CHP 462 Final Report

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT: CHEMICAL AND PROCESSING ENGINEERING

TASK: FINAL REPORT
COURSE TITLE: CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN II
COURSE CODE: CHP 462
DATE: 1st May 2023
NAME REG NO
MOSES KITETO CPE/19/19
BERYL VIDIJA CPE/40/19
JUDY GITONGA CPE/09/19
NJANJA VERONICA CPE/33/19
BARACK OTIENO CPE/03/19
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. LITERATURE REVIEW.....................................................................................................................6
1.1 INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................6
1.2 MANUFACTURING PROCESS....................................................................................................7
1.2.1 RAW MATERIAL....................................................................................................................7
1.2.2 APPLE WASHING..................................................................................................................7
1.2.3 MILLING, PRESSING & FILTRATION..............................................................................7
1.2.4 PASTEURIZATION................................................................................................................8
1.2.5 APPLE JUICE PRODUCTION..............................................................................................8
1.2.6 PROBIOTIC BEVERAGE PRODUCTION..........................................................................9
1.2.7 VINEGAR PRODUCTION.....................................................................................................9
1.2.8 CIDER PRODUCTION.........................................................................................................10
1.2.9 SPIRIT PRODUCTION.........................................................................................................11
1.2.10 AGED SPIRIT PRODUCTION...........................................................................................12
1.3 PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM.....................................................................................................13
2. MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE.........................................................................................14
2.1 MATERIAL BALANCE...............................................................................................................14
2.1.1 PROBIOTIC BEVERAGE PRODUCTION........................................................................14
2.1.2 APPLE JUICE PRODUCTION............................................................................................16
2.1.3 VINEGAR PRODUCTION...................................................................................................17
2.1.5 SPIRIT PRODUCTION FROM CIDER..............................................................................23
2.1.5 SPIRIT PRODUCTION FROM POMACE.........................................................................25
2.1.7 AGED SPIRIT PRODUCTION.............................................................................................27
2.2 ENERGY BALANCES.................................................................................................................31
2.2.1 PASTEURIZATION..............................................................................................................31
2.2.2 APPLE JUICE PRODUCTION............................................................................................31
2.2.3 PROBIOTIC BEVERAGE PRODUCTION........................................................................32
2.2.4 VINEGAR PRODUCTION...................................................................................................33
2.2.6 SPIRIT PRODUCTION.........................................................................................................35
2.2.6 AGED SPIRIT PRODUCTION.............................................................................................36
3. EQUIPMENT SIZING AND DESIGN..............................................................................................38
3.1 BATCH BIOREACTORS.............................................................................................................38
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3.1.1 PROCESS DESIGN................................................................................................................39
3.1.1.1 REACTOR AND REACTION METRICS....................................................................39
3.1.1.2 REACTION TIME..........................................................................................................40
3.1.1.3 REACTOR SHELL.........................................................................................................41
3.1.1.4 REACTOR AGITATOR.................................................................................................43
3.1.1.5 REACTOR BAFFLES.....................................................................................................45
3.1.2 MECHANICAL DESIGN......................................................................................................46
3.1.2.1 MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION..............................................................................46
3.1.2.2 REACTOR WALL THICKNESS..................................................................................46
3.1.2.3 REACTOR COOLING SURFACE................................................................................47
3.1.3 REACTOR VISUAL DISPLAY............................................................................................51
3.2 HEAT EXCHANGERS.................................................................................................................52
3.2.1 PROCESS DESIGN................................................................................................................53
3.2.1.1 HEAT TRANSFER AREA..............................................................................................53
3.2.2.2 HEAT EXCHANGER TUBES THICKNESS................................................................55
3.2.2.3 HEAT EXCHANGER BUNDLE DIAMETER.............................................................55
3.2.2.4 HEAT EXCHANGER SHELL INSIDE DIAMETER..................................................56
3.3 DISTILLATION COLUMNS.......................................................................................................57
3.3.1 PROCESS DESIGN................................................................................................................58
3.3.1.1 OPERATING PRESSURE..............................................................................................59
3.3.1.2 NUMBER OF THEORETICAL STAGES....................................................................60
3.3.2.2 COLUMN INTERNAL DIAMETER.............................................................................64
3.3.2.3 COLUMN HEIGHT........................................................................................................66
3.3.2.4 COLUMN THICKNESS.................................................................................................67
3.3.2.5 COLUMN SHELL MASS...............................................................................................67
4. PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION......................................................................68
4.1 BIOREACTORS............................................................................................................................68
4.2 HEAT EXCHANGERS.................................................................................................................68
4.3 DISTILLATION COLUMNS.......................................................................................................68
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4.4 PIPING & INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAM..........................................................................69
5. COST ESTIMATION.........................................................................................................................70
5.1 TOTAL PLANT COST.................................................................................................................70
5.1.1 FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT........................................................................................70
5.1.1.1 DIRECT COSTS..............................................................................................................70
5.1.1.1.1 PURCHASED EQUIPMENT COST.......................................................................70
5.1.1.1.1.1 HAMMER MILL...............................................................................................70
5.1.1.1.1.2 CONVEYORS....................................................................................................71
5.1.1.1.1.3 FILTER PRESS.................................................................................................72
5.1.1.1.1.4 HEAT EXCHANGERS.....................................................................................73
5.1.1.1.1.5 BIOREACTORS................................................................................................82
5.1.1.1.1.6 DISTILLATION COLUMNS...........................................................................94
5.1.1.1.1.7 CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATORS...................................................................114
5.1.1.1.1.8 STORAGE TANKS.........................................................................................116
5.1.1.1.1.9 OAK BARRELS...............................................................................................119
5.1.1.1.1.10 TOTAL PURCHASED EQUIPMENT COST.............................................120
5.1.1.1.2 PURCHASED EQUIPMENT INSTALLATION COST......................................120
5.1.1.1.3 INSULATION COST.............................................................................................120
5.1.1.1.4 INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL COST.................................................120
5.1.1.1.5 PIPING COST.........................................................................................................121
5.1.1.1.6 ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS COST...........................................................121
5.1.1.1.7 BUILDING AND SERVICES COST....................................................................121
5.1.1.1.8 YARD IMPROVEMENTS COST.........................................................................121
5.1.1.1.9 SERVICE FACILITIES COST.............................................................................122
5.1.1.1.10 LAND COST.........................................................................................................122
5.1.1.1.10 TOTAL DIRECT COSTS....................................................................................122
5.1.1.2 INDIRECT COSTS.......................................................................................................122
5.1.1.2.1 ENGINEERING AND SUPERVISION COST.....................................................122
5.1.1.2.2 CONSTRUCTION EXPENSE...............................................................................123
5.1.1.2.3 CONTRACTOR’S FEE..........................................................................................123
5.1.1.2.4 CONTINGENCIES COST.....................................................................................123
5.1.1.2.5 STARTUP EXPENSE.............................................................................................123
5.1.1.2.6 TOTAL INDIRECT COSTS..................................................................................123
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5.1.1.3 TOTAL FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT................................................................124
5.1.2 WORKING CAPITAL INVESTMENT.............................................................................124
5.1.3 TOTAL PLANT COST........................................................................................................124
5.2 PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS..................................................................................................124
5.2.1 RATE OF RETURN ON INVESTMENT (ROR)..............................................................125
6. HAZARD AND OPERABILITY ANALYSIS (HAZOP)...............................................................126
7. PLANT LOCATION AND FACILITY LAYOUT.........................................................................127
7.1 PLANT LOCATION...................................................................................................................127
7.2 PLANT LAYOUT........................................................................................................................129
8. REFERENCES..................................................................................................................................130
9. APPENDICES...................................................................................................................................133
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1. LITERATURE REVIEW
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Apple products biorefinery industry is one of the fastest growing sectors in food processing
making it a promising industry to invest. It involves the production of various apple products
such as apple juice, probiotic beverage, vinegar, cider, spirits and aged spirits while minimizing
as much wastes as possible. It is a simple production process and economical where the raw
materials, apples are first washed, milled and pressed to extract crude apple juice which is
separated from the apple pomace wastes. The apple pomace is used in the manufacture of spirit.
The crude apple juice then undergoes pasteurization to kill microorganisms. The subsequent
stages of production will depend on the desired apple product to be produced. In apple juice
processing, the crude apple juice undergoes clarification where it is first depectinised to remove
the cloudiness and then undergoes centrifugal separation to remove the solid particles and any
unwanted substances thus resulting to apple juice. In probiotic beverage processing the crude
apple juice undergoes fermentation in the presence of lactic acid bacteria to produce the probiotic
beverage. In vinegar processing the crude apple juice is first fermented using yeast to form
alcohol which then undergoes acetification process where the alcohol is converted to acetic acid,
the main component in vinegar resulting to vinegar. In Cider processing the crude apple juice
undergoes fermentation using yeast to form Cider. Spirit is manufactured from apple pomace and
cider. Using apple pomace, the apple pomace is mixed with water and yeast and then fermented
which results to low alcohol content which is then distilled to form spirit. Using cider, the cider
is distilled forming spirit. Aged spirit is manufactured from Cider where the cider undergoes
double distillation to increase the alcohol content and then aged in oak barrels resulting to aged
spirit.
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1.2 MANUFACTURING PROCESS
1.2.1 RAW MATERIAL
The main raw material in apple products biorefinery is the apples produced by an apple tree,
Malus domestica. Apples trees are cultivated worldwide specifically genus Malus species is
widely grown. The quality of the fruit is extremely important in the manufacturing process and is
major factor to consider in production in terms of both its physical and chemical properties. The
following are the physical and chemical properties of an apple, Kheiralipour K et al. (2008)
Physical Properties Chemical Properties
Mass 150 g Glucose 2 - 3%
Density 0.75 Fructose 5 - 6%
g/cm3
Size 65 mm Sucrose 0.3 - 1%
(diameter)
Juice content 85% Ascorbic 4 - 6%
acid
Fiber 15% Pectin 0.5 - 1%
After quality analysis, the apples which meet the required standard are fed into a feeding unit and
then transported in conveyors to the subsequent industrial manufacturing equipment for
production into the various apple products.
1.2.2 APPLE WASHING
Apples during plucking, transportation and handling during feeding into the process get
contaminated physically by mud and other agents are thus washed before the process of
production begins. The most efficient equipment that is mostly used is the apple washing
machine, an automated washing machine that uses water and soft brushes to clean fruits and
vegetables, in this case apples and contains a speed regulation with frequency converter where
the speed of the machine is adjusted depending with the capacity of the operating line. The fresh
water and the apples flow counter-currently thus there is Gradual exchange of water during
washing: inflow of fresh water at the exit of fruits from washer, outflow of wastewater at
overflow at the entrance of fruits in the washer. At the outlet, the machine contains a long slide
where the apples drain and remove impurities before the subsequent manufacturing process. The
used water during washing is treated and recycled and used in the process thus making the
process economically efficient.
1.2.3 MILLING, PRESSING & FILTRATION
The cleaned apples are then chopped or ground into small pieces called pomace using a
mechanical mill or crusher. This breaks down the apple cells and releases the juice. The pomace
is then placed into a press, which squeezes the juice out of the pulp. There are several types of
presses that can be used, including hydraulic presses and screw presses. The juice is collected
and taken for further processing while the remaining pulp is collected and stored in a cool and
dry location until ready for use in the manufacture of spirit. The freshly squeezed apple juice
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may contain small pulp particles or sediment, so it is typically filtered through a fine mesh filter
machine to remove any impurities. The resulting juice is called crude apple juice.
1.2.4 PASTEURIZATION
Pasteurization is the process of heating substances such as beverages, to a specific temperature
for a set amount of time in order to kill any harmful bacteria or microorganisms that may be
present. In apple products manufacture, the apple juice is heated at a temperature of 71.7 oC for
15 seconds followed by rapid cooling to room temperature. This temperature and time
combination is enough to kill most bacteria and microorganisms that may be present in the juice,
while still preserving the taste and nutritional value of the juice. The equipment is basically a
shell and tube heat exchanger where steam from the boiler passes through the shell side and
crude fruit juice passes through the tubes. In the process, heat transfer takes places resulting to
the required pasteurization temperature flows to another heat exchanger where it is cooled
rapidly. The resulting crude apple juice contains 4.625g glucose, 4.292g fructose and 0.125g
sucrose per 100g crude apple juice. After pasteurization the pasteurized crude apple juice
undergoes different processes depending on the apple product to be formed.
1.2.5 APPLE JUICE PRODUCTION
The crude apple juice is clarified to form apple juice in two subsequent processes:
depectinisation and centrifugal separation. After pasteurization, the juice is passed through a heat
exchanger to raise its temperature to a range of 30-400C. This ensures for optimum conditions of
the enzymes in the succeeding processes.
Depectinisation
The crude apple juice is cloudy and unclear. This is because the building blocks of apples
include pectin, a polysaccharide that makes up the cell walls of the fruit. During milling and
pressing pectin becomes suspended in the juice and can thus create a haze appearance. Thus, the
crude apple juice first undergoes depectinisation in a bioreactor where the crude apple juice is
combined with 0.025% pectinases enzymes, Bentonite(50g/100L), Gelatin(15g/100L) and
Sol(25ml/100L) at a temperature range of 34-400C and a pH of 3.5. Under these conditions the
pectinases enzymes work optimally breaking down pectin polymer into galacturonic acid
monomers as shown;
(C6H8O6) n + nH2O nC6H10O7
(Pectin) (Galacturonic acid)
Addition of pectinase enzyme acts on the pectin and breaks the glycosidic bonds present between
the galacturonic acid monomers thereby decreasing the water holding capacity of pectin. This
results in flocculation of the pectin and protein complexes which are removed by centrifugation
in the next stage of production.
Centrifugal separation
The resulting crude apple juice undergoes centrifugation in a centrifugal separator. The
centrifugal separator works by spinning the juice rapidly, typically speeds of several thousand
revolutions per minute. This causes the denser solid particles, such as pulp particulates and
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depectinisation waste products to be pushed to the outer edge of the separator bowl, while the
less dense liquid component, which is the clear apple juice, remains in the center of the bowl. As
the juice spins, the separated solids accumulate in a layer against the inner wall of the separator
bowl and are discharged from the equipment. Meanwhile, the clarified juice is continuously
extracted from the center of the bowl, collected and stored. Mostly 98% of the crude apple juice
is separated as apple juice while the rest as solids.
1.2.6 PROBIOTIC BEVERAGE PRODUCTION
Probiotic beverage is manufactured through fermentation of crude apple juice. After
pasteurization, the juice is passed through a heat exchanger to raise its temperature to a range of
35–400C. This ensures that the juice is at the right temperature for optimum conditions of the
enzymes in the succeeding processes.
Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis is the process where sucrose disaccharide sugar is broken down to its monomers;
glucose and fructose in the presence of invertase enzyme. The crude apple juice enters the first
bioreactor where the crude apple juice interacts with the invertase enzyme breaking down
sucrose in the apple juice into Glucose and Fructose as shown;
C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
(Sucrose) (Glucose) (Fructose)
The reactions occur at 30–40 oC and a pH of 4.0–4.5 where the invertase enzyme work
optimally.
Fermentation
The formed sugars and the already present sugars in the crude apple juice interacts with lactic
bacteria such as Lactobacillus acidophilus which breaks down some of the glucose and fructose
into lactic acid as shown;
C6H12O6 2CH3CHOHCOOH
(Glucose) (Lactic acid)
(Fructose) (Lactic acid)
The reactions occur at 35–40 oC and a pH of 4.0–4.5 where the Lactobacillus acidophilus
bacterium works optimally and anaerobically in the absence of oxygen. The production process
takes 48 hours to complete. The resulting solution from the bioreactor containing 2% lactic acid,
1.5% glucose, 1.5% fructose and the rest other subsance is called probiotic beverage and is
collected and stored.
1.2.7 VINEGAR PRODUCTION
Vinegar is manufactured in three production processes. After pasteurization, the juice is passed
through a heat exchanger to raise its temperature to a range of 25 – 400C. This ensures that the
9
juice is at the right temperature for optimum conditions of the enzymes in the succeeding
processes.
Hydrolysis
C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
optimally.
Fermentation
The crude apple juice enters the second bioreactor where the sugars in the crude apple juice are
interacted with Saccharomyces cerevisiae enzyme (yeast) which breaks down the sugars,
fructose and glucose, anaerobically into alcohol as shown;
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
(Sugars) (Alcohol)
The reaction occurs at 30 –350C and a pH of 4.0–4.5 where yeast works optimally. The formed
alcohol is taken to second manufacturing process.
Acetification
The alcohol produced during fermenatation process undergoes acetification process in the final
bioreactor. The alcohol interacts with acetobacter bacteria which converts the alcohol aerobiaclly
into acetic acid, the main substance in vinegar as shown;
C2H5OH + O2 CH3COOH + H2O
(Alcohol) (Acetic acid)
The reaction occurs at 25 –350C and a pH of 3.0–3.5 where the acetobacter bacteria works
optimally. The entire process of production takes about four months. The resulting liquid
containing 4–8% acetic acid, 0.2% glucose and 0.2% fructose is called vinegar and is collected
and stored.
1.2.8 CIDER PRODUCTION
Cider is manufacture through fermentation of apple juice. After pasteurization, the juice is
passed through a heat exchanger to lower its temperature to a range of 25 – 350C. This ensures
that the juice is at the right temperature for optimum conditions of the enzymes in the succeeding
processes. A very fine crude juice is required in the manufacture of cider and thus the juice
undergoes centrifugal separation before being fed into the bioreactor.
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The crude apple juice undergoes centrifugation in a centrifugal separator. The centrifugal
separator works by spinning the juice rapidly, typically speeds of several thousand revolutions
per minute. This causes the denser solid particles to be pushed to the outer edge of the separator
bowl, while the less dense liquid component, which is the clear apple juice, remains in the center
of the bowl. As the juice spins, the separated solids accumulate in a layer against the inner wall
of the separator bowl and are discharged from the equipment. Meanwhile, the fine apple juice is
continuously extracted from the center of the bowl and taken to the next production process. 98%
of fine apple juice is recovered and taken for subsequent processes.
Hydrolysis
C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
optimally.
Fermentation
The fine crude juice interacts with Saccharomyces cerevisiae enzyme (yeast) in a bioreactor
which breaks down the sugars in juice, glucose and fructose anaerobically into alcohol as show;
(Sugars) (Alcohol)
The reaction occurs at 25 – 330C and a pH of 4.0–4.5 where yeast works optimally. The liquid
formed containing 4–8% alcohol is cider and is taken for storage. Some of the cider undergoes
further processing to form spirit and aged spirit.
1.2.9 SPIRIT PRODUCTION
Spirit is manufactured in two independent manufacturing process. Spirit can be manufactured
either from cider or from pomace.
Using Cider
The formed 4–8% alcohol cider undergoes distillation in a continuous distillation column
resulting 40–45% alcohol spirit which is separated as distillate at the top of the column while
stillage which is a mixture of water and organic compounds separates as bottoms. The resulting
spirit is taken for storage.
Using pomace
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The apple pomace from milling and pressing process is used in the manufacture spirit. After all
the crude apple juice has been extracted the resulting pulp is stored in a cool and dry location
awaiting the production. Production begins where the pulp is interacted with water and
Saccharomyces cerevisiae enzyme (yeast) in a bioreactor. The yeast breaks down the sugars in
the pulp anaerobically and produces alcohol as a byproduct as shown;
(Sugars) (Alcohol)
The spent pomace consisting of remaining solids and organic matter may be discarded as waste
or processed further for example maybe used as animal feed where the residual nutrients are
beneficial to livestock, used as fertilizer to increase soil fertility or energy production where it is
broken down by microorganisms to form biogas. The liquid formed in the bioreactor contains 4–
8% alcohol which is distilled in a continuous distillation column where 40–45% alcohol spirit
separates as distillate while stillage which is a mixture of water and organic compounds separates
as bottoms. The formed spirit is taken for storage.
1.2.10 AGED SPIRIT PRODUCTION
Aged spirit is manufactured into two processes; double distillation followed by aging;
Double distillation
The 4–8% alcohol cider undergoes further processing to form aged spirit. The cider is distillated
twice in two subsequent distillation columns. In the first distillation, 30–40% alcohol content
spirit separates as distillate while stillage which is a mixture of water and organic compounds
separates as bottoms. The 30–40% alcohol content spirit undergoes further distillation in the
second distillation column where 60–70% alcohol separate as distillate stillage which is a
mixture of water and organic compounds separates as bottoms.
Aging
The resulting 60–70% alcohol spirit then undergoes aging process where the spirit is aged in oak
barrels for a period of time to develop its flavor and color. The length of aging can vary
depending on the desired flavor. During the aging process, the spirit will absorb flavor and
aroma compounds from the oak barrels. This can include flavors like vanilla, caramel, and spice.
The type of oak used for the barrels, as well as the level of toasting or charring in oak barrels
manufacture, can also have a significant impact on the flavor of the finished product. Toasting
involves heating the oak pieces of wood over an open flame or in an oven to create a light to
medium char. This process caramelizes the natural sugars in the wood, producing flavors like
vanilla, toffee, and spice which can also produce aromas like toasted bread, nutmeg, and clove.
Charring involves burning the inside of the oak pieces of wood before assembling the barrel. The
level of char can vary, with some distillers using a light char and others using a heavier char.
Charring can produce flavors like charcoal, smoke, and burnt sugar, as well as aromas like
toasted marshmallow, coffee, and dark chocolate. Thus, the method of production in the
manufacture of oak barrels will have a significant effect on the nature of aged spirit formed.
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1.3 PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
The flow process diagram shown summarizes the production process;
<Attached>
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2. MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE
2.1 MATERIAL BALANCE
According to the United States Department of Agriculture, probiotic beverage constitutes
averagely of the following;
Probiotic beverage
Constituent g/100g
Lactic acid 2
Fructose 1.5
Glucose 1.5
Other 95
Amount of crude apple juice required per batch

