Manipulating Medicine -

Pathogen comparison
What is the general definition of each pathogen type?
Bacteria are small single celled organisms which get nutrients from their
environment to survive.
Parasites are organisms that require another living organism, generally a specific
species, to survive. Without a host, a parasite cannot live, grow, and multiply. For this
reason, a parasite rarely kills its host, but it can spread diseases, some of which may be
fatal. Parasites can be protists, bacteria, viruses, fungi, plants or animals.

Fungi are very diverse eukaryotic organisms, of which about 500 000 species are
known. Many are saprophytic, living off dead matter. Others are parasitic, and cause
many diseases in plants.

Viruses are not organisms as they are not alive unless they have a host cell. Most
viruses cause disease — they may infect humans, domestic animals or plants.

What are the characteristics of each type of pathogen?

Bacteria are only 1 cell large. It is a prokaryotic cell with no nucleus. They are
typically a few micrometres in length, and have a plasma membrane.
There are 2 types of fungus, microscopic
types (observable only under microscope),
mould on food, yeast. Macroscopic types
(observable to the naked eye)mushrooms.
Yeast is unicellular but others would be
multicellular. The multicellular body usually
consists of the stalk, a cap.
There are 3 main types of parasites:
Protozoa: Protozoa are single-celled (Infinity Learn NEET, 2017)
organisms that can multiply in humans.. Every virus possessed a nucleic acid
Protozoa include, which causes malaria called a genome. It carries the information
infection, and Cryptosporidium, which is required for the synthesis of essential
ingestible. proteins. The goal of the virus is to
Helminths: Helminths are parasitic replicate the genome. There are many
worms that often root in a person’s different types of virus so there are 4 main
digestive tract. shapes Helical
Ectoparasites: Ectoparasites are small Polyhedral, Spherical, Complex. They lack
organisms that live on the outside of the both a cell wall and a cell membrane.
body. They do not carry out metabolic processes.

What are the basic structural features of each pathogen?

(FuseSchool, 2016)
The bacteria is not large enough to contain its own
organelles. Since they live in so many different places
on earth there are also a lot of variations of what they
can look like. They have a flexible cell wall which is
important as it prevents the bacteria from bursting.
The plasma membrane regulates what does in and out
of the cell. A flagellum that helps the bacteria move.
They have 2 types of DNA, chromosomal and plasmid.
Chromosomal's carries most of the genetic info.
Plasmic carried extra info like the resistance to
antibiotics, productions of toxins and tolerance to
toxic environments. The pili are what attaches them to
things like the body or rocks but that's also how they
exchange DNA between bacteria. The liquid inside of
the cell is called cytoplasm which is filled with
enzymes. 3 main shapes, sphere (coccus), rod
(bacillus), spiral (Spirillum)
Being eukaryotes, a typical fungal cell contains a
nucleus and many membrane bound organelles. The
DNA in the nucleus is wrapped around histone
proteins, as is observed in other eukaryotic cells.
Fungal cells have a thick cell wall, just like plant cells
do. Chitin and glucans are two complex
polysaccharides found in the stiff layers of fungal cell
walls. The structural strength of fungal cell walls is
due to the chitin, which is also present in the
exoskeleton of insects. The cell is protected by the
wall from predators and dehydration. Similar to other
eukaryotes, fungi have plasma membranes, but
ergosterol, a steroid molecule that replaces
(Infinity Learn NEET, 2017) cholesterol in animal cell membranes, stabilises the
structure. The majority of fungi are nonmotile
organisms. The vegetative body of a fungus is a
unicellular or multicellular thallus. Hyphae: some of
Many parasites have hooks, claws or suckers to attach them have partitions (septa) and some don't.
to their host. Generally parasites have either a sucker
(leeches) or piercing and sucking type mouthparts
(fleas) for feeding.
Fleas: laterally compressed bodies, Piercing-sucking
mouthparts, Enlarged hind legs adapted for jumping,
Strong tarsal claws adapted for holding onto their
hosts, Backward pointing hairs and bristles for ease of
movement through the hair of a host, Small antennae
which tuck away into special groves in the head
Protozoa: they are unicellular, don't have a cell wall and
can form membranes or cysts that can cause them to
(Infinity Learn NEET, 2017)
become more resistant.
 The most important part of the virus is its
genome, it carries the genetic information
required for the synthesis of essential proteins.
The viruses possess single and double
stranded DNA and RNA. A virus particle is
made up of a protein coat encapsulating the
viral nucleic acid (a fragment of DNA or RNA
but always a single strand). The protein coat
(capsid made from smaller capsomeres)
protects the single strand of nucleic acid.
Made of many subunits. The ligands may
(Henrik’s Lab, 2023) contact and recognise the cell to be infected.

The viral envelope is made from fatty acids taken from the cells in the host. Further within
the envelope there are glycoproteins and binds the virus to receptor sites on the host cell
or or assist in entry to the target cells. Some also have their own enzymes (only some
viruses have this).

