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    Quantum Mechanics

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    tomc3728

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    QUANTUM MECHANICS NEWTONIAN MECHANICS AND QUANTUM MECHANICS The fundamental difference between newtonian mechanics and quantum mechanics lies in what it is that they describe. Newtonian mechanics is concerned with the motion of a particle under the influence of applied forces, and it takes for granted that such quantities as the particle’s position, mass, velocity and acceleration can be measured. This assumption is, of course, completely valid in our everyday experience, and newtonian mechanics provides the “‘correct” explanation for the behaviour of moving bodies in the sense that the values it predicts for observable magnitudes agree with the measured values of those magnitudes. Quantuin mechanics, too, consists of relationships between observable magnitudes, but the uncertainty principle radically alters the definition of “‘observable magnitude” in the atome realm, According to the uncertainty principle, the position and momentum of a particle cannot be accurately measured at the same time, while in newtonian mechanics, both are assumed to have definite, ascertainable values at every instant. The quantities whose relationships quantum mechanics explores are probabilities. Instead of asserting, for example, that the radius of the electron’s orbit in a ground-state hydrogen atom is always exactly 5-3 x 10-!! m, quantum mechanics states that this is the most probable radius if we conduct a suitable experiment, most trials will yield a different value, either larger or smaller, but the value most likely to be found will be 5-3 x 10-1! m. At first glance, Quantum mechanics seems a poor substitute for newtonian mechanics, but closer inspection reveals a striking fact : Newtonian mechanics is nothing but an approximate version of Quantum mechanics. The certainties proclaimed by newtonian mechanics are illusory, and their agreement with experiment is a consequence of the fact that macroscopic bodies consist of so many individual atoms that departures from average behaviour are unnoticeable. Instead of two sets of physical principles, one for the macroscopic universe and one for the microscopic universe, there is only a single set, and quantum mechanics represents out best effort to data in formulating it. ¥% THE WAVE FUNCTION (y) (Physical significance of wave function) [BORN INTERPRETATION] The wave function (7'.t) describes the behaviour of a particle and its magnitude-is large in the region where the probability of occurance of the particle is large, in other region where the particle is less likely to be found, the magnitude of y is small, i.e. we may regard as a measure of the probability of finding a particle around a particular position (The wave function y cannot be measured directly by any physical experiment). Born interpreted that the wave function y measure the probability and ll? is proportional to the Probability of finding the particle at a given point in space and at any given time. Since probability of finding a particle must be real and non-negative whereas is complex. In general we may assume that the position probability density P( 7,1) is given by p*p. et PU. =pty=ly(ror. . we(3.1) Thus the square of the absolute value of wave function (rt) measure the probability per unit volume (i.e. probability density) of finding the particle at any position r at time t. Inone dimension, the probability per unit length of finding the particle at position x at time tis given by Py D=y p=ly (dF wa(3.2) The probability of finding a particle in a finite volume V ( = dx dy dz) is given by PV) = SSS pty de dy de . 1 (3.3) 2 MODERN'S QUANTUM PHYSICS (B.Sc. II, PANJAB & PUN Jag, i] 3.3 NORMALIZATION OF WAVE FUNCTION in space is proportional to | y ? or y*p but itis Beng since probability P of finding a particle 1 ; ability P of finding the particle described by i rapt * convenient to have |’ ? or y*y equal to prol merely be proportional to P, | Since the probability of fin dling the particle somewhere must be equal to unity, $0 We musty PHD =yys lyor = f ptpdrsl 4 ‘The wave function which obey equation (3.4) is said to be normalized. Every acceptable y function can be normalised by muitiplying by an appropriate constant. Conditions for normalization of a wave function — _ ‘A normalized wave function should fulfil following conditions : (i) must be single valued function at every point in space. (ii) must be finite at every point in space. (iii) -y and its first derivatives 2%,2¥ 2% gmust be continuous. ax’ ay dz 34 7 A free particle is that on which no external force is acting. Ifa free particle has velocity v and mass m then, rate of change of momentum is given by WAVE FUNCTION FOR A FREE PARTICLE dp a ext But for a free particle, Fax, = 0 ap a 79 p =constant or Similarly, the kinetic energy E is given by 2 P= constant 2m ‘Thus in a macroscopic system a free particle has constant momentum and energy, but in a microst system, the particle is always associated by a wave called de-Broglie wave or matter wave, and displacement of matter wave is governed by some function p(x, y, z, 1) called wave function. If a particle is travelling along positive x-direction at any time f having frequency v and wave le 2, then the wave function is given by - wa, ) =A et @r-k) Since w = 2 mv and k= om YO 1) = A caller —xih) Buty =E/handA = hip Ex ¥G) =A fara 2x1 or va) = Ae kh = neh EPP) E (QuaNTUM MECHANICS dey f 3 This is the equation of a plane travellin energy E along positive x-direction. 