In performing the mass balance around the batch bioreactor, we assume negligible losses
between the batches. As such, the mass of the non-substrate component of the feed remains
constant;
The proposed plant aims ¿ produce 2000 tonnes of probiotic beverage per annum
Perfoming mass balance around a single batch ;
The total amount of probiotic bevarage produced per annum=2000000 kg
The number of batches∈ year=150 batches /annum
2000000 kg
Amount of probiotic bevarage produced per batch=
150
Amount of probiotic bevarage produced per batch=13333.33 kg
Lactobacillus
acidophilus
Probiotic beverage 13333.33 kg

Crude apple juice 13333.33 kg Lactic acid 2 g/100g
Batch
kg
Bioreactor
Glucose 1.5 g/100g
Fructose 1.5 g/100g
2
Amount of lactic acid ∈ probiotic bevarage= ×13333.33=266.67 kg
100
14
(Sugars) (Lactic acid)
266.67 kg
266.6666
Moles of lactic= =2.963 kmoles
90
2.963
Mass of sugars= ×180=266.67 kg
2
Amount of sugarsthat reacted =266.67 kg
3
Amount of unreacted sugars= ×13333.33 kg=400 kg
100
95
Amount of non−substrate component= × 13333.33 kg=12666.66 kg
100
Total amount of crude apple juice fed per batch=266.67 +400+12666.66
Total amount of crude apple juice fed per batch=13333.33 kg
Amount of crude apple juice required per annum
The number of batches∈ year=150 batches /annum
Total amount of crude apple juice required per annum=13333.33 kg ×150
Total amount of crude apple juice required per annum=2000000 kg
After pasteurization, the pasterurized crude juice is separated into four streams; apple juice
production, probiotic bevarage production, Vinegar production and Cider,spirit and aged spirit
production. It is thus reasonable to divide the mass of crude apple juice going into the
productions lines as;
Apple juice Probiotic beverage Vinegar Cider, spirit & aged spirit
1 : 1 : 1 : 3
It worth mentioning that this ratio might change depending on the consumer demand.
Total amount of crude juice required for all the production lines;
Amount of crudeapple juice ∈ production of probiotic beverage=2000000 kg
Amount of crudeapple juice for all production lines=2000000 kg ×6
Amount of crudeapple juice for all production lines=12000000 kg
15
Assuming no losses, the total amount of crude juice passing through the pasteurizer remains
constant and thus the same amount of crude juice is coming out of the pressing separator and
filtering sections where the juice is extracted and separated from the pulp.
The ratio of crude apple juice to the pulp from the physical properties of an apple is given as
85:15. Thus the total number of apples required is given as;
12000000
Total mass of apples required= =14117647 kg
0.85
The average mass of one apple=150 g
14117647
Total number of apples required per annum= =94117647 apples
0.15
Depectinisation
Pectin accounts for 0.5 – 1% of crude apple juice which is broken down and removed as
monomer sugars from the juice. We can determine what amount is removed from the crude apple
juice as;
(C6H8O6)n + nH2O nC6H10O7
Apple pectin averagely contains 550 Galacturonic acid monomers.
Thus,
(C6H8O6)550 + 550H2O 550C6H10O7
Pectinases
Crude apple juice 2000000 kg Clear juice + Galacturonic acid monomers

Batch
Bioreactor
Pectin 0.75 g/100g
Total amount of crude apple juice fed per annum=2000000 kg

0.75
Mass of pectin= × 2000000=15000 kg
100
15000
Moles of pectin= =0.15496 kmoles
96800
16
Mass of Galacturonic acid monomers=0.15496 ×96800=15000 kg
The clear juice enters the centrifugal separator where 98% of the crude juice separates as juice
and the rest solid products which are removed alongside the acid Galacturonic monomers
2% losses
Clear juice + Clear apple juice

Centrifugal
Galacturonic acid monomers Separator
solid products + Galacturonic acid monomers

98
Amount of apple juice= ×( 2000000−15000)
100
Amount of apple juice=¿1945300 Kg
According to the United States Department of Agriculture, crude apple constitutes averagely of
the following;
Crude apple juice
Constituent g/100g
Glucose 4.625
Fructose 4.292
Sucrose 0.125
Other 90.958
The amount of crude apple juice used in the production of vinegar is 2000 tonnes per annum
from the stream ratio;
4.625
Amount of glucose= × 2000000=92500 kg
100
4.292
Amount of Fructose= ×2000000=85840 kg
100
0.125
Amount of Sucrose= ×2000000=2500 kg
100
90.958
Amount of other substances ( inerts )= ×2000000=1819160 kg
100
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Hydrolysis
Invertase
Glucose + Fructose
Batch
2500 Kg sucrose Bioreactor
H2O
Invertase enzyme first breaks down sucrose to Glucose and Fructose as shown;
C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O6

Mass of sucrose=2500 kg
2500
Moles of sucrose= =7.30994 kmoles
342
Mass of Glucose=7.30994 ×180=1315.7895 kg
Mass of Fructose=7.30994 × 180=1315.7895 kg
Mass of water added ¿ facilitate hydrolysis=7.30994 ×18=131.57895 kg
Fermentation
CO2
Apple juice – high sugar Batch

concentration Bioreactor
Alcohol
18
Total amount of sugars at the start of the second bioreaction;
Mass of Glucose=1315.7895+92500=93815.7895 kg
Mass of Fructose=1315.7895+ 85840=87155.7895 kg
Vinegar contains 0.2% glucose and 0.2% fructose. Assuming negligible mass change between
the crude apple juice and final vinegar produced the mass of sugars that reacted;
99.8
Mass of Glucose that reacted = × 93815.7895=93628.156 kg
100
99.8
Mass of Fructose that reacted = × 87155.7895=86981.478 kg
100
Saccharomyces cerevisiae enzyme (yeast) which breaks down the sugars, fructose and glucose,
into alcohol;
(Glucose) (Alcohol)
93628.156 kg
93628.156
Moles of glucose= =520.1564 kmoles
180
Mass of alcohol=520.1564 × 2× 46=47854.3908 kg
(Fructose) (Alcohol)
86981.478 kg
86981.478
Moles of fructose= =483.2304 kmoles
180
Mass of alcohol=483.2304 ×2 ×46=44457.2 kg
Total amount of alcohol produced during fermentation;
Total Mass of alcohol=47854.3908+44457.2=92311.5907 kg
Acetification
The alcohol interacts with acetobacter bacteria which converts the alcohol into acetic acid, the
main substance in vinegar as shown;
92311.5907 kg
19
CO2
C2H5OH Batch
Bioreactor
C2H5OH
92311.5907
Moles of alcohol= =2006.774 kmoles
46
Mass of acetic acid=2006.774 ×60=120406.44 kg
Mass of water =2006.774 ×18=36121.932 kg
Total amount of vinegar produced consists of acetic acid, water produced during acetification
unreacted sugars and inerts. Thus;
0.4
Total amount of vinegar=120406.44 + ×2000000+1819160+36121.932
100
Total amount of vinegar produced per annum=1983688.372 kg
120406.44 kg
Percentage of acetic acid ∈vinegar= × 100=6.0698 %
1983688.372 kg
As mentioned earlier cider requires very fine apple juice for production. Using the centrifugal
separator 98% of fine apple juice is recovered at the center of the bowl and taken for subsequent
processes.
2% losses
Crude apple juice fine apple juice

