MATTER WAVES Al UNCERTAINTY PRINCIp Ma THE OLD QUANTUM THEORY The work of Planck or black body radiation, photo-electric effect, Compton effect and ya specific heat at low temperature is now called old quantum theory. However, only after Ru discovery that an atom consists of central massive positively charged core called nucleus 5 iat, ther ‘ AEs an UrTOy by electrons could the theory be applied to a quantitative description of atoms. Bohr-Sommerfeld quantization rule In 1913, Bohr postulated the model of atom that (i) An atom consists of central massive positively charged core called nucleus surrounded by ele revolving in certain stationary states or quantized states, each corresponds to a definite energy an . h angular momentum of the electron is integral multiple of =. a (ii) The transition from one energy state to another are accompanied by the gain or loss of en equal to the energy difference between two states. To explain fine structures of hydrogen, the spectra of diatomie§ [> molecules and other such problems, Sommerfeld introduced a postulate that the momenta associated with both the coordinates (7, @) (Fig 2.1) extended over one period of the motion is integral < multiple of h. a Practical difficulties Z) The old quantum theory encountered practical difficulties in several different respects. (i) It could not be applied to aperiodic systems. (i)_ It provided only a qualitative and incomplete treatment of the intensities of spectral lines. (iii) Tt could not explain satisfactorily the phenomenon of. AeeT dispersions of light. (iv) The old quantum theory gave incorrect results, when applied to rotational spectra of diatomic molecules. In 1923, Neil Bohr tried to use classical theory as a limiting case of quantum theory by introdu Bohr's correspondence principle and achieved some success but ultimately old quantum theory & not explain all the properties of atomic systems. Apart from the practical diffculties as stated above, the old quantum theory failed to git conceptually satisfactory account of the fundamental phenomena The old quantum theory could explain the hypothetical assumption of Bohr that in statio , electrons do not radiate energy as it was based only on empirical observation and had no theoré orbit justification. “i le could not explain the processes connected with the spin of the electrons and Pauli’s exclt princi 7 cei . a ; he mechanism of emission and absorption of radiation in transitions between stationary s was obscure. | (iv) The assumption of a dual character for light seemed to be self-contradictory. 36ee MATTER WAVES AND UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE 37 ‘Quantum-mechanical view point, In 1925, a new concept was introduced by de-Broglic and then by Schrodinger. de-Broglie put forward his hypothesis of matter waves and Schrodinger presented an equation which could satisfy these matter waves. A large number of anomalies were explained systematically on the basis of dual character of electromagnetic radiations and material particles, A satisfactory explanation was given to many complex problems in wave mechanical theories. The scope of quantum theory has been further extended in recent years and it has been employed to understand the relativistic mechanics and various kinds of fields and their interaction with particle, 2.2° WAVE PROPERTIES OF PARTICLES 22 Ye EES OF PARTICLES The successful explanation of the Compton and photoelectric effects and the experimental verifications of the predictions made on the basis of these explanations, established it beyond doubt that electromagnetic radiation travels not in the form of a continuous stream of energy but in the form of tiny packets or bundles of energy, following each other in quick succession. These packets of energy were called photons that behave almost exactly like a material particle, On the other hand, the phenomenon like interference or diffraction of light or X-rays could not be explained unless electromagnetic radiation were assumed to possess a wave character. This resulted in the acceptance of the dual character of radiation, which is maintained till the present day. When radiation interacts with matter it exhibits its particle character whereas when radiation interacts with radiation, it exhibits wave character. Radiation never exhibit both the characters simultaneously. Aninteresting outcome of the acceptance of duality in the character of e.m. radiation was the hypothesis put forwarll by L.deBroglie in 1924. He was guided by the following reasonings : 1, Nature is symmetrical 2. Our observable universe is totally composed of light and matter and light has dual character. 