3.5: SCHRODINGER THEORY OF QUANTUM MECHANICS a _... Se (Need for a differential Equation) Classical (or Newton's) mechanics is concemed with the motion of macroscopic particle under the influence of an external force and taken for granted that the position and momentum of a particle can be determined very accurately simultaneously, but in microscopic case, the behaviour of the particle is yery complicated and the behaviour of the particle is described by de-Broglie waves associated with them or by wave function (x, 1). In order to describe the motion of the particle in space and time, we must Know PC, 1) at all times. To know (x, £) for future time we must develope a differential equation tocontrol the space-time behaviour of the wave function #(r, 1). Schrodinger theory of quantum mechanics provides a procedure to treat the behaviour of the microscopic particle. 3.6-TIME DEPENDANT SCHRODINGER WAVE EQUATION For a free particle The wave function (a, 1) for a particle moving freely along +-direction having total energy E and momentum p is given by 18 Wave associated with a particle having momentum p and VOD = Ae A(Erpx) (1) Differentiating Eq. (1) w.r.t. x, we get ap -2 Aen tilt)(Et~ps) ax Differentiating Eq. (2) w.r.t. x} we get fy = (zy Act! M(Epx) Ox’ h Using Eq. (1), we get ee ry ax” nv ry = eee (3) a pry =P = Differentiating Eq. (1) w.r.t. t, we get ay -(2) enti \(B-px) Using Eq. (1), we get or a re ny “ee C) For a particle having speed v << c ( vel. of light), the total energy E of the particle is given by 2 Bes a (pis the momentum of the particle) _ m 74 MODERN'S QUANTUM PHYSICS (B.Sc. II, PANJAB & PUN Ag Multiplying both sides of above equation by wave function, p, we get 2 By = 2 oy Be ay Putting Eqs. (3) and (4) in (5), we get 2 92, a he oy int oy a > 2m ax® 2 32 ap Ayn, or Gon 0 om ax? A Pplxt) _ shap(xt) 2m ax? ot 3 ; This is Schrodinger wave equation for a free particle in one dimension. For a particle subjected to a force _ ; ifthe particle is acted upon by a force, then the total energy E of the particle is the sum of its ky energy p?/2m and its potential energy V, where V in general a function of position x and time 1 or 2 ie. B= +Vvau,0 2m Multiplying both sides of above equation by wave function p, we get 2 Ey = sa TVD Using Eqs (3) and (4), we get oy __W ey nse = ae +V(x,0p nove) __# Py Cty or inte Im ae TVD UCD 2 2 or FY 2m ax? This is Schrodinger wave equation for a particle subjected to a force in one dimension. In three dimensions, Eq. (7) becomes +V GD YG D= inetd VEDFEVE DYED = ineen i a Peer or ~TV VEN + VE DYE N= i ERE or simply, we can write a a -Lvytvy = int amet y = inc, Where p depends on position vector 7 and time tie, y = Y(t) F MECHANICS quantum 75 Schrodinger equation cannot be derived from other ba ¢ principles of physics, it is a basic principle jn itself. : _ indie Schrodinger equation (8) can bh a7 : © used for non-relativistic problems, and a more elaborate formulation is needed When particle spe ihe F ds near that of light are evolved. _ 37, TIME INDEPENDENT SCHRODINGER WAVE EQUATION a poe oy ental energy Of a particle does not depend on time explicitly; the forces that act : a » Vary with position of the partic! ly. Then Schrodinger equation may be simplified by removing all references of time 2 PCIe only. Ther ae : Time dependent Schrodinger equation in one dimension is given by Ppan RE TVG) = non (1) One dimensional wave function (x, #) of a particle moving along +x direction is given by iv WD = Ae li/n)(Br-px) = Aellp/a)x (bin): or VO) =o) (Ens, 2) where P(x) = Ael(o/h)x -B) Differentiating Eq. (2) w.r.t. x, we get apent) (i Cte (iEA)e we 4) Differentiating Eq. (4) wart, x, we get 2. 2. a ve) = e GEM) PHC) 5) ax’ ax* Differentiating Eq. (2) w.r.t. t, we get ayp(x,t) at Using Eqs. (2), (5) and (6) in Eq. (1), we get EZ pce zn) (6) al Boyer (rem). zee EV p(y GEM = rc WP Pye) om Ge TYME@ = E(x) Ix" 2 9 o =~ 2% sy—Ep =0 OD) 2m ax’ This is one dimensional time independent Schrodinger equation. In three dimensions, Eq. (7) can be written as # Poo) 2m ar? +(V-E)¢(r) = 76 1YSICS (B.S¢. II, PANJAB & PUN, 3 QUANTUM PH By MODERN'S O! ni = 2, o | Pb am —+ a2 tar E-Ve =0 In three dimensions, the above equation is generally written as , 24 2 } or Vor FE-Ve =0 For convenience, replacing ¢ by y, we get Vp tE-wy Where is independent of r. Equation (8) is called Schrodinger steady state equatior 38. OPERATOR mA An operator is a mathematical rule or instruction which can change a given function into anoy, function. All mathematical operations in algebra and calculus like adding, subtracting, multiply. differentiating w.r.t. a variable or integration etc, can be considered as operators. If A is an operator generally represented as A and acts on a given function f(x) and changes jx, another function g(x), then we have Af@) = 8) GS na P e.g. If operator A = Gy and acts on the given function f (x) = x4, then x Axt = 264)

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