molecules, the chemical reaction must be written as 2Na+Ch > 2Na + 2Cr > 2NaCl Other examples of ionic crystals are 2Mg+O. > mgt +20 > 2Mgo Mg+Ch > Mg* +2c0 > MgCl, @ scanned with OKEN ScannerOT cant ZWOrI.C Penta! Seine cue tond are strong, the materials are hard and posses» high melting and $ aiey ee good ionic conductors, but poor conductors of both heut and electricity aa 'Y are transparent over wide range of electromagnetic spectrum They are brittle. They possess neither ductility (ability to be made into sheets) nor malleability (ability to be made into wires). Ss They are soluble in polar liquids such as water but not in non-polar liquids such as ether. 2. Covalent Bonding Covalent bond is formed by sharing of electrons between two atoms to form molecule. Example: Covalent bonding is found in the Hz molecule. Here the outer shell of each atom possesses 1 electron. Each H atom would like to gain an electron, and thus form a stable configuration. This can be done by sharing 2 electrons between pairs of H atoms, there by producing stable diatomic molecules. OO-G “1 Comal bonding nthe hydrogen matecle Thus covalent bonding is also known as shared electron pair bonding. Properties: 1. Covalent crystals are very hard since the bond is strong. The best example is diamond which is the hardest naturally occurring material and possess high melting and boiling points, but generally lower than that for ionic crystals. 2. Their conductivity falls in the range between insulators and semiconductors. For example, Si and Ge are semiconductors, where as diamond as an insulator. 3, They are transparent to electromagnetic waves in infrared region, but opaque at shorter wavelengths. They are brittle and hard. They are not soluble in polar liquids, but they dissolve in non-polar liquids such as ether, acetone, benzene etc. ‘The bonding is highly directional. 3. Metallic Bonding: | ‘The valance electrons from all the atoms belonging to the crystal are free to move throughout the crystal. The crystal may be considered as an array of positive metal ions ‘embedded in a cloud of free electrons. This type of bonding is called metallic bonding. @ scanned with OKEN ScannerIna the no. of electrons that m is an electron gas contain having lost the valence clect between these positive ions bonding, OM OK OR gro? pane Poe Fla. Atomic arrangement ‘metal crystal, Solid even a tiny Portion of it comprises of billions of atoms, Thus in a metallic body, love freely will be so large that it is considered as though there ied with in the metal, The atoms lay embedded in this gas but rons, they become positive ions, The electrostatic interaction and the electron gas as a whole, is responsible for the metallic Properties: Compared to ionic and covalent bonds, the metallic bonds are weaker. Their melting and boiling points are also lower, Because of the easy movement possible to them, the electrons can transport energy efficiently. Hence all metals are excellent conductors of heat and electricity, They are good reflectors and are opaque to E.M radiation, They are ductile and malleable. Secondary Bonds bonds. 1 ‘There are two types of secondary bonds. They are Vander Waal’s bonds and Hydrogen Vander Waal’s bonding: Vander Waal’s bonding is due to Vander Waal’s forces. These forces exist over a very short range. The force decreases as the 4 power of the distance of separation between the constituent atoms or molecules when the ambient temperature is low enough. These forces lead to condensation of gaseous to liquid state and even from liquid to solid state though no other bonding mechanism exists.( except He) Properties: PYeNe 2. The bonding is weak because of which they have low melting points. They are insulators and transparent for visible and UV light. They are brittle, They are non-directional Hydrogen bonding: Covalently bonded atoms often produce an electric dipole configuration. With hydrogen atom as the positive end of the dipole if bonds arise as a result of electrostatic attraction between atoms, it is known as hydrogen bonding. ra ated @ scanned with OKEN ScannerWWW.SI Properties: 1. The bonding is weak because of which they have low melting points. 2. They are insulators and transparent for visible and UV light. 3. They are brittle. 4. The hydrogen bonds are directional. Forces between atoms: @ scanned with OKEN Scanner