3. There is a close parallelism between principle of least action in mechanics and principle of least time (Fermat's principle) in optic According to de-Broglie; “the wave-particle dualism should not be confined to radiation alone, but should also be extended to all the fundamental entities of physics”. The electrons; protons; atoms and molecules, when in motion, should have some type of wave motion associated with them. de-Broglie was led to this hypothesis from considerations based upon the special theory of relativity and quantum theory. The waves associated with moving particles are called matter waves or pilot waves or de-Broglie waves. Expression for de-Broglie wavelength For Photon Energy of a photon can be written as he E= => we(21) 7 2.1) If a photon possesses some mass (which by virtue of its motion i.e. its rest mass would be zero) its energy according to the theory of relativity energy of photon E_ = (mass of photon) c? Using Eq. (2.1), we get & = (mass of photon)c? = pe teof MODERN'S QUANTUM PHYBIL® (2.0% 38 or h or 7 +22) For a material particle . ; Ifinstead of photon, we consid ‘th velocity v, then momentus, rial particle Jor a material particle of mass m moving Wi p =m Wavelength associated with the material particle, 223) ‘This wavelength is called de-Broglie wavelength and the wave is called de-Broglie wave or matte wave. or (i). The wavelength of de-Broglie wave is independent of the charge of the particle. (ii) Slower the particle of a given mass, larger is its de-Broglie wavelength. (iii) Heavier the particle, lesser is its de-Broglie wavelength. E-BROGLIE WAVELENGTH IN TERMS OF ENERGY AND TEMPERATURI In terms of energy The kinetic energy of a material particle of mass m moving with velocity v is given by 1 EB = pm? = fe PE or Pp = J2mE <. De-Broglie wavelength in terms of energy will be In terms of temperature From kinetic theory of gases, the average K.E. of material particle is given by B = 2er 2 So Eq. (2) becomesMATTER WAVES AND UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE 39 2.5. DE-BROGLIE WAVELENGTH ASSOCIATED WITH AN ELECTRON IN A. POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE OF V VOLTS Let an electron having charge ¢ and mass m accelerated through a potential V volts, and attains a velocity v. -. kinetic energy of electron eae 0 Also, kinetic energy of electron is given by E=evV wedi) From (i) and (ii), we have L zm =eV or 2eV or 2meV or mv = /2meV -. de-Broglie wavelength of electron pete st p mv meV “62x 1074 = va 6-62 x 10 2x 9-1x 10-9! x 1-6 10-9V ; -10 or a = 1227x107 (2.3) vv (GoXtrocrry OF DE-BROGLIE WAVES (Phase Velocity) wave with a moving particle, so it is reasonable to expect that this wave We associate de Brog! ; travels with the same velocity as that of the particle. If we call the de-Broglie wave velocity as W, we may apply the usual formula W = vA to determine the value of W. The wavelength 4 is the de-Broglie wavelength given by gee = S a ade <9 c= aD Now from the Planck’s Law E =h == E = hyorv= 7 .(L) Also from mass energy relation E = me? w(2) From Eq. (1) & (2), we have me? ee h de-Broglie wave velocity, is therefore, given by 2 weway h mv ov& 0 MODERN'S QUANTUM PHYSICS (8.80. Il PANIA® & PUNJAB! Since the particle velocity 1, must be less than the velocity of light c. : We ss “aid vay of light, Such a situation can be visualised in el faster than velocity of A reals and that of sodium Tight in sod jie waves tt of electromagnetic waves ¢.