How does each type of pathogen transmit disease/cause

infection?
Bacteria
Travelling in the air (airborne disease), it is surrounded by droplets (snot, water, sweat) so it
enters the body when you breathe.
Water Borne diseases, it has a pathogen in it so it finds a way out of your digestive system
and into your bloodstream which makes you sick (cholera). It can also go through your
nose.
Foodborne diseases (food poisoning)(salmonella).
Blood transmitted. Some pathogens are so small they can go through the skin and make
you sick even without a wound. (anthrax and ebola).
Bodily fluids like blood saliva and semen can also be transmitted. Using dirty needles

Fungi
The dry and sandy soil of the southwest region of the United States is ideal for the growth of
other fungi, including Coccidioides immitis, which can cause pneumonia when inhaled. Fungi
rarely cause disease in healthy immunocompetent hosts. Disease results when fungi
accidentally penetrate host barriers or if a person has a weak immune system, they might
get sick from fungal infections. Dissemination of fungi in the body indicates a breach or
deficiency of host defences (e.g., endocrinopathies and immune disorders). Infection is
defined as entry into body tissues followed by multiplication of the organism. For example,
the dermatophytes that colonise skin, hairs, and nails elaborate enzymes that digest keratin.

Parasites
Ectoparasites are found on the surface of the body. They depend on their host for food
and shelter, and are often vectors for other parasites. Parasites use both invertebrate and
vertebrate hosts.
Endoparasites live inside the body and are further divided into two other groups:
Protozoans are all single-celled organisms. Malaria is an example.
Helminths, or worms, that infest humans fall in three major groups: flukes,
roundworms and tapeworms.
Parasites are not a disease, but they can spread diseases. Different parasites have different
effects. These protozoa parasites can spread through contaminated food and water, person-
to-person contact, and insect bites These helminth parasites cannot multiply or divide within
a human body and eventually pass through a person’s stool. Ectoparasites since they live on
other animals' skin and suck their blood. Tapeworms are endoparasites, as they attach to
other animals' guts to absorb nutrients from the food they eat.

Viruses
Viruses need to hijack a host cell, like a human body cell, in which to live and make more
viruses. Viruses cannot function if they are outside of a host cell.
The virus approaches the host cell, secures itself to the surface of the host cell and injects its
genetic material through the injection tube and into the host cell. The genetic material makes
multiple copies of itself. New viruses are assembled using chemicals from the host cell. The
original virus dies and breaks down. The host cell splits open and dies. The viruses escape and
release toxins. Each virus will then start another round of replication.
It is at this stage that the viruses within the host cell can remain dormant. In other words,
they sit within the cell without killing it or breaking out. With some viruses such as HIV, this
period can last a number of years. This is why people can remain infected with HIV without
realising they are infected.

The 2 ways viruses reproduce is the lytic or lysogenic cycle. It forces your cells to reproduce.
The outer layer of a virus is a protein coat (capsid), the inside is called a nucleic acid (DNA or
RNA). Viruses have their own genetic material.
 What are some common named examples of
pathogens in each group and what do they
cause?

Which medicines are currently being used to stop

action of these types of pathogen?

Antibiotics are chemicals that kill bacteria or slow down their growth. They can be
found in foods and plants. Some antibiotics block it because it stops the bacteria from
producing protein. This stops them from reproducing. The rhybosomes (normally 70s
for bacteria) produce protein and they are the only organelles, our cells are around
80s so the antibiotics targeted for bacteria normally won't harm us. If one bacterium
resists the antibiots then that will spread to the others making the antibiotic useless.
Some examples include: Erythromycin, penicillin, tetracyclines, macrolides,
clindamycin, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, linezolid, and chloramphenicol.

Anti-fungal medicines work by either: killing the fungus or preventing the fungus from
growing. Parts of the cell that the anti-fungal drugs target include the fungal cell
membrane and the fungal cell wall. These are both protective parts of the cell that can
cause the cell to leak and die when damaged. Human bodies do not have these
structures, meaning antifungal drugs can target the fungi without harming the body’s
cells.
There are four main types of anti-fungal drugs.
Polyenes - These work by altering the wall of the fungal cells to be more porous, thus
making them more likely to burst.
Azoles - They typically target the CYP51 enzyme in fungi and, by so doing, disrupt cell
membrane integrity.
Allylamines - Allylamines work by inhibiting an enzyme that the membrane of the cell
requires to operate correctly. Without this membrane, the cell is likely to be unable
to function.
Echinocandins - Echinocandins target the glucans that are found in fungal cell walls
but not in human cells and prevent production of the main structural polymer in the
fungal cell wall.

The treatment for parasite infections depends on the particular type of parasite.
Doctors may prescribe medication that kills the parasite and medication that treats
any symptoms, such as diarrhoea. Taking measures such as using insect repellent,
eating properly cooked fish and meat, and drinking water only from sealed bottles
when traveling may help prevent a parasite infection. A few examples are
metronidazole, ivermectin, chloroquine, praziquantel.

Antiviral drugs are prescription medicines (tablets, liquids, an inhaled powder, or an

intravenous solution) that fight against viruses in the body. These are their functions:
Able to enter the cells infected with a virus
Interfere with viral nucleic acid synthesis and/or regulation
Some agents interfere with the virus' ability to bind with a cell
Some agents stimulate the body's immune system
Inhibit viral attachment
Prevent genetic copying of virus
Prevent viral protein production, which is vital for the reproduction of the virus.
Atazanavir, darunavir, fosamprenavir, ritonavir, saquinavir, tipranavir are some
examples of antiviral drugs. They block the action of integrase, preventing the viral
genome from inserting itself into the DNA of a host cell.