Centrifugal
Separator
solid products
20
98
Amount of apple juice recovered= ×6000000=5880000 kg
100
4.625
Amount of glucose= × 5880000=271950 kg
100
4.292
Amount of Fructose= ×5880000=252369.6 kg
100
0.125
Amount of Sucrose= ×5880000=7350 kg
100
90.958
Amount ofother substances ( inerts )= × 5880000=5348330.4 kg
100
Hydrolysis
Invertase
Glucose + Fructose
Batch
2500 Kg sucrose Bioreactor
H2O
Invertase enzyme first breaks down sucrose to Glucose and Fructose as shown;
C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Mass of sucrose=7350 kg
7350
Moles of sucrose= =21.49123 kmoles
342
Mass of Glucose=21.49123 ×180=3868.421 kg
Mass of Fructose=21.49123 × 180=3868.421 kg
Mass of water added ¿ facilitate hydrolysis=21.49123× 18=368.8421 kg
21
Fermentation
CO2
Apple juice – high sugar Batch

concentration Bioreactor
Alcohol
Total amount of sugars at the start of the second bioreaction

Total amount of sugars at the start of the second bioreaction;
Mass of Glucose=3868.421+271950=275818.421 kg
Mass of Fructose=3868.421+252369.6=256238.021 kg
Cider contains about 0.5% glucose and 0.5% fructose. Thus, the mass of sugars that reacted;
99.5
Mass of Glucose that reacted = ×275818.421=274439.329 kg
100
99.5
Mass of Fructose that reacted= × 256238.021=254956.8309 kg
100
into alcohol;
(Glucose) (Alcohol)
274439.329 kg
274439.329 kg
Moles of glucose= =1524.663 kmoles
180
Mass of alcohol=1524.663 ×2 × 46=140268.9904 kg
(Fructose) (Alcohol)
254956.8309 kg
22
254956.8309 kg
Moles of fructose= =1416.427 kmoles
180
Mass of alcohol=1416.427 ×2 × 46=130311.2691 kg
Total Mass of alcohol=140268.9904 +130311.2691=270580.2595 kg
Total amount of cider produced consists of alcohol, unreacted sugars and inerts. Thus;
1
Total amount of cider=270580.2595+ ×5880000+ 5348330.4
100
Total amount of cider produced per annum=5677710.66 kg
270580.2595 kg
Percentage of alcohol∈cider= ×100=4.7657 %
5677710.66 kg
The amount of cider produced is taken further to three different production lines; storage,
production of spirit and production of aged spirit. It is therefore reasonable to divide the amount
of cider produced 1:1:1 respectively.
1
¿ spirit : ×5677710.66 kg=1892570.22kg /annum
3
Cider : 1
Divider ¿ storage : ×5677710.66 kg=1892570.22 kg /annum
5677710.66 3
kg /annum
1
¿ aged spirit : ×5677710.66 kg=1892570.22 kg /annum
3
2.1.5 SPIRIT PRODUCTION FROM CIDER
Condenser
Distillate
30% alcohol
Feed−Cider Distillation
1892570.22 column
kg /annum
Bottoms
Reboiler 1% alcohol
23
Assuming that the spirit plant will run for 300 days, 24 hours daily in a year allowing for a total
of 60 days averagely of maintenance of equipment;
The amount of cider utilized per day;
1892570.22 kg
Amount of cider= =6308.5674 kg
300 days
The percentage of alcohol is increased from 4.7657 % to 30% in a distillation column forming
spirit which is separated as distillate and stillage comes out as bottoms. However some traces of
alcohol may come out as bottom product approximately 1%.
Taking material balance around the column;
Genela material balance;
Feed=distillate +bottoms
D+ B=6308.5674 kg
Component balance;
0.3 D+0.01 B=0.047657 × 6308.5674 kg
0.3 D+0.01 B=300. 6474 kg
Thus;
Amount of distillate=819.1784 kg
Amount of bottoms=5489.389 kg
Feed Mass(kg)/ day Moles/day Mole fraction
Ethanol 300.6474 6.5358 0.0192
Water 6007.92 333.7733 0.9808
Total 6308.5674 340.3091 1.0000
Distillate Mass(kg)/ day Moles/day Mole fraction

Ethanol 245.7535 5.3425 0.1436
Water 573.4249 31.8569 0.8564
Total 819.1784 37.1995 1.0000
Bottoms Mass(kg)/ day Moles/day Mole fraction

Ethanol 54.8939 1.1933 0.0039
Water 5434.4951 301.9164 0.9961
Total 5489.389 303.1097 1.0000
24
2.1.5 SPIRIT PRODUCTION FROM POMACE
Bioreactor
Apple pomace or pulp is obtained from milling and pressing after the juice has been extracted.
The ratio of crude apple juice to the pulp from the physical properties of an apple is given as
85:15. Thus the amount of apple pulp from the extraction crude apple juice is given as;
15
Amout of pulp= ×12000000=14117647 kg
100
Water is added to dissolve the sugars in the pomace before fermentation to form alcohol.
According to O'Shea et al. (2015) apple pomace contains 3.6% of sugars which approximates to
1.8% glucose and 1.8% fructose with negligible sucrose contents.
Assuming we add water of equal amount in mass to the amount of pulp obtained to dissolve
sugars in it;
Amout of water added=14117647 kg
The amount of glucose and fructose in the dissolve substances in pomace;
1.8
Amout of Glucose= × 14117647=254117.646 kg
100
1.8
Amout of fructose= ×14117647 =254117.646kg
100
Total Mass of sugars=254117.646 kg ×2=508235.292 kg
CO2
Sugars Batch
Bioreactor
Alcohol
into alcohol;
(Sugars) (Alcohol)
508235.292 kg
25
508235.292 kg
Moles of sugars= =2823.5294 kmoles
180
Mass of alcohol=2823.5294 × 2× 46=259764.7048 kg
259764.7048 kg
Percentage of alcohol inthe dissolved solution= =1.84 %
14117647 kg
Distillation column
Condenser
Distillate
70% alcohol
1.84 % Alcohol Distillation
1892570.22 column
kg /annum
Bottoms
Reboiler 1% alcohol
Assuming that the spirit- pomace plant will run for 300 days, 24 hours daily in a year allowing
for a total of 60 days averagely of maintenance of equipment;
14117647 kg
Amount of alcohol solution produced= =47058.8233 kg/day
300 days
The solution from the bioreactor containing 1.84% alcohol is distilled to 30% alcohol in a
distillation column to form spirit. However some traces of alcohol may come out as bottom
product approximately 1%.
Taking material balance around the second distillation column;
D+ B=47058.8233 Kg
Component balance;
0.3 D+0.01 B=0.0184 × 47058.8233 Kg
0.3 D+0.01 B=865.8823 kg
26
Ethanol 865.8823 18.8235 0.0073
Water 46192.9410 2566.2745 0.9927
Total 47058.8233 2585.0980 1.0000

Ethanol 408.9249 8.8897 0.1436
Water 954.1581 53.0088 0.8564
Total 1363.0830 61.8985 1.0000

Ethanol 456.9574 9.9339 0.0039
Water 45238.7829 2513.2657 0.9961
Total 45695.7403 2523.1996 1.0000

First distillation column
Condenser
Distillate
30% alcohol
Feed−Cider Distillation
1892570.22 column
kg /annum
Bottoms
Reboiler 1% alcohol
Assuming that the aged spirit plant will run for 300 days, 24 hours daily in a year allowing for a
total of 60 days averagely of maintenance of equipment;
The amount of cider utilized per day;
27
1892570.22 kg
Amount of cider= =6308.5674 kg
300 days
Taking material balance around the column;
D+ B=6308.5674 kg
Component balance;
0.3 D+0.01 B=0.047657 × 6308.5674 kg
0.3 D+0.01 B=300. 6474 kg
Thus;
Ethanol 300.6474 6.5358 0.0192
Water 6007.92 333.7733 0.9808
Total 6308.5674 340.3091 1.0000

Ethanol 245.7535 5.3425 0.1436
Water 573.4249 31.8569 0.8564
Total 819.1784 37.1995 1.0000

Ethanol 54.8939 1.1933 0.0039
Water 5434.4951 301.9164 0.9961
Total 5489.389 303.1097 1.0000
Second distillation column
Condenser
28
Distillate
70% alcohol
Feed−Spirit Distillation
819.1784 column
kg /day
Bottoms
Reboiler 1% alcohol
The distillate in the first distillation column containing 30% alcolol enters the second distillation
column where it is distilled to 70% alcohol forming aged spirit. However some traces of alcohol
may come out as bottom product approximately 1%.
Amount of distillate=819.1784 kg /day
D+ B=819.1784 Kg
Component balance;
0.7 D+0.01 B=0.3 × 819.1784
0.7 D+0.01 B=245.7535 kg
Ethanol 245.7535 5.3425 0.1436
Water 573.4249 31.8569 0.8564
Total 819.1784 37.1995 1.0000

Ethanol 241.0046 5.2392 0.4773
Water 103.2877 5.7382 0.5227
Total 344.2923 10.9774 1.0000
29
Ethanol 4.7789 0.1039 0.0039
Water 473.1072 26.2837 0.9961
Total 477.8861 26.3876 1.0000
30
2.2 ENERGY BALANCES
2.2.1 PASTEURIZATION
Consists of two shell and tube heat exchangers that sequentially heat the crude apple juice at a
temperature of 71.7 oC for 15 seconds followed by rapid cooling to room temperature killing
microorganism while preserving the taste and nutritional value of the juice.
Inlet temperature = 25 oC
Oulet temperature = 71.7 oC
The specific heat capacity of apple juice = 3.86 kJ/kgoC
We assume that the plant will run for 300 days, 24 hours daily in a year allowing for a total of 60
days averagely of maintenance of equipment.
12000000 kg
Mass flowrate=
300 ×24 × 3600
Mass flowrate=0.46296 kg /s
Amount of energy required to raise the temperature of crude apple juice;
Q= ṁ×C p ×∆ T
Q=0.46296 ×3.86 ×(71.7−25)

Q=83.4541 kW
From Gerken et al. (2021) energy loss – mass flowrate correlation, Figure 2 – appendices, the
mass flowrate of steam corresponding to the energy loss due to heating the juice;
ṁs =0.13 kg /s
Saturated steam at temperatures between 100 – 180 oC is recommended as a heating medium,

Table 4 – appendices.
Outlet temperature of steam assuming negligible energy losses;
QJ =QS =ṁs C p ∆ T
83.4541=0.13 ×4.2 ×(180−T h 2)

T h 2=27.1537oC

Depectinisation reaction in the bioreactor occur at 34–40 oC where the pectinases bacteria work
optimally.
Consider the heat exchanger just before the bioreactor which raises the temperature of crude
apple juice to the required temperature before entering the bioreactor;
31
Inlet temperature from the pasteurizer = 25 oC
Required average temperature of crude juice before entering the bioreactor = 37 oC
Mass of crude juice passing through the heat exchanger = 2000000kg
2000000 kg
Mass flowrate=
300 ×24 × 3600
Q= ṁ×C p ×∆ T
Q=0.07716 ×3.86 ×(37−25)

Q=3.5741 kW
ṁs =0.0334 kg /s

3.5741=0.0334 × 4.2×(180−T h 2 )
T h 2=154.5217oC

Both hydrolysis and fermentation reactions in the bioreactors occur at 35–40 oC where the
invertase enzyme and Lactobacillus acidophilus bacterium work optimally.
Required average temperature of crude juice before entering the bioreactor = 37.5 oC
Mass flowrate of crude juice passing through the heat exchanger;
32
days averagely of maintenance of equipment. Probiotic beverage takes 48 hours to ferment in the
bioreactors thus the production will occur only 150 days in a year allowing for completion of the
entire process before the next batch.
2000000 kg
Mass flowrate=
150 ×24 × 3600
Mass flowrate=0.15432 kg/ s
Q= ṁ×C p ×∆ T
Q=0.15432× 3.86 ×(37.5−25)

Q=7.44598 kW
ṁs =0.0348 kg /s

7.44598=0.0348 ×4.2 ×(180−T h 2 )

T h 2=129.056oC

Hydrolysis, fermentation and acetification processes in the bioreactors occur at 25 –40 oC where
the invertase enzyme, Saccharomyces cerevisiae enzyme (yeast) and acetobacter bacterium work
optimally.
We assume that the Vinegar production plant will run for 360 days, 24 hours daily. in the year
allowing for a total of 5 days averagely of maintenance of equipment. Vinegar takes 4 months to
33
be produced in the bioreactors thus the production will occur only 3 days in a year allowing for
completion of the entire process before the next batch.
2000000 kg
Mass flowrate=
3 ×24 × 3600
Q= ṁ×C p ×∆ T
Q=7.71605 × 3.86 ×(30−25)

Q=148.9198 kW
ṁs =0.232 kg/ s

148.9198=0.232× 4.2 ×(180−T h 2)

T h 2=27.1677oC

optimally.
We assume that the Cider plant will run for 360 days, 24 hours daily in a year allowing for a total
of 5 days averagely of maintenance of equipment. Cider takes 2 months to be produced in the
bioreactors thus the production will occur only 6 days allowing for completion of the entire
process before the next batch.
34
5880000 kg
Mass flowrate=
6 × 24 ×3600
Amount of energy required for distillation at the condenser;
Q= ṁ×C p ×∆ T
Q=11.34259 ×3.86 ×(33−25)