¢. velocity of X-rays in different cryst crystal is more than c. ical Meaning) 2.7. WAVE PACKET (Phy “rmaterial particle has velocity more than the velocity of the parti De-Broglie wave associated with ore than ity of the pa Soitwas Mitficult to conceive as to how the de-Broglie wave was associated with the particl ‘hrodin, postulated that a moving particle is not associated with one Witt but a group of waves called wag packet, and cach wave has slightly different speed and wavelength, The #2¥e Poe tot ‘uperposition of individual waves whose interference with one another results in the variation of pig see ines the group shape. Since the wave speed varies with wavelength hence id PARTICLE vies | — ox Fig, 2.2 Wave packet waves do not proceed together and the wave packet has speed different from that of the waves whi compose it. The amplitude of each wave is s0 chosen that they interfere constructively over a Teeion of space as shown in fig. 2.2. The velocity of wave packet when calculated comes out to be eq to velocity of the material particle with which it is associated. Thus wave packer is a type of wave motion in which amplitude of the wave is very large ina s region and negligible small in the rest of space. The probability of finding the particle is maxim where amplitude of the waves is large and probability is minimum where amplitude of the waveis AVE (PHASE) VELOCITY AND GROUP VELOCITY Phase Velocity (W or v,). The velocity of individual de-Broglie wave is called phase velocity. is more than velocity of light. Group Velocity (u or v,). The velocity of group of waves i.e. wave-packet is called group velo and its velocity is equal to the velocity of material particle with which wave packet is associated. Group velocity is equal to velocity of the moving particle (ie. v, = v) Let us consider that a “wave group” (i.e. wave packet) arises from the combination of two Wav with the same amplitude A, but differing in angular velocity by dw and an amount dk in wave num 7}: So the two interferring waves may be represented as yy = Acos (wt— kx) , Y2 = Acos w+ dwt (k-+ dk) x ‘The resultant displacement y at any time ¢ and at any position x 2 te sum of y, and y,; using ident 1 2° cosa +cosp = 2eos\@ ; P os@=B)MATTER WAVES AND UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE ay and since cos (~ 8) = cos 8, we have [2 +d) = yy +2 = 2Acos| ye tye 2 2 dk are small as compared to w and k respectively Qw+do) = 20 Qk + dk) = 2 = 2A cos (wt — kx) lS) - (Fp Al) Equation (1) represents a wave of angular velocity @ and wave number k which has superimposed we) ‘ eos - sts) Now since dw and ‘upon it a wave (the process called modulation) of angular velocity (2) and wave number (2). 2 The effect of this modulation is to produce successive “wave groups” as shown in fig. (2.3). The “phase velocity” or “wave velocity” v, is given by 2av (2) Te w(2) a vp = v= +— seat ——>«— seat ———> Fig. 2.3. Beat formation while the “group velocity” v, of the “group of waves” is given by (3), The angular velocity w and wave number k of the de-Broglie wave associated with the particle of est mass mg and moving with velocity v are given by 2 2am c? a w =m =29(2—] = amo’ “ 2 \2 ii) ¢And kee i 1 h ! , , fi-2eF nli——~]. re dk Now let us find the value of 2 and — dv dv" do To find find From Eq. (4) doe dv dae or dv dk To find From eq. (5), k dk dv 3 oe 7 ak _ 2amy{,_v") ? | dv h ¢ | Putting Eq. (6) and (7) in (5), we get | 3 | 2amv{ v2) 2 | ra i . ¢ | Group velocity, ¥, = 7 | 2am 12 2 | ; :MATTER WAVES AND UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE 43 o_O i _— or ve ED By Group velocit!) = Velocity of material particle The de-Broglie “wave group” moving particle travels with the same velocity as that of the particle, The “phase velocity" or “wave velocity” W of de-Broglie wave evidently has no simple physical significance in itself, 2p) RELATION BETWEEN PHASE-VELOCITY (v,) AND GROUP VELOCITY (,) The phase veloci 'y of a wave having frequency («) and propagation constant k is given by or w =kv (D ountvelocin x dw k The group velocity of the wave having frequency “~ and propagation constant —~ is given by eo dk Using Eq. (1), we get or = (2) Also, 2x k rt (3) 2a dk = ae di (4) Dividing Eq. (3) by (4), we get ae Ge = GE (3) Putting Eq. (5) in (2), we get v, 2.10, EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF MATTER WAVES (Experiments that confirm the existence of de-Broglie wave) ( Experiments of Davison and Germer. First of all in 1927 the two American physicists, Daviss and Germer predicted experimentally the electron waves predicted by de-Broglie, Davisson and Germer were studying the reflection of electrons from nickel target which was subjected to such a heat treatment that the crystal was transformed into a group of crystals. In this case, the reflection become anomalon’. and the reflected intensity showed striking maxima and minima. They then suspected that the bean of electrons might be diffracted from the crystals like X-rays. This shows that electrons behave HiKe WAYSS under certain circumstances. ee The experimental arrangement is shown in figure 2.4. The electron beam is produced from What known as electron gun, Fis the filament which is heated to dull red. Electrons are emitted from the filament due to thermionic action. G is system of electrodes with central holes maintained at increasing,r studying the structure of crystals, especially ofganic crystals containing hydrogen. This is due to the fact that the scattering of X-rays or electrons by hydrogen is very weak as compared to the scattering by heavier atoms and so the presence of hydrogen atoms in a crystal cannot be detected, Neutrons, on the other hand, interact with nuclei through nuclear forces and are scattered by hydrogen atoms. Neutron “t diffraction is also frequently applied to the study of GRAPHITE magnetic properties of solids and various other allied | THERMAL COLUMN phenomenon. . Fig. 2.8 Example1. What is de-Broglie wavelength of an electron which has been accelerated from rest frough a potential difference of 100 V. Solution. We have the relation In this case V = 100 volts. Ae vi00 =1:2274 Example 2. An electron microscope uses 1-25 Ke V electrons. Find its ultimately resolving power on the assumption that this is equal to the wavelength of the electron, given that 6 x 10°19 C e m .0 x 10°31 kg and h -62 x 10-94 Js Solution. Since wave length of electron in a potential V.is given by 12:27, _ 12-2749 az x 107 m vv Here E = 125 KeV V = 1250V 12:27. 40 12-27 A= «107m = A end i250 35-35 = 0347A So the resolving power of the microscope is 0-347 A. Example 3. Find the energy of the neutron in units of electron volt whose de-Broglie wavelength is 1A. Given mass of neutron Planck's constant, Solution. We have the relation m = 1-674 x 1077 kg. h = 6:60 x 104 Js A=MODERN'S QUANTUM PHYSICS (B.Sc. ll, FANJAS & PUN, h °r ~ Oma 2 In this ese, m= a 02" kg AzelaA= h = 6:60 x 1074 Js (6-60 x 107) oe B= T674x 10-7 x 0-9)” = 13.01 x 1071 13-01 10° = 8:12 x 10° eV. 1-6 x 10 glie wavelength of 10!1 KeV neutron. Mass of neutron : 3 4 2 gt £xample 4. Cony ve the de-Bro, taken as 1-675 x I kinetic energy of neutron ~— Ma a 1011 Kev = 10'4 eV = 1014 x 1-6 x 10-9 J 16x 1053 Now =mv* = 16x 10% 1 x1-6x107> 2 fat ee Se “ 1-675 x 10-77 1 AL _ 6625x107 ( 1-675x 10-27 \2 mv “ 1-675x10-77 (2x 1-6 x 10-> = 2:86 x 10-5 m. Example 5. What would be the wavelength of quantum of radiant energy emitted, if an dk transmitted into radiation and converted into one quantum. Solution. According to Planck, the energy E associated with one quantum E = h v, where frequency of radiation. When the energy of an electron is transmitted into radiation, we have the relation § E = mc? (mass energy relation) Again he i Mt! hy = me? or ae ie a Tx 3x 108 yo = 0-0244 x 10-1 m = 0-0244 A. xample 6. Calculate {fe ene 7 Axample 02 10 EE Ig oe) in electron volt of an electron wave of A= 3 x 102 m. Solution. We know that eee is given by the relation hn 2ma> In this case, f= 662 x 10% Js, m= 91x 101 kg and a= 3 x 19-20:27x 1078 5 eV = 1:68 x 10-15 eV 156 x10 ABxample 7, Estimate the amount of accelerating voltage of which electrons are to be subjected in order to associate them with de-Broglie wavelength of 0-50 A. Given that 6 x 10-9 C m 0 x 1073! kg h = 6.62 x 10-34 Js . Solution. Now if V is the accelerating potential measured in volts, then an electron will gain the energy E given by E =ev h And A=— mv hoe V@mE) h or A= ~ {Qmev) Therefore, substituting the values, we get 05 x 19-10 662 x 107#4 5x 19-10 = S62 X10 7 VQmev) (662 x 107-4)? ee eS Le 2x (0-5x 107)? x 9-0 x 1073! x 1-6 x 10-9 V = 6086 volts. #Example 8. Energy of a particle at absolute temperature Tis of the order kT. Calculate the