Q=350.2593 kW
ṁs =0.546 kg /s

350.2593=0.546 × 4.2×(180−T h 2 )
T h 2=27.2618oC
2.2.6 SPIRIT PRODUCTION

Considering the energy balance around the condenser of the distillation column. The role of a
condenser is to cool down the generated vapors and convert them back into the liquid form.
Vapour distillate temperature containing 30% alcohol = 148 oC, Bergland (1982)
Liquid distillate temperature containing 30% alcohol = 25 oC, Bergland (1982)
Specific heat capacity of water = 4.187 kJ/kgoC
Specific heat capacity of ethanol = 2.46 kJ/kgoC
Average heat capacity is given as;
C L =∑ C Li x i
C L =4.187 × 0.7+2.46 × 0.3
C L =3.6689kJ/kgoC
We assume that the spirit plant will run for 300 days, 24 hours daily in a year allowing for a total
of 60 days averagely of maintenance of equipment and the plant has enough storage facilities.
35
Mass of distillate passing through the condenser per annum = 245753.5062 kg
245753.5062 kg
Mass flowrate=
300 × 24 ×3600
Amount of energy required to lower the temperature of the vapour distillate the temperature of
ethanol water mixture;
Q= ṁ×C L × ∆ T
Q=0.00948× 3.6689 ×(148−25)

Q=4.2781 kW
The first distillation column
Vapour distillate temperature containing 30% alcohol = 148 oC, Bergland (1982)
C L =∑ C Li x i
C L =4.187 × 0.7+2.46 × 0.3
C L =3.6689kJ/kgoC
We assume that the aged spirit plant will run for 300 days, 24 hours daily in a year allowing for a
total of 60 days averagely of maintenance of equipment and the plant has enough storage
facilities.
245753.5062 kg
Mass flowrate=
300 × 24 ×3600
Q= ṁ×C L × ∆ T
36
Q=0.00948× 3.6689 ×(148−25)
Q=4.2781 kW
The second distillation column
Vapour distillate temperature containing 70% alcohol = 177.6 oC, Bergland (1982)
C L =∑ C Li x i
C L =4.187 × 0.3+2.46 × 0.7
C L =2.9781kJ/kgoC
We assume that the aged spirit plant will run for 300 days, 24 hours daily in a year allowing for a
total of 60 days averagely of maintenance of equipment and the plant has enough storage
facilities and aging oak barrels.
103287.7056 kg
Mass flowrate=
300 × 24 ×3600
Q= ṁ×C L × ∆ T
Q=0.003985× 2.9781×(177.6−25)
Q=1.81102 kW
37
3. EQUIPMENT SIZING AND DESIGN
3.1 BATCH BIOREACTORS
Bioreactors are the heart of the process in the manufacture of apple fruit products. In designing
the batch bioreactors, we consider the batch bioreactor in the production of probiotic beverages.
The apple juice containing sugars mainly fructose and glucose is fed batchwise into the
bioreactor where it is interacted with Lactobacillus acidophilus bacteria anaerobically at
temperatures of 35–40 oC and a pH of 4.0–4.5 which converts the most the sugars into lactic
acid, the main component in probiotic beverage;
(Glucose) (Lactic acid)
(Fructose) (Lactic acid)
Fig 2.1 Batch bioreactor

A batch bioreactor is a constant volume reaction vessel with no inlet or outlet flows. The
bioreactor is first filled with the desired concentration of substrate, in this case, crude apple juice
containing sugars. The contents of the reactor are preheated to the desired temperature of 35–40
o
C before being fed to the reactor. The Lactobacillus acidophilus cells are then inoculated into
the bioreactor where cell culture grows as they convert the sugars into lactic acid. The reaction is
exothermic and thus a cooling jacket with water as a cooling medium is used to remove
38
exothermic heat thus maintaining the temperature at the required range. A batch bioreactor
consists five main components:
 Reaction vessel where the substrate interacts with the bacteria forming the desired
product.
 Cooling jacket supplied with water to remove exothermic heat from the reaction vessel
thus maintaining the temperature to the required temperature range.
 Agitator which allows the mixing of several components, and allows the introduction or
removal of reaction heat.
 Baffles to reduce the formation of eddies or swirling currents that can hinder the mixing
of reactants.
 Headspace which is an empty space above the medium that accommodates changes in the
liquid volume.
3.1.1 PROCESS DESIGN
3.1.1.1 REACTOR AND REACTION METRICS
According to the United States Department of Agriculture, probiotic beverage constitutes
averagely of the following;
Probiotic beverage
Constituent g/100g
Lactic acid 2
Fructose 1.5
Glucose 1.5
Other 95
Crude apple juice

Constituent g/100g
Glucose 4.625
Fructose 4.292
Sucrose 0.125
Other 90.958
Krzywicka et al. provided the following physical property data for crude apple juice;
Crude apple juice physical properties
Density 1.0425 g/cm3
Viscosity 5.79 mPa.s
pH 3.38 - 3.47
According to the Zang et al. (2017) research, Lactobacillus acidophilus bacteria fermentation
data is as follows;
Lactobacillus Acidophilus
39
Operating temperature 35 - 40 oC
Optimum pH 4.0 - 4.5
Cells per millimeter 1x109
Average cell mass 1x10-11kg
Density of biomass 10000
kg/m3
Biomass to substrate ratio 1:40
Maximum growth rate, Vmax 0.1386 hr-1
Michaelis constant, Km 0.67311
Geometric proportions of a standard agitation system provided by Van den Akker et al (2023);
3.1.1.2 REACTION TIME

From Michaelis Menten kinetics, the rate of reaction is given by;
V max [ s ]
−r s=
K m +[ s ]
−d [ s ]
−r s=
dt
−d [ s ] V max [ s ]
=
dt K m +[ s ]
−dt K m + [ s ]
=
d [ s ] V max [ s ]
−dt K m 1 1
= +
d [ s ] V max [ s ] V max
40
−dt=
{ Km 1
+
1
V max [ s ] V max
d[s]
}
{ }
0 [ s] 0
Km 1 1
−∫ dt =∫ + d [s]
t [s ] V max [ s ] V max
0 [ s ]0 [s ]0
Km 1 1
−∫ dt = ∫ d [ s ]+ ∫ d [s]
t V max [ s] [ s ] V max [ s ]
Km [s] 1
t= ln 0 + ( [ s ] −[ s ] )
V max [ s ] V max 0
t=
Km [ s ] [ s ] [ s ] 0− [ s ]
ln 0 + 0
V max [ s ] V max [ s ]0 ( )
We define the rate of conversion as;
[ s ]0− [ s ]
X=
[ s ]0
[ s]
X =1−
[ s ]0
[s]
=1−X
[ s ]0
Thus;
Km 1 [ s ]0 X
t= ln +
V max 1− X V max
8.917−3
X= =0.6636
8.917
0.67311 1 8.917 × 0.6636
t= ln +
0.1386 1−0.6636 0.1386
t=47.98444 ≅ 48 hours
3.1.1.3 REACTOR SHELL
In designing the bioreactor reaction vessel, we assume negligible losses between the batches. As
such, the mass of the non-substrate component of the feed remains constant.
Mass of crude apple juice fed into the bioreactor
From material balance;
41
Mass of Lactobacillus acidophilus bacteria in the reactor
Lactobacillus acidophilus ¿ substrate ( sugars reacted ) ratio is1 :40
1
Amount of lactobacillus acidophilus inoculated per batch= ×266.67 kg
40
¿ 26.67 kg
Amount of lactobacillus acidophilus at the end of the reaction assuming exponential
growth∧negligible cell death;
μt
X =X o e
48 ×0.1386
X =26.67 ×e
X =4757.1872 kg
Bioreactor working volume
Bioreactor working volume=volume of crude apple juice +volume of Lactobacilus
Mass of crude juice Mass of Lactobacillus
Working volume= +
Density of crude juice Density of Lactobacillus
13333.33 kg 4757.1872 kg
Working volume= 3
+ 3
1042.5 kg /m 10000 kg/m
3
Working volume=13.2655 m
Bioreactor dimensions
Working volume=volume of torispherical bottom+ volume of Cylindrical body
Volume of the torispherical bottom is given by ;
3 π 2
V =0.084672 Di + D S
4 i F
Where ;
Di−Inside diameter S F−Straight flange ,(0.15∈¿ 0.0381m standard )
3 π 2 π 2
Working volume=0.084672 Di + Di S F + Di h
4 4
¿ the geometric proportions of a standard agitation system ;
42
h
=1, h=Di
Di
3 π 2 π 3
Working volume=0.084672 Di + Di S F + Di
4 4
3 π 2 π 3
0.084672 Di + D i × 0.0381+ D i =13.2655
4 4
3 2
0.87007 Di +0.02992 Di −13.2655=0
Di=2.4682 m
Inside diameter of the vessel=2.4682 m

Height of liquid ∈the shell=2.4682m
Allowing for a provision of 20 % extra space above theliquid height for pH regulants
¿ antifoaming agents ;
Actual height of thereactor shell=2.9618 m
Bioreactor total volume
Total volume=volume of torispherical top+ volume of torispherical bottom +volume of Cylindrical body
3 π 2 3 π 2 π 2
Total volume=0.084672 Di + D i S F +0.084672 Di + Di S F + Di h
4 4 4
3 π 2 π 2
Total volume=0.169344 D i + Di S F + Di h
2 4
3 π 2 π 2
Total volume=0.169344 × 2.4682 + × 2.4682 × 0.0381+ × 2.4682 × 2.9618
2 4
3
Total volume=17.0821 m
Reactor shell parameters’ summary
3
Working volume 13.2655 m
3
Total volume 17.0821 m
Inside diameter 2.4682 m
Liquid height in the shell 2.4682 m
Actual height of the reactor shell 2.9618 m
3.1.1.4 REACTOR AGITATOR

A reactor agitator is composed of a rotating impeller or paddle that generates fluid motion within
the reactor. In our design we adopt the flat bladed turbine impeller due the following reasons:
 Efficient mixing due to their ability to generate strong axial flow and shear.
43
 Versatile since they can be used to mix a wide range of fluids, from low-viscosity liquids
to highly viscous materials.
 Reliable owing to their simple design and have few moving parts, making them highly
reliable and easy to maintain.
 Flat-bladed turbines can be scaled up or down to accommodate different vessel sizes and
production volumes, making them a flexible choice for both pilot-scale and large-scale
production.
 Flat-bladed turbines can be customized to suit the specific mixing requirements of a
reactor. The size and shape of the blades can be adjusted to achieve different mixing
intensities or to accommodate different reactor geometries.
From the geometric proportions of a standard agitation system, the following agitator
characteristics can be determined:
Parameter Dimension
Impeller diameter 1
×2.4682=0.8227 m
3
Impeller disk diameter 3
×0.8227=0.6170 m
4
Impeller clearance 1
×2.4682=0.8227 m
3
Length of impeller 2.9618−0.8227=2.1391m
shaft
Thickness of the 12
× 0.8227=0.0987 m
impeller shaft 100
Length of impeller 1
×0.8227=0.2057 m
blade 4
Width of impeller 1
× 0.8227=0.1645 m
blade 5
Speed of the impeller

The flat bladed turbine impeller operates in turbulent regime with a power number of 4 which is
the ratio of the impeller power to the power required for stirring a fluid.
From figure 1 shown in the Appendices, at power number of 4, the impeller operates averagely at
Reynolds number of 105.
ρud
ℜ=
μ
Reμ
u=
ρd
5 −3
10 ×5.79 ×10
u=
1042.5× 0.8227
44
u=0.675 m/s
u=rω but ω=2 πN
u=2 πrN
u
N=
2 πr
0.675
N=
0.8227
2π ×
2
N=0.2612rps ∨15.6698 rpm
Impeller power
Impeller power for a flat bladed turbine impeller operating in turbulent regime is given by:
3 5
P=N p × ρ× N i × Di
Where ;
N p−Constant value of power number inthe turbulent regime
ρ−Density of the crude apple juice

N i−Impeller speed ∈rps
Di−Impeller diameter
3 5
P=4 ×1042.5 × 0.2612 × 0.8227
P=28.0068 Watts
3.1.1.5 REACTOR BAFFLES
A baffle is a solid plate or structure that is placed inside the reactor vessel, perpendicular to the
direction of flow. It is designed to divide the reactor volume into smaller sections or
compartments, allowing for better distribution of the reactants and products throughout the
reactor.
From the geometric proportions of a standard agitation system, the width of the baffles is given
as, Van den Akker et al (2023);
1
W b= ×2.4682=0.24682 m
10
The height of the baffles is equal to the height of the liquid in the reactor shell;
H b =2.4682m
Number of reactor baffles=4 baffles
45
The utilization of four baffles is a widely adopted practice in the majority of batch bioreactors
due to following advantages;
 Efficient mixing as they create sufficient turbulence in the culture medium. This helps to
ensure that nutrients for cell growth are uniformly distributed throughout the reactor.
 The presence of four baffles in a batch bioreactor helps to reduce the formation of
vortexes, which can negatively affect cell growth and cause shear stress on the cells.
 The four baffles help to reduce the formation of dead zones in the reactor. Dead zones are
areas in the reactor where there is little or no mixing, and they can negatively impact cell
growth and product formation.
 The use of four baffles is also cost effective as the more the number of baffles in the
reactor shell the higher the cost of the reactor.
3.1.2 MECHANICAL DESIGN
3.1.2.1 MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION
In the production of probiotic beverage, we have identified stainless steel – 316 as the optimal
material to use in the construction of the bioreactors based on its exceptional attributes, which
include;
 Stainless steel exhibits high resistance to corrosion, which is essential in an environment
where the reactor is exposed to acidic and corrosive substances produced during the lactic
acid fermentation process.
 Stainless steel is a hygienic material that is easy to clean and sterilize, which is critical for
maintaining a high level of cleanliness in a process that involves the production of food
and beverages.
 Stainless steel can withstand high temperatures without losing its strength or becoming
brittle, which is a critical attribute for reactors involved in the lactic acid fermentation
process, which typically operates at 35 – 40 oC.
 Stainless steel is a robust and durable material that can withstand the stresses and strains
of reactor operation without degrading or becoming damaged especially when
considering the mass of crude apple juice fed per batch.
 Stainless steel is also known for its good weldability and formability. It can be easily
welded using common welding techniques, such as gas tungsten arc welding and gas
metal arc welding, and can be formed using cold and hot working methods.
3.1.2.2 REACTOR WALL THICKNESS
The reactor wall thickness is an important parameter to consider in reactor design which is
function of the maximum allowable pressure, the working pressure of the construction material,
in this case stainless steel and the inside radius of the reactor shell. The reactor is calculated from
the hoop stress formula;
P ri
t= +t
S E j−0.6 P c
Where ;
P−Maximum allowable pressure
46
r i−Internal radius
S−Working stress of stainless steel−316=128931.96 kPa

E j−Welding joint efficiency ≈ 0.85
t c −Corrosion allowance for stainless steel=0.8 mm
The maximum allowable pressure is calculated ¿the formula;