wavelength of thermal neutrons at 27°C. Given mass of the neutron = 1-67 x 10-27 kg, Planck's constant, h = 6.60 x 10-4 Js and Boltzmann's constant, k = 86 x 10° eV °C-!, Solution. We know that A mc From the problem, E =iT (2mkT) Here = 6:60 x 10-4 Js, m = 1-67 x 10-27 kg 27°C = 300°K 86x 105 eV 8-6 x 10° x 1-6 x 10-19 yoc-t = 1-376 x 10°23 yor-t= 1-777 x 10-1 m= 1-777 A Example 9, Calculate the de-Brog! a pad. of 28-8 V, given that e m h We have relation Solution, A= 3 ‘ 6-60 x107** oO 2 Vea x 1-67 x 10727 x 1-376 x 10" x 300) ie wavelength for an electron which has been accelerated thy 1 x 103! ke 1 9 6.62 x 10°74 Js 6-62x 10727 662K 10 (2x 9-1x 1073! x 1-6 x 107"? x 28-8) Example 10. Calculate the velocity volts, given that Mass of proton Charge on the electron Planck's constant Solution. The energy of proton 1 28 A and de-Broglie wavelength of a proton of energy 10° elec 1-66 x. 10-°7 16x 10°C 6-62 x 1074 Js. zyme = 10° eV = 108x 1.6% 10-19 (2 leV = 16x 10! 2 = 2X10° x16 x 1079 m 2x 10° x1-6 x 10719 ~ 1-6 x 10-27 2x 10°x 1-6 x1079 or v = 4|—_ 1-66 x 10 = 4:39 x 106 ms“! The de-Broglie wavelength A is given by * ee ; mv J(2mB) According to problem, E = 105 x 1.6 x 10-19 y 6-62 x 10-4 (2X 1-66 x 10777 x 195 x 16x 10719 9-3 x 10-14 )MATTER WAVES AND UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE " 51 Example 11, Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength of an ex-particle accelerated through 200 volts, given that > i m = 6576 x 10-27 ky a h = 6:62 x 104 Js Solution. We have the definition of potential difference between (wo points is defined as the work done in moving a unit positive charge from one point to the other, In this way the work done in moving an @-particle between the Wo poin hetween which the potential difference is V volts is given by eV : zm v? = ry or mv 6-62 x 10734 ee V4 x 1-6 x 10 x 6-576 x 10727 x 200 _ 6:62x 10734 © 9-175 x 107 = 7215 x 10-3 m Example 12. What is the energy of gamma ray photon having a wavelength of 1 A. Given that : h = 6.62 x 104 Js Solution. We know that h h _ 6:62x10~%4 A= ~orps = = P 4 19710 Energy of gamma ray photon xe, velocity of light 6-62 x 10-4 = 10710 6-62 x 10-4 x3 x 108 10° x1-6 x10 = 124 x 104 ev. Example 13. Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength of a neutron of mass 1-676 x 10°?” kg and speed 3003 ms-?, [HPU 1999 (S)] Solution, m = 1-676 x 10-77 kg v = 3003 ms! de-Broglie wavelength, where x3x 108 eV h 6-62x 10-4 fl = OT = 0.001375 x 107 mv “1-676 x 10-77 x 3003 1315 x 10710 m 1315 A ~ q52 PANJAB & Pl prysics (8.56: Ih Pi UNIABI iy, Sa MODERN'S QUANTUM pected 10 porential di imple 14, mel 7 Of 1.25 EY, | Caleulate the wave length associated with an electron = (HP sai Solution. V = 1.25 kV = 1950 v | Ave length associated with electron, gq nitty 12:27 vv i250 12:27 _gaa7h 3536 " 35% ing kinetic ener Example 18. Determine the de-Brogiie wavelength of an elggtor een BY GIy 25 x 10°" “Sacred with its rest mass ener Given mg of an el 3 ee 19 of an electron = 9-11 x 10-3! kg and h = 6-625 * __ Solution. Here the kinetic energy of the electron is very small as comP: ie. 0-512 MeV and hence negligible m= my = 9-11 x 10%! kg 1 KE. of the electron (mv?) = leV = 1-6 x 10-195 2x 1:6 x 107? m w= . h de-Broglie wavelength, 4 = => Putting the values, we have 6-625 x 1074 im = nox 16x10" ae 6-625 x 10-4 3-2 1071? xm 625 x 10-** a3-2x 1079 x 911% 1073! = 123 x 10% m = 123A 2.13. HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE ‘After the discovery of wave nature of matter, it was very difficult to define the word ‘particl Classically, the position and momentum of a particle can be determined simultaneously and precisely every instant of time. However an interesting consequence of matter wave is that we cannot simultaneously specify the exact position and momentum (i.é. velocity) of any particle because a group of wave is always associated with a moving particle (called wave packet) as shown in fig. 2.9. Ail that we can say is that the particle is some where ‘within the wave packet and a certain inaccuracy always crep in defining the position of a moving | «——_____g ticle like electron, proton etc. Similarly, we can Ply that there is a certain amount of inaccuracy in