P=1.33 PT
Where ;
PT −Total pressure which is a ∑ of the operating pressure∧static presssure
PT =Ps + P0
P0=100 kPa(¿ figure 4 , Appendices): Rong F . Mehrdad E . Peter C .(2007)

Ps =ρgh
h−Height of the liquid ∈the shell
Ps =1042.5× 9.81 ×2.4682=252.421kPa
PT =252.421 kPa+100 kPa
PT =352.421 kPa
P=1.33 × 352.421 kPa
P=468.71993 kPa
The reaction wall thickness;
2.4682
468.71993 kPa ×
2
t= + 0.8× 10−3 m
128931.96 kPa ×0.85−0.6 × 468.71993 kPa
−3
t=6.0918 ×10 m∨6.0918 mm
The outside diamter of the reactor ;
Do =Di+ 2t
−3
Do =2.4682 m+2 ×6.0918 × 10 m
Do =2.4804 m
3.1.2.3 REACTOR COOLING SURFACE

A cooling reactor jacket is a device used in chemical reactors to regulate the temperature of the
reaction taking place inside the reactor. It consists of an outer jacket that surrounds the reactor
47
vessel made of multiple tubes containing a cooling medium, such as water or a refrigerant, that
circulates around the reactor vessel as shown;
In the cooling the bioreactor, we have identified stainless steel – 316 as the suitable material for
use in the construction of the cooling tubes based on its exceptional features, which include;
 Stainless steel contains chromium and other alloying elements that provide excellent
resistance to corrosion, including in harsh environments where other materials may fail.
 Stainless steel has high tensile strength and can withstand high pressure and high
temperatures, making it a reliable and durable material for cooling pipes.
 Stainless steel has good thermal conductivity, which means that it can efficiently transfer
heat away from the reactor.
Reactor cooling surface
Data provided by the NIST chemistry Webbook;
Molar heat capacity of sugars=3.9 J /(mol K)
Molar heat capacity of Lactic acid=149 J /(mol K )
−1
Standard enthlpy of formation of lactic acid at 298 K =−694 KJ mol
2
Overall heat transfer coefficient of stainless steel−316=680W /m K
Average optimum temperature of lactic acid fermentation=310.5 K
Change∈enthalpy ∈lactic acid fermentation at 310.5 K ;
Specific heat capacity of water =4.2 KJ /kg . K
Temperatue of cooling water=298 K
48
¿ the temperature dependence of reaction enthalpies ;
T2
H 2=H 1 +∫ Cpm dT
T1
T2
∆ r H 2=∆ r H 1+∫ ∆r Cpm dT

T1
∆ r H 2=∆ r H 1+(T 2−T 1 )∆r Cpm

Cpm−molar heat capacity
∆ r Cpm−difference of the molar heat capacities of products∧reactants
∆ r Cpm=∑ v Cpm p −∑ v Cpm R

−1
C6H12O6 2CH3CHOHCOOH ∆ r H 1=−694 KJ mol
(Sugars) (Lactic acid)

∆ r Cpm=( 2 ×149 ) −3.9=294.1 J /(mol K )∨0. 2941 K J /(mol K )
∆ r H 2=−694 +(310.5−298)0. 2941

−1
∆ r H 2=−690.3238 KJ mol
Moles of sugarsthat reacted ;
2.963
¿ =1.4815 kmoles (¿ reactor shell mass balance)
2
Amount of exothermic energy produced by the reaction ;
−1 3
E R=−690.3238 KJ mol ×1.4815 ×10 moles
E R=−1022714 KJ
Lactic acid fermentation takes 48 hours ,thus , the rate of heat generation ;
−1022714 KJ
Q R= =−5.9185 KW
48 ×3600
The amount of heat energy generated by the chemical reaction should be removed
by the cooling stream ;
Amount of heat energy carried by cooling stream ;
QC =5.9185 KW
By rule of the thumb , Donald R . ( 2007 ) , cooling water flowrate for lactic acid fermentation ;
49
mc =0.04 kg/ s
Outlet temperature of cooling water ;

Qc =mc Cpc ∆ T
5.9185=0.04 × 4.2×(T −298 K )

5.9185
T= +298=333 K
0.04 × 4.2
Areaof cooling surface ;
Qc =UA ∆ T
Qc
A=
U ∆T
3
5.9185 × 10 W
A= 2
680 W /m K ×(333−298)
2
A=0.2487 m
Taking 10 tubeturns around the reactor shell ,the length of the tubehelix ;
L=n √ C 2 × P 2
C−circumference of the reactor shell
C=π D i
C=π ×2.4682=7.7541 m
P− pitch ¿
H
P=
n
H−Height of liquid ∈the shell
2.4682
P= =0.24682
10
L=10 √ 7.75412 × 0.246822

L=19.1387 m
Diameter of the cooling water tubes ;
A=π Dt l
A
Dt =
πl
50
0.2487
Dt =
π ×19.1387
−3
Dt =4.1363 × 10 m∨4.1363 mm
3.1.3 REACTOR VISUAL DISPLAY

FRONT VIEW
TOP VIEW
51
3.2 HEAT EXCHANGERS
Heat exchangers are critical components in the manufacture of apple products that involve heat
transfer between apple juice and the heating or cooling medium. In our design we adopt a shell
and tube heat exchanger. A shell and tube heat exchanger is a type of heat exchanger that
consists of a cylindrical shell with multiple tubes inside. The tubes are usually arranged in a
bundle or bundle-like structure, with both ends of the tubes fixed into a tube sheet as shown;
52
The main parts of a shell and tube heat exchanger are;
 Shell: The cylindrical outer shell of the heat exchanger serves as the primary pressure
vessel for the system. It contains the tube bundle and the fluid that flows around the
tubes.
 Tube bundle: The tube bundle is made up of several parallel tubes that run the length of
the shell. The fluid to be heated or cooled flows through the tubes, while the fluid used
for heat exchange flows around the outside of the tubes.
 Tube sheet: The tube sheet is a thick plate that is welded to the shell and holds the tube
bundle in place. It serves as a barrier between the tube side and the shell side, ensuring
that the fluids do not mix.
 Baffles: Baffles are used to direct the fluid flow through the heat exchanger in a
controlled manner. They help to increase turbulence and improve heat transfer efficiency.
 Head: The heads are the covers that are attached to the shell to seal the heat exchanger.
They provide access to the tube bundle for cleaning and maintenance.

In our design we shall consider the pasteurization heat exchanger that heats the crude apple juice
at a temperature of 71.7 oC for 15 seconds thus killing microorganisms while preserving the taste
and nutritional value of the juice.
53
3.2.1.1 HEAT TRANSFER AREA
Inlet temperature = 25 oC
Oulet temperature = 71.7 oC
12000000 kg
Mass flowrate=
300 ×24 × 3600
Q= ṁ×C p ×∆ T
Q=0.46296 ×3.86 ×(71.7−25)

Q=83.4541 kW
ṁs =0.13 kg /s

83.4541=0.13 ×4.2 ×(180−T h 2)

T h 2=27.1537oC
Logarithmic mean temperature difference;

∆ T 1−∆T 2
∆ T m=
ln
( )
∆T 1
∆T 2
(180−71.7)−(27.1537−25)
∆ T m=
ln (
180−71.7
27.1537−25 )
∆ T m=27.09391 oC
54
Correction factor for a two-shell pass, multiple tube passes, shell and tube heat exchanger with
juice on tube side and steam on the shell side, Figure 1 – Appendices;
t 2−t 1 71.7−25
P= = =0.3013
T 1−t 1 180−25
T 1−T 2 180−27.1537
R= = =3.2729
t 2−t 1 71.7−25
F T =0.85
For stainless steel heat exchanger, the overall heat transfer coefficient, Table 5 – Appendices;
2
U =680 W /m K
Heat transfer surface area;
Q=F T UA ∆ T m
Q
A=
FT U ∆ T m
3
83.4541× 10 W
A=
0.85 × 680 ×27.09391
3
A=5.45674 m
Shell and tube heat exchangers, thermopedia (2011), Tubes may range in diameter from 12.7 –
50.8 mm and the most common tube length range is 3600 – 9000 mm for removable bundles and
3600 – 15000 mm for the fixed tube type.
Number of tubes:
A=nπdl
A
n=
πdl
5.45674
n= −3
=37.9907 ≅ 38tubes
π ×12.7 × 10 ×3.6
In the design of heat exchangers, we have identified stainless as the optimal material to use based
on its exceptional attributes, which include;
 Stainless steel is highly resistant to corrosion, which is important for heat exchangers that
are exposed to different fluids and chemicals.
 Stainless steel can withstand high temperatures, making it suitable for use in heat
exchangers that are exposed to hot fluids.
55
 Stainless steel has a high thermal conductivity, which allows for efficient transfer of heat\
 Stainless steel is a very strong and durable material that can withstand high stress and
strain.
Properties of stainless steel
Joint efficiency 0.85
Design stress 128931.96 kPa
Density 7890 kg/m3
Corrosion allowance 0.8 mm
3.2.2.2 HEAT EXCHANGER TUBES THICKNESS

The tube thickness is an important parameter to consider in column design which is function of
the maximum allowable pressure, the working pressure of the construction material calculated
as:
P ri
t= +t
S E j−0.6 P c
From the journal of petroleum technology, pasteurizers operate optimally at 2500 bars;
−3
12.7 × 10
2500 kPa×
2 −3
t= +0.8 ×10 m
128931.96 kPa ×0.85−0.6 ×2500 kPa
−4
t=9.6783 ×10 m∨0.96783 mm
The tube outside diameter ;
Do =Di+ 2t
Do =12.7 mm+2 ×0.96783 mm
Do =14.6357 mm
3.2.2.3 HEAT EXCHANGER BUNDLE DIAMETER

The tube bundle diameter is an important design parameter in the heat exchanger as it affects the
overall size and weight of the heat exchanger, as well as the pressure drop and fluid flow
characteristics;
( )
1
Nt n1
Db =d o
K1
Where;
d o −Tubes outside diameter
N t −Total number of tubes
56
K1 and n1 are constants, values of which depend on the ratio of the tube pitch to the tube outside
diameter, arrangement of tubes and number of tubes passes.
The tubes in an exchanger are usually arranged in an equilateral triangular, square, or
rotated square pattern. And thus, in our design we have adopted the triangular pattern because it
gives higher heat transfer rates.
From table 1 in the appendices for a Table 8 in the appendices Sinnott, R.K. (2005), the values pf
n1 and k1 for a triangular pattern are 0.0365 and 2.675 respectively.
( )
1
38
Db =14.6057 2.675
=196.135 5 mm
0.0365
3.2.2.4 HEAT EXCHANGER SHELL INSIDE DIAMETER
The heat exchanger shell inside diameter refers to the internal diameter of the shell or housing
that contains the tube bundle;
After finding tube bundle diameter Db, shell inside diameter Di, can be determined by following
equation.
Di = Db + C
Where;
C – Clearance between shell internal diameter and the tube bundle
C = 10 – 20 mm for fixed tube sheet and U-tube
C = 50 – 80 mm for split-ring floating head
C = 90 – 100 mm for pull through floating head
Di = 196.135 5+20=216.1355 mm
3.3 DISTILLATION COLUMNS
Distillation columns are a commonly utilized apparatus in numerous separation processes. In the
realm of apple product manufacturing, these columns serve a crucial role in producing spirit and
57
aged spirit from apple cider, as well as in the production of spirit derived from apple pomace. A
distillation column is a large vertical vessel used for separating mixtures of liquids based on their
different boiling points;
The main parts of a distillation column are:

 Reboiler: This is the bottom part of the column where the heat is applied to the liquid
mixture. The heat causes the liquid to vaporize, which is then separated based on its
boiling point.
 Distillation trays: These are horizontal plates that are placed at regular intervals inside the
column. The trays provide a surface area for the vapor to condense and re-liquify, which
enhances the separation process.
 Bubble caps: These are caps placed over the openings on the trays. The caps allow vapor
to pass through but prevent liquid from flowing back up the column.
 Reflux drum: This is a vessel located at the top of the column. It collects the condensed
liquid and sends it back down to the column as reflux.
 Condenser: This is the top part of the column where the vapor is cooled and condensed
back into liquid form. The condensed liquid is then collected and sent to the reflux drum.
 Feed inlet: This is the point where the mixture to be separated is introduced into the
column.
 Overhead product outlet: This is the point where the purified liquid product is collected
and removed from the column.
58
 Bottoms product outlet: This is the point where the residue or waste material is collected
and removed from the column.
In our design we shall consider the distillation column used in the manufacture of spirit from
cider and the first distillation column in aged spirit manufacture.
Data:
Antoine equations for ethanol and water from Perry’s Chemical Engineering Handbook;
sat B
ln P =A−
T+C
Where;
A, B & C – Constants
T – temperature (oC)
P – pressure (kPa)
For ethanol:
sat 3795.17
ln P =16.8958−
T + 230.918
For water:
sat 3885.70
ln P =16.3872−
T +230.17
Densities of vapour and liquid of ethanol and water from NIST chemistry Webbook;
Vapour Liquid
density density
Water 0.6 kg/m3 1000 kg/m3
Ethanol 1.59 kg/m3 789 kg/m3
From material balance;
Ethanol 300.6474 6.5358 0.0192
59
Water 6007.92 333.7733 0.9808
Total 6308.5674 340.3091 1.0000

Ethanol 245.7535 5.3425 0.1436
Water 573.4249 31.8569 0.8564
Total 819.1784 37.1995 1.0000

Ethanol 54.8939 1.1933 0.0039
Water 5434.4951 301.9164 0.9961
Total 5489.389 303.1097 1.0000
3.3.1.1 OPERATING PRESSURE

The operating pressure in a distillation column is fixed by the temperature of the cheapest
cooling medium (cooling water) which must be able to condense the distillate vapour. For this,
bubble point of the distillate in case of total condenser should be sufficiently greater than cooling
water temperature.
Bubble temperature is given by Raoult’s law and the components Antoine’s equations as;
∑ x i Psati =Pt
sat sat
Pt =x 1 P1 + x 2 P 2
sat 3795.17
ln P1 =16.8958−
T + 230.918
sat 3885.70
ln P2 =16.3872−
T +230.17
3795.17 3885.70
16.8958− 16.3872−
T +230.918 T +230.17
Pt =x 1 e + x2 e
3795.17 3885.70
16.8958− 16.3872 −
T +230.918 T +230.17
Pt =0.1436 e +0.8564 e
Varying operating pressure against temperature using the above equation;

Pt (kPa) T (oC)
50 77.0888
60 81.6191
70 85.5548
80 89.0451
90 92.1883
60
100 95.0528
Thus, an operating of 100 kPa enables maximum temperature differential between the vapor
distillate and the cooling medium, which is water at 25°C. Additionally, this pressure threshold
does not necessitate a significant increase in column diameter. Consequently, we have selected
this pressure for utilization in our design.
3.3.1.2 NUMBER OF THEORETICAL STAGES
Average relative volatility
At dew temperature;
yi P t
∑ Pi
sat
=1
0.1436 ×100 0.8564 ×100

3795.17
+ 3885.70
=1
16.8958− 16.3872−
T +230.918 T +230.17
e e
Tdew = 97.3139 oC
For ethanol:
sat 3795.17
ln P1 =16.8958−
97.3139 o C +230.918
sat
P1 =207.1275 kPa
For water:
sat 3885.70
ln P2 =16.3872−
97.3139 o C+ 230.17
sat
P2 =92.0088 kPa
At bubble temperature;
∑ x i Psati =Pt
3795.17 3885.70
16.8958− 16.3872−
T +230.918 T +230.17
0.0039 e +0.9961 e =100
Tbulb = 99.4932 oC
For ethanol:
sat 3795.17
ln P1 =16.8958−
99.4932 o C+ 230.918
sat
P1 =223.5416 kPa
For water:
61
sat 3885.70
ln P2 =16.3872−
99.4932 o C+230.17
sat
P2 =95.5163 kPa
Average volatility;
Component sat
Pi Pi
sat
α avg= √ α dew ×α bulb
α dew = sat
α bulb= sat
P HK P HK
Ethanol
α dew =
207.1275 kPa
α bulb=
223.5416 kPa α avg= √ 2.2512 ×2.3404
92.0088 kPa 95.5163 kPa
α avg=2.2954
α dew =2.2512 α bulb=2.3404
Minimum reflux ratio

For a binary distillation column with cider entering the column as saturated liquid feed, the
minimum reflux ratio is calculated from the equation;
Rm =
1
[
x D α avg (1−x D )
α avg −1 x F
−
1−x F ]
Where;
x D −Mole fraction of moe volatile component ∈distillate
x F −Mole fractionof more volatile component ∈feed
Rm =
1
2.2954−1 0.0192[
0.1436 2.2954 (1−0.1436)
−
1−0.0192 ]
Rm =4.2264
Theoretical number of stages

The minimum number of stages is calculated using the Fensky’s method;
Nm=
log
[( ) ( ) ]
x LK
x HK d
x HK
x LK b
log α Lk
Where;
x LK −Mole fraction of light key component
x HK −Mole fraction of heavy key compoent
62
α Lk −Relative volatility of the light key coponent w . r . t heavy key compoent
Nm=
log
[( 0.1436
0.8536 d 0.0039 ) ]
) ( 0.9961 b
log 2.2954
N m =¿ 4.62204
The number of theoretical stages is given by the Malokanov-Gilliland correlation;
f ( N )=
N −N m
=1−e
[ ( )]
1+54.4 ψ ψ −1
11+117.2 ψ ψ 0.5
N +1
Where;
R−R m
ψ=
R+1
R−4.2264
ψ=
R+1
f ( N )=1−e
[ ( )]
1+54.4 ψ ψ −1
11+117.2ψ ψ 0.5
N m + f (N )
N=
1−f (N )
Varying the reflux ratio against the theoretical number of stages required;
R f(N) N
4.5 0.0497 0.6087 13.3665
5 0.1289 0.5251 10.8372
5.5 0.1959 0.4640 9.4882
6 0.2534 0.4166 8.6363
6.5 0.3031 0.3786 8.0474
7 0.3467 0.3474 7.6147
7.5 0.3851 0.3212 7.2823
8 0.4193 0.2989 7.0184
8.5 0.4499 0.2795 6.8035
9 0.4774 0.2627 6.6249
9.5 0.5022 0.2478 6.4740
10 0.5249 0.2345 6.3446
10.5 0.5455 0.2227 6.2325
11 0.5645 0.2120 6.1344
11.5 0.5819 0.2023 6.0477
12 0.5980 0.1935 5.9705
12.5 0.6129 0.1854 5.9014
63
13 0.6267 0.1780 5.8391
13.5 0.6396 0.1711 5.7827
14 0.6516 0.1648 5.7313
14.5 0.6628 0.1589 5.6843
15 0.6734 0.1535 5.6412
Plotting N against R;
N against R
16.0000
14.0000
12.0000
10.0000
8.0000
N
6.0000
4.0000
2.0000
0.0000
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
From the graph the optimum number of stages and reflux ratio;
N=6.1344 ≅ 7 stages
R = 11
In designing the distillation column, we have identified stainless steel – 304 as the suitable
material for use in the construction due to its exceptional features, which include;
 Stainless steel is highly resistant to corrosion, making it a good choice for separating
ethanol from water, which is a highly corrosive process.
 Stainless steel can withstand high temperatures and pressures, which is important for
distilling ethanol, which requires high temperatures and high operating pressure to
achieve the separation.
 Stainless steel has a high thermal conductivity, which allows for efficient transfer of heat
during the distillation process.
64
 Stainless steel is a cost-effective material choice for distillation columns when compared
to more exotic materials that may offer similar properties.
Properties of stainless steel – 304
Joint efficiency 0.85
Design stress 128931.96 kPa
Density 7890 kg/m3
Corrosion allowance 0.8 mm
3.3.2.2 COLUMN INTERNAL DIAMETER

The principal factor that determines the column diameter is the vapour flow-rate. The
vapour velocity must be below that which would cause excessive liquid entrainment or a
high-pressure drop. Thus, an estimate of column diameter can be obtained from the equation;
Dc =
√ 4Vw
π ρ v uv
Where;
V w −Maximum vapour flowrate (Kg/ s)
ρ v −Vapour density
u v −maximum allowable vapour velocity ,based onthe gross(total)column

The maximum allowable superficial vapour velocity is calculated from the Souders and Brown
equation;
[ ]
1
2 ρl −ρv 2
u v =(−0.171l +0.27 l t −0.047)
t
ρv
Where;
l t −Plate spacing , range (0.5−1.5 m for most distillation columns )
ρl −Liquid density .
Liquid density
The liquid flowrate from the bottom section of the column;
Liquid flowrate=Feed+ Liquid reflux ¿ condenser
L=F + RD
L=6308.5674 +819.1784 × 11kg /day
RD=9010.9624 kg /day
L=15319.5298 kg /day
65
Mass(kg)/ day Feed Liquid reflux Total Mass fraction
Ethanol 300.6474 2703.2887 3003.9361 0.1961
Water 6007.92 6307.6737 12315.5937 0.8039
Total 6308.5674 9010.9624 15319.5298 1.0000
Density is calculated as:
1 xi
=∑
ρ ρi
1 x1 x 2
= +
ρ ρ1 ρ2
1 0.1961 0.8039
= +
ρ 789 1000
3
ρl =950.1707 kg /m
Vapour density
The vapour flowrate represents the amount of vapour that is generated in the reboiler and rises
through the column to be condensed in the condenser;
Vapour flowrate=Dsitillate + Liquid reflux ¿ condenser
V =D+ RD
V =D ( 1+ R )
V =819.1784 ( 1+11) kg /day
V =9830.1408 kg /day
Mass(kg)/ day Distillate Liquid reflux Total Mass fraction
Ethanol 245.7535 2703.2887 2949.0422 0.3
Water 573.4249 6307.6737 6881.0986 0.7
Total 819.1784 9010.9624 9830.1408 1.0
1 yi
=∑
ρ ρi
1 y1 y 2
= +
ρ ρ1 ρ2
1 0.3 0.7
= +
ρ 1.59 0.6
66
3
ρ v =1.35535 kg/m
Vapour flowrate
9830.1408 kg
V w=
24 ×3600
V w =0.113775 kg /s
Superficial vapour velocity
[ ]
1
2 ρl −ρv 2
u v =(−0.171l +0.27 l t −0.47)
t
ρv
Taking plate spacing of 0.5 m
[ ]
1
950.1707−0.113775
u v =(−0.171× 0.52 +0.27 ×0.5−0.047) 2
0.113775
u v =4.13495 m/s
Column diameter
Dc =
√ 4Vw
π ρ v uv
Dc =
√ 4 ×0.113775 kg /s
π ×1.35535 kg/m3 × 4.13495 m/ s
Dc =0.160775 m
3.3.2.3 COLUMN HEIGHT

The height of the distillation column is function of the plate spacing is calculated from the
following equation;
H c =( N −1 ) P s
Where;
N−Number of theoretical plates
Ps −Plate spacing
H c =( 7−1 ) ×0.5 m
H c =3 m
3.3.2.4 COLUMN THICKNESS

The column thickness is an important parameter to consider in column design which is function
of the maximum allowable pressure, the working pressure of the construction material calculated
as:
67
Pi D i
t w= +t
4 Jf −1.2 Pi c
Where ;
Pi−Internal pressure
Di−Internal diameter
J−Joint efficiency
f −Design stress
t c −Corrosion allowance
100 kPa ×0.160775 m −3
t w= + 0.8× 10 m
4 × 0.85 ×128931.96 kPa−1.2× 100 kPa
−4
t w =8.3669 ×10 m
3.3.2.5 COLUMN SHELL MASS

Shell mas of the distillation column is calculated from the formula;
Shell mass=π Dc H c t w ρ
Where;
Dc −column diameter
H c −Column height
t w −Column thickness
ρ−Metal density
−4
Shell mass=π × 0.160775 m×3 × 8.3669× 10 m×7890
Shell mass=10.00302 kg
4. PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION

Here we consider the process dynamics and control of the major equipment used in the apple
products biorefinery such as the heat exchangers, bioreactors and distillation columns.
68
4.1 BIOREACTORS
The main process control in bioreactors is the temperature where the various bacteria and
enzymes work optimally. For example, apple juice containing sugars mainly fructose and
glucose is interacted with Lactobacillus acidophilus bacteria anaerobically at temperatures of 35–
40 oC where the bacteria work optimally converting most of the sugars to lactic acid. The
reaction is exothermic and heat is generated which raises the temperature and interferes with the
optimum operating temperature. A cooling jacket is thus used to remove the exothermic heat of
the reaction, lowering the temperature to the desired range. As shown in the P&ID, we use a
feedback temperature control system as shown in the process control diagram. When the required
temperature inside the reactor increases, the temperature transducer and temperature transmitter
measures and transmits the change in electrical signal to the temperature controller which
compares deviation to the set point and makes the decision on how to manipulate the cooling
water flowrate control valve in order to increase the water flowrate into the cooling jacket thus
lowering the temperature to the required temperature range.
4.2 HEAT EXCHANGERS
Heat exchangers are used to raise the temperature of crude apple juice to the varoius reactions
desired optimum temperature before entry into the bioreactors. As shown in the P&ID, we utilize
the feed forward control system which corrects the disturbance before it upsets the process. This
due to the sensitivity nature of the process. If the major disturbance in the system is the inlet
temperature of crude apple juice from the Pasteurizer, the temperature transducer and
temperature transmitter measures and transmits the change in electrical signal to the temperature
controller which compares deviation to the set point and makes the decision on how to
manipulate the steam supply valve to maintain the crude apple juice outlet temperature at the set
point which favors optimum processes in the bioreactors. In this way, the disturbance in the
system is controlled before it upsets the process.
4.3 DISTILLATION COLUMNS
Distillations columns are used in the manufacture of aged spirit and spirit. Spirit manufacture
employs a single distillation column which raises the 4% alcohol content in cider is increased to
the required 30%, forming spirit. Aged spirit manufacture employs double distillation column
where in the first distillation column the 4% alcohol content in cider is increased to 30% and
then further increased to 70% in the second distillation column forming spirit. In both
manufacturing processes the spirit and aged spirit separates as distillate while the rest of the
substances called stillage separates as bottoms. In order to main the required composition of
alcohol in the distillate, there is need to control the amount of reflux stream based on the
composition of the distillate. As shown in the P&ID, we use a feedback distillate composition
control loop as shown below. When the required distillate composition if alcohol changes, the
composition analyzer and the analyzer transmitter measures and transmits the change in
electrical signal to the flowrate controller which compares deviation to the set point and then
makes a decision about how to manipulate the reflux stream flow control valve, either opening
more or closing. For example, if the distillate alcohol composition is below the required, the
valve will open the reflux stream more allowing more spirit back to the distillation column for
distillation
69
4.4 PIPING & INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAM
The following Piping & instrumentation diagram summarizes the entire process including the
approximate characteristics of the various equipment, valves and fittings, instrumentation and
control mechanisms and approximate sizes.
<Attached>
LEGEND
Streams
( ) – Apple juice
( ) – Steam
( ) – Cooling water
( ) – Bacteria and enzymes
( ) – Process electrical signal
Temperature control
TY – Temperature transducer
TT – Temperature transmitter
TC – Temperature controller
Reflux control
AE – Analyzer primary element
AI – Analyzer transmitter
FC – Flowrate controller
Fittings
PI – Pressure indicator
TI – Temperature indicator
FI – Flowrate indicator
70
5. COST ESTIMATION
5.1 TOTAL PLANT COST
The total plant cost or total capital investment constitutes of fixed capital investment and
working capital.
5.1.1 FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT
Fixed capital refers to the capital needed to supply the necessary manufacturing and plant
facilities and constitutes of direct and indirect costs.
5.1.1.1 DIRECT COSTS
Direct costs include purchased equipment cost, purchased equipment installation,
instrumentation and controls, piping, electrical equipment and material, buildings and services,
yard improvements and land.
5.1.1.1.1 PURCHASED EQUIPMENT COST
5.1.1.1.1.1 HAMMER MILL
One of the most widely adopted crushers in the manufacturing of apple products is the reversible
hammer mill. This type of crusher comprises a series of rotating hammers that can be utilized on
either side to impact and break down apples into smaller pieces.
From material balance around the entire plant the total mass of apples required to produce the
various apple products per annum;
Total mass of apples required=14117647 kg
Assuming that the plant will run for 300 days, 24 hours daily in a year allowing for a total of 60
days averagely of maintenance of the hammer mill.
14117647 kg
Total mass of apples processed per hour= =1960.7843 kg /hr
300 ×24
Capacity of the hammer mill=1960.7843 kg /hr
Capacity of the hammer mill=1.9608 tonne/hr
From table 1, appendices the cost of 20 tonne/hr capacity reversible hammer mill in 2006;
n
C e =a+b S
0.5
C e =400+ 9900× 20
C e =$ 44674.1460
Using the six-tenths factor rule of equipment cost by scaling the cost of 1.9608 tonne/hr;
( )
0.6
Capacity of equipment a
Cost of equipment a=Cost of equipment b
Capacity equipment b
( )
0.6
1.9608
Cost of hammer mill 1.96=Cost of hammer mill20
20
71
( )
0.6
1.9608
Cost of hammer mill 1.96=$ 44674.1460
20
Cost of hammer mill 1.96=$ 11089.1496
Capacity (tonne/hr) Cost ( $ ¿

Hammer mill 1.9608 11089.1496
5.1.1.1.1.2 CONVEYORS
In our design we utilized two conveyors; the feed belt conveyor which moves apples from the
offloading section to the first manufacturing unit and the bucket conveyor which feeds the apples
to the hammer mill.
Feed conveyor
Kyusang et al. (2013) recommends a distance of 5 meters from the offloading section to the first
manufacturing unit on the grounds of safety and cost minimization. In line with this industry-
standard recommendation, we have incorporated a distance of 5 meters in our design.
From table 1, appendices the cost of 10 m length, 1 m wide belt conveyor in 2006;
n
C e =a+b S
1
C e =23000+575 ×10
C e =$ 28750
Using the six-tenths factor rule of equipment cost by scaling the cost of 5 m length, 1 m wide
belt conveyor;
( )
0.6
( )
0.6
5
Cost of belt conveyor 5=Cost of belt conveyor 10
10
( )
0.6
5
Cost of belt conveyor 5=$ 28750
10
Cost of belt conveyor 5=$ 18967.9262
Bucket conveyor
The Schutte reversible hammer mill with a capacity of 1.5 – 2 tonnes/h which fits based on our
design capacity has a height of 3 meters. Consequently, we use a 3-meter length bucket
conveyor;
From table 1, appendices the cost of 10 m length, 0.5 m bucket conveyor in 2006;
72
n
C e =a+b S
1
C e =14000+1450 ×10
C e =$ 28500
Using the six-tenths factor rule of equipment cost by scaling the cost of 5 m length, 1 m wide
belt conveyor;
( )
0.6
( )
0.6
3
Cost of bucket conveyor 3=Cost of bucket conveyor 10
10
( )
0.6
3
Cost of bucket conveyor 3=$ 28500
10
Cost of bucket conveyor 3=$ 13839.4112
Conveyor Length Cost ( $)

Belt 5m 18967.9262
Bucket 3m 13839.4112
Total 32807.3374
5.1.1.1.1.3 FILTER PRESS

The function of the filter press is to separate the juice from the pulp, seeds, and other solid
particles, resulting in a clear and pure crude apple juice. In our design we utilize the plate and
frame filter which effectively separates the milled apples into crude apple juice and apple
pomace.
Taking mass balance around the hammer mill, assuming negligible losses and taking a basis of
one hour;
14117647 kg
Total mass of milled applesinthe filter press= =1960.7843 kg
300 ×24
Wang J, Jiang Y, Zhao Y. (2015) reports the density reports the of milled apples as 0.6 g/cm3 –
0.8 g/cm3.
1960.7843 kg 3
Total volume of milled apples inthe filter press= 3
=2.4509 m
800 kg/m
From table 1, appendices, the cost of a 1.4 m3 capacity filter press in 2006;
n
C e =a+b S
73
0.5
C e =76000+54000 ×10
C e =$ 246763
Using the six-tenths factor rule of equipment cost by scaling the cost of a 2.4509 m3;
( )
0.6
( )
0.6
2.4509
Cost of filter press 2.45=Cost of filter press1.4
1.4
( )
0.6
2.4509
Cost of filter press 2.45=$ 246763
1.4
Cost of filter press 2.45=$ 345301.5877
Capacity (m3) Cost ( $ ¿

Filter press 2.4509 345302.5877
5.1.1.1.1.4 HEAT EXCHANGERS

In the design of heat exchangers, we have identified stainless as the optimal material to use based
on its exceptional attributes, which include;
 Stainless steel is highly resistant to corrosion, which is important for heat exchangers that
are exposed to different fluids and chemicals.
 Stainless steel can withstand high temperatures, making it suitable for use in heat
exchangers that are exposed to hot fluids.
 Stainless steel has a high thermal conductivity, which allows for efficient transfer of heat
Pasteurizer heat exchanger
Consists of two shell and tube heat exchangers that sequentially heat the crude apple juice at a
temperature of 71.7 oC for 15 seconds followed by rapid cooling to room temperature killing
microorganism while preserving the taste and nutritional value of the juice.
From the pasteurizer heat exchanger design, section 3;
3
A=5.45674 m
From table 1, appendices, the cost of a 10 m2 shell and tube heat exchanger in 2006;
n
C e =a+b S
1
C e =10000+10 ×88
C e =$ 10880
74
( )
0.6
( )
0.6
5.45674
Cost of heat exchanger5.46 =Cost of heat exchanger10
10
( )
0.6
5.45674
Cost of heat exchanger5.46 =$ 10880
10
Cost of heat exchanger5.46 =$ 7564.6502
Since the second heat exchanger cools the crude apple juice at the same temperature difference,
the heating surface area is relatively the same, thus;
Cost of Pasteurizer 5.46=$ 7564.6502× 2
Cost of Pasteurizer 5.46=$ 15129.3004
Apple juice manufacture heat exchanger

Depectinisation reaction in the bioreactor occur at 34–40 oC where the pectinases bacteria work
optimally.
2000000 kg
Mass flowrate=
300 ×24 × 3600
Q= ṁ×C p ×∆ T
Q=0.07716 ×3.86 ×(37−25)

Q=3.5741 kW
75
ṁs =0.0334 kg /s

3.5741=0.0334 × 4.2×(180−T h 2 )
T h 2=154.5217oC

∆ T 1−∆T 2
∆ T m=
ln
( )
∆T 1
∆T 2
(180−37)−(154.5217−25)
∆ T m=
ln ( 180−37
154.5217−25 )
∆ T m=136.1497 oC
t 2−t 1 37−25
P= = =0.0774
T 1−t 1 180−25
T 1−T 2 180−154.5217
R= = =2.1232
t 2−t 1 37−25
F T =1
2
U =680 W /m K
Q=F T UA ∆ T m
Q
A=
FT U ∆ T m
3
3.5741× 10 W
A=
1 ×680 ×136.1497
3
A=0.038605 m
76
n
C e =a+b S
1
C e =10000+10 ×88
C e =$ 10880
( )
0.6
( )
0.6
0.038605
Cost of heat exchanger 0.03=Cost of heat exchanger10
10
( )
0.6
0.038605
Cost of heat exchanger 0.03=$ 10880
10
Cost of heat exchanger 0.03=$ 384.4516
Probiotic beverage manufacture heat exchanger

Both hydrolysis and fermentation reactions in the bioreactors occur at 35–40 oC where the
invertase enzyme and Lactobacillus acidophilus bacterium work optimally.
Required average temperature of crude juice before entering the bioreactor = 37.5 oC
Mass flowrate of crude juice passing through the heat exchanger;
days averagely of maintenance of equipment. Probiotic beverage takes 48 hours to ferment in the
bioreactors thus the production will occur only 150 days in a year allowing for completion of the
entire process before the next batch.
2000000 kg
Mass flowrate=
150 ×24 × 3600
Q= ṁ×C p ×∆ T
77
Q=0.15432× 3.86 ×(37.5−25)
Q=7.44598 kW
ṁs =0.0348 kg /s

7.44598=0.0348 ×4.2 ×(180−T h 2 )

T h 2=129.056oC

∆ T 1−∆T 2
∆ T m=
ln
( )
∆T 1
∆T 2
(180−37.5)−(129.056−25)
∆ T m=
ln (
180−37.5
129.056−25 )
∆ T m=122.272 oC
t 2−t 1 37.5−25
P= = =0.0807
T 1−t 1 180−25
T 1−T 2 180−129.056
R= = =4.0755
t 2−t 1 37.5−25
F T =1
2
U =680 W /m K
Q=F T UA ∆ T m
78
Q
A=
FT U ∆ T m
3
7.44598 ×10 W
A=
1 ×680 ×122.272
3
A=0.08955 m
n
C e =a+b S
1
C e =10000+10 ×88
C e =$ 10880
( )
0.6
( )
0.6
0.08955
Cost of heat exchanger 0.08=Cost of heat exchanger10
10
( )
0.6
0.08955
Cost of heat exchanger 0.08=$ 10880
10
Cost of heat exchanger 0.08=$ 642.4928
Vinegar manufacture heat exchanger

optimally.
We assume that the Vinegar production plant will run for 360 days, 24 hours daily. in the year
allowing for a total of 5 days averagely of maintenance of equipment. Vinegar takes 4 months to
be produced in the bioreactors thus the production will occur only 3 days in a year allowing for
completion of the entire process before the next batch.
79
2000000 kg
Mass flowrate=
3 ×24 × 3600
Q= ṁ×C p ×∆ T
Q=7.71605 × 3.86 ×(30−25)

Q=148.9198 kW
ṁs =0.232 kg/ s

148.9198=0.232× 4.2 ×(180−T h 2)

T h 2=27.1677oC

∆ T 1−∆T 2
∆ T m=
ln
( )
∆T 1
∆T 2
(180−30)−(27.1667−25)
∆ T m=
ln ( 180−30
27.1667−25 )
∆ T m=34.8875 oC
t 2−t 1 30−25
P= = =0.03226
T 1−t 1 180−25
T 1−T 2 180−27.1667
R= = =30.5667
t 2−t 1 30−25
F T =1
80
2
U =680 W /m K
Q=F T UA ∆ T m
Q
A=
FT U ∆ T m
3
148.9198 × 10 W
A=
1 ×680 × 34.8875
3
A=6.27731 m
n
C e =a+b S
1
C e =10000+10 ×88
C e =$ 10880
( )
0.6
( )
0.6
6.27731
Cost of heat exchanger6.28 =Cost of heat exchanger10
10
( )
0.6
6.27731
10
Cost of heat exchanger6.28 =$ 8227.9765
Cider manufacture heat exchanger

optimally.
81
We assume that the Cider plant will run for 360 days, 24 hours daily in a year allowing for a total
of 5 days averagely of maintenance of equipment. Cider takes 2 months to be produced in the
bioreactors thus the production will occur only 6 days allowing for completion of the entire
process before the next batch.
5880000 kg
Mass flowrate=
6 × 24 ×3600
Amount of energy required for distillation at the condenser;
Q= ṁ×C p ×∆ T
Q=11.34259 ×3.86 ×(33−25)

Q=350.2593 kW
ṁs =0.546 kg /s

350.2593=0.546 × 4.2×(180−T h 2 )
T h 2=27.2618oC

∆ T 1−∆T 2
∆ T m=
ln
( )
∆T 1
∆T 2
(180−33)−(27.2618−25)
∆ T m=
ln ( 180−33
27.2618−25 )
82
∆ T m=34.6739 oC
t 2−t 1 33−25
P= = =0.05161
T 1−t 1 180−25
T 1−T 2 180−27.2618
R= = =30.5476
t 2−t 1 30−25
F T =1
2
U =680 W /m K
Q=F T UA ∆ T m
Q
A=
FT U ∆ T m
3
350.2593 × 10 W
A=
1 ×680 × 34.6739
3
A=13.6723 m
From table 1, appendices, the cost of a 13.6723 m2 shell and tube heat exchanger in 2006;
n
C e =a+b S
1
C e =10000+13.6723 ×88
C e =$ 11203.1624
Heat exchanger Surface area (m2) Cost ( $)

Pasteurizer 5.45674 7564.6502 ×2
Apple juice 0.038605 384.4516
Probiotic beverage 0.08950 642.4928
Vinegar 6.27731 8227.9765
Cider 13.6723 11203.1624
Total 35587.3834
83
5.1.1.1.1.5 BIOREACTORS
In designing the bioreactor reaction vessels, we assume negligible losses between the batches. As
such, the mass of the non-substrate component of the feed remains constant.
Depectinisation bioreactor
Pectinases enzymes break down pectin polymer into galacturonic acid monomers;
(C6H8O6) n + nH2O nC6H10O7
2000000
Mass of crude apple juice per day= =6666.6667 kg
300
Standard mass of pectinases enzymes required is 0.2% the mass of crude apple juice;
0.2
Mass of pectinases enzymes added= × 6666.6667 kg=13.3333 kg
100
Working volume of the reactor = Volume of crude apple juice + Volume of pectinases enzymes
Mass of crude apple juice Mass of pectinases enzymes
Working volume= +
Density of crude apple juice Density of pectinases enzymes
6666.6667 kg 13.3333 kg
Working volume= 3
+ 3
1042.5 kg /m 1500 kg /m
3
3 π 2
V =0.084672 D i + D S
4 i F
Where ;
Di−Inside diameter S F−Straight flange ,(0.15∈¿ 0.0381m standard )
3 π 2 π 2
Working volume=0.084672 D i + Di S F + Di h
4 4
h
=1, h=Di
Di
3 π 2 π 3
4 4
84
3 π 2 π 3
0.084672 Di + D i × 0.0381+ D i =6.4038
4 4
3 2
0.87007 Di +0.02992 Di −6.4038=0
Di=1.93372 m

Height of liquid ∈the shell=1.93372 m
3 π 2 3 π 2 π 2
4 4 4
3 π 2 π 2
2 4
3 π 2 π 2
Total volume=0.169344 × 1.93372 + × 1.93372 × 0.0381+ × 1.93372 × 2.3205
2 4
3
From table 1, appendices, the cost of an 8.26315 m3 Jacketed, agitated, carbon steel reactor in
2006;
n
C e =a+b S
0.7
C e =14000+15400 ×8.26315
C e =$ 81534.03
Cost of cabron steel reactor 8.263=$ 81534.03
From table 2 – Appendices, the cost of a stainless-steel – 316 reactor;

Cost of stainless steel reactor 8.263=$ 81534.03 × 1.3
Cost of stainless steel reactor 8.263=$ 105994.239
Hydrolysis bioreactors
Disaccharide sugar is broken down to its monomers; glucose and fructose in the presence of
invertase enzyme;
C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
85
Under optimal conditions, the conversion of sucrose to fructose and glucose using invertase
enzyme occurs rapidly, with almost complete hydrolysis of sucrose within an hour.
Mass of crude apple juice;
2000000
Mass of crude apple juice per hour= =277.7778 kg
300× 24
Mass of invertase enzyme;
0.125
Mass of sucrose ∈apple juice= × 277.7778 kg=0.34722 kg
100
The mass of invertase enzyme to sucrose ratio required for the conversion of sucrose to glucose
and fructose = 1:50
1 −3
Mass of invertase enzymes added = ×0.34722 kg=6.94445 ×10 kg
50
Mass of water added;
0.34722kg −3
Moles of sucrose= =1.01526 ×10 kmoles
342
−3
Mass of water added =1.01526 ×10 ×18
Mass of water added =0.018275 kg
Working volume of the reactor = Volume of crude apple juice + Volume of pectinases enzymes
+ Volume of water added for hydrolysis.
Mass of crude juice Mass of pectinases Mass of water added
Working volume= + +
Density of crude juice Density of pectinase Density of water
−3
277.7778 kg 6.94445 × 10 kg 0.018275 kg
Working volume= 3
+ 3
+ 3
1042.5 kg /m 1600 kg/m 1000 kg/m
3
3 π 2
V =0.084672 D i + D S S −Straight flange ,(0.15∈¿ 0.0381m standard )
4 i F F
3 π 2 π 2
4 4
86
h
=1, h=Di
Di
3 π 2 π 3
4 4
3 π 2 π 3
0.084672 Di + D i × 0.0381+ D i =0.26648
4 4
3 2
0.87007 Di +0.02992 Di −0.26648=0
Di=0.6628 m

3 π 2 3 π 2 π 2
4 4 4
3 π 2 π 2
2 4
3 π 2 π 2
Total volume=0.169344 × 0.6628 + ×0.6628 ×0.0381+ × 0.66278 × 0.79536
2 4
3
Total volume=0.35 m
From table 1, appendices, the cost of a 0.5 m3 Jacketed, agitated, carbon steel reactor in 2006;
n
C e =a+b S
0.7
C e =14000+15400 ×0.5
C e =$ 23479.812
( )
0.6
( )
0.6
0.35
Cost of carbon steel reactor 0.35=Cost of heat exchanger 0.5
0.5
87
( )
0.6
0.35
Cost of carbon steel reactor 0.35=$ 23479.812
0.5
Cost of carbon steel reactor 0.35=$ 18956.2941
From table 2 – Appendices, the cost of a stainless-steel – 316 reactors;

Cost of stainless steel reactor 0.35 =$ 18956.2941 ×1.3
Cost of stainless steel reactor 0.35 =$ 24643.1824
In the apple products manufacturing plant, we unutilized three hydrolysis bioreactors;

Total cost of stainless steel reactors0.35=$ 24643.1824 × 3
Total cost of stainless steel reactors0.35=$ 73929.5472
Lactobacillus acidophilus fermentation bioreactor

From the bioreactor design, section 3;
3
From table 1, appendices, the cost of a 17.0821 m3 Jacketed, agitated, carbon steel reactor in
2006;
n
C e =a+b S
0.7
C e =14000+15400 ×17.0821
C e =$ 126279.2758
Cost of cabron steel reactor 17.08=$ 126279.2758

Cost of stainless steel reactor 17.08=$ 126279.2758 ×1.3
Cost of stainless steel reactor 17.08=$ 164163.0585
Saccharomyces cerevisiae enzyme (yeast) fermentation bioreactors

Saccharomyces cerevisiae enzyme (yeast) breaks down the sugars, fructose and glucose,
anaerobically into alcohol;
(Sugars) (Alcohol)
The conversion of sugars into alcohol by the Saccharomyces cerevisiae enzyme (yeast) takes two
months in the bioreactor for complete conversion.
Amount of crude apple juice introduced into bioreactor per annum = 2000000 kg
88
Number of batches∈a year =6 batches /annum
2000000 kg
Total amount of crude apple juice introduced per batch= =333333.3333 kg
6
Amount of sugarsthat reacted ¿ form alcohol=88676.0737 kg
Yeast ¿ substrate ( sugars reacted ) ratio is1 :200
1
Amount of yeast inoculated per batch= ×88676.0737 kg
200
¿ 443.3804 kg
Amount of yeast at theend of the reaction assuming exponential growth∧negligible cell
death ;
μt
X =X o e
60× 24 ×0.00405
X =443.3804 × e
X =151210.486 kg
Bioreactor working volume=volume of crude apple juice +volume of yeast
Working volume= +
333333.3333 kg 151210.486 kg
Working volume= 3
+ 3
1042.5 kg /m 1060 kg/m
3
3 π 2
4 i F F
3 π 2 π 2
4 4
h
=1, h=Di
Di
3 π 2 π 3
Working volume=0.084672 D i + Di S F + Di
4 4
3 π 2 π 3
0.084672 Di + D i × 0.0381+ Di =462.3956
4 4
89
3 2
0.87007 Di +0.02992 Di −462.3956=0
Di=8.08856 m

3 π 2 3 π 2 π 2
Total volume=0.084672 D i + D i S F +0.084672 D i + D i S F + D i h
4 4 4
3 π 2 π 2
Total volume=0.169344 Di + Di S F + Di h
2 4
3 π 2 π 2
Total volume=0.169344 × 8.0886 + ×8.0886 × 0.0381+ × 8.0886 ×9.7063
2 4
3
From table 1, appendices, the cost of a 100 m3 Jacketed, agitated, carbon steel reactor in 2006;
n
C e =a+b S
0.7
C e =14000+15400 ×100
C e =$ 400830.5105
( )
0.6
=Cost of heat exchanger (

100 )
0.6
529.2909
Cost of carbon steel reactor 529 100
=$ 400830.5105 (
100 )
0.6
529.2909
Cost of carbon steel reactor 529
Cost of carbon steel reactor 529 =$ 1089375.06

Cost of stainless steel reactor 529 =$ 1089375.06 ×1.3
Cost of stainless steel reactor 529 =$ 1416187.578
90
In the apple products manufacturing plant, we utilized two Saccharomyces cerevisiae enzyme
(yeast) fermentation bioreactors, cider and vinegar production;
Cost of stainless steel reactor 529 =$ 1416187.578 ×2
Cost of stainless steel reactor 529 =¿ $ 2832375.155
Acetification bioreactor
Alcohol interacts with acetobacter bacteria which converts the alcohol into acetic acid, the main
substance in vinegar;
The conversion of alcohol by the acetobacter bacteria takes two months in the bioreactor for
complete conversion.
Amount of alcohol;
Amount of alcohol intruduced ¿the reactor per annum=1919471.591 kg
1919471.591 kg
Total amount of alcohol introduced per batch= =319911.93 kg
6
Amount of Acetobacter;
Amount of alcohol that reacted ¿ form acetic acid=15385.2651 kg
Standard amount of acetobacter is1 % the amount of substrate;
1
Amount of Acetobacter inoculated per batch= × 15385.2651=153.85265 kg
100
Amount of Acetobacter at the end of the reactionassuming exponential growth∧negligible cell
death ;
μt
X =X o e
60 ×24 ×0.00405
X =153.85265 ×e
X =52469.9197 kg
Amount of water produced;
15385.2651 kg
Moles of alcohol= =344.4623 kmoles
46
Mass of water =344.4623 ×18=6020.3211kg
Bioreactor working volume=volume of crude apple juice +volume of acetobacter
+ volume of water prodcued ∈the reaction
91
Mass of juice Mass of acetobacter Mass of water produced
Working volume= + +
Density of juice Density of acetobacter Density of water
319911.93 kg 52469.9197 kg 6020.3211 kg
Working volume= 3
+ 3
+ 3
1042.5 kg /m 1030 kg/m 1000 kg /m
3
3 π 2
4 i F F
3 π 2 π 2
4 4
h
=1, h=Di
Di
3 π 2 π 3
Working volume=0.084672 D i + Di S F + Di
4 4
3 π 2 π 3
0.084672 Di + D i × 0.0381+ Di =363.83195
4 4
3 2
0.87007 Di +0.02992 Di −363.83195=0
Di=7.4665 m

3 π 2 3 π 2 π 2
4 4 4
3 π 2 π 2
Total volume=0.169344 Di + D S + D h
2 i F 4 i
3 π 2 π 2
Total volume=0.169344 × 7.4665 + × 7.4665 ×0.0381+ ×7.4665 ×8.9598
2 4
92
3
n
C e =a+b S
0.7
C e =14000+15400 ×100
C e =$ 400830.5105
( )
0.6
( )
0.6
466.12899
Cost of carbon steel reactor 466 =Cost of heat exchanger 100
100
( )
0.6
466.12899
100

Cost of stainless steel reactor 466=$ 1009402.649 ×1.3
Cost of stainless steel reactor 466=$ 1312223.444
Saccharomyces cerevisiae enzyme (yeast) pomace fermentation bioreactors

Saccharomyces cerevisiae enzyme (yeast) breaks down the sugars, fructose and glucose,
anaerobically into alcohol;
(Sugars) (Alcohol)
The conversion of sugars into alcohol by the Saccharomyces cerevisiae enzyme (yeast) takes two
months in the bioreactor for complete conversion.
Amount of apple sugar solution introduced into bioreactor per annum = 1411764 kg
1411764 kg
Total amount of crude apple juice introduced per batch= =235294 kg
6
Amount of sugarsthat reacted ¿ form alcohol=8470.584 kg
Yeast ¿ substrate ( sugars reacted ) ratio is1 :200
1
Amount of yeast inoculated per batch= ×8470.584 kg
200
93
¿ 42.35292 kg
Amount of yeast at theend of the reaction assuming exponential growth∧negligible cell
death ;
μt
X =X o e
60 ×24 × 0.00405
X =42.35292 × e
X =14444.0431 kg
Bioreactor working volume=volume of crude apple juice +volume of yeast
Working volume= +
235294 kg 14444.0431 kg
Working volume= 3
+ 3
1042.5 kg /m 1060 kg /m
3
3 π 2
V =0.084672 Di + D S S −Straight flange ,(0.15∈¿ 0.0381m standard )
4 i F F
3 π 2 π 2
Working volume=0.084672 D i + D S + D h
4 i F 4 i
h
=1, h=Di
Di
3 π 2 π 3
4 4
3 π 2 π 3
0.084672 Di + D i × 0.0381+ D i =239.3281
4 4
3 2
0.87007 Di +0.02992 Di −239.3281=0
Di=6.4920 m

94
3 π 2 3 π 2 π 2
4 4 4
3 π 2 π 2
Total volume=0.169344 Di + D S + D h
2 i F 4 i
3 π 2 π 2
Total volume=0.169344 × 6.4920 + ×6.4920 ×0.0381+ ×6.4920 × 9.7904
2 4
3
n
C e =a+b S
0.7
C e =14000+15400 ×100
C e =$ 400830.5105
( )
0.6
=Cost of heat exchanger (

100 )
0.6
372.9333
Cost of carbon steel reactor 372 100
=$ 400830.5105 (
100 )
0.6
372.9333
Cost of carbon steel reactor 372

Cost of stainless steel reactor 372 =$ 882956.83 ×1.3
Cost of stainless steel reactor 372 =$ 1147843.879
Reactor Volume (m3) Cost ( $)

Depectinisation 8.26315 105994.239
Hydrolysis 0.35 24643.1824 × 3
Lactobacillus acidophilus fermentation 17.0821 164163.0585
Yeast fermentation – cider & vinegar 592.2909 1416187.578 ×2
Acetification 466.12899 1312223.444
95
Yeast fermentation – pomace 372.9333 1147843.879
Total 5636529.324
5.1.1.1.1.6 DISTILLATION COLUMNS

Distillation columns are a commonly utilized apparatus in numerous separation processes. In the
realm of apple product manufacturing, these columns serve a crucial role in producing spirit and
aged spirit from apple cider, as well as in the production of spirit derived from apple pomace.
Design of the distillation column in spirit manufacture & the first distillation column in
aged spirit manufacture
From the material balance around the cider manufacturing process;
Total amount of cider produced per annum=5677710.66 kg
Total amount of alcohol produced during fermentation per annum=270580.2595 kg
270580.2595 kg
Percentage of alcohol∈cider= ×100=4.7657 %
5677710.66 kg
The amount of cider produced is taken further to three different production lines; storage,
production of spirit and production of aged spirit.
1
¿ spirit : ×5677710.66 kg=1892570.22kg /annum
3
Cider : 1
Divider ¿ storage : ×5677710.66 kg=1892570.22 kg /annum
5677710.66 3
kg /annum
1
¿ aged spirit : ×5677710.66 kg=1892570.22 kg /annum
3
Data:
Antoine equations for ethanol and water from Perry’s Chemical Engineering Handbook;
sat B
ln P =A−
T+C
Where;
A, B & C – Constants
T – temperature (oC)
P – pressure (kPa)
96
For ethanol:
sat 3795.17
ln P =16.8958−
T + 230.918
For water:
sat 3885.70
ln P =16.3872−
T +230.17
Densities of vapour and liquid of ethanol and water from NIST chemistry Webbook;
Vapour Liquid
density density
Water 0.6 kg/m3 1000 kg/m3
Ethanol 1.59 kg/m3 789 kg/m3
From design of the distillation column in spirit manufacture & the first distillation column in
aged spirit manufacture, section 3;
Cost of the distillation column
From the table at 2006, a vertical, stainless steel – 304 distillation column with a shell mass of
124200 kg would cost;
n
C e =a+b S
0.6
C e =−10000+600 ×124200
C e =$ 673320.1191
The shell mass of our design distillation column is 10.00302 kg. We can use the six-tenths factor
rule of equipment cost by scaling to determine the price of the column;
( )
0.6
( )
0.6
10.00302
Cost of distillation column10=Cost of distillation column124200
124200
( )
0.6
10.00302
Cost of distillation column10=$ 673320.1191
124200
Cost of both distillation columns 10=$ 2354.1131 ×2
Cost of both distillation columns 10=$ 4708.2262
97
Design of the second distillation column in aged spirit manufacture
Mass balance
The distillate in the first distillation column containing 30% alcolol enters the second distillation
column where it is distilled to 70% alcohol forming aged spirit. However some traces of alcohol
may come out as bottom product approximately 1%.
Amount of distillate=819.1784 kg /day
D+ B=819.1784 Kg
Component balance;
0.7 D+0.01 B=0.3 × 819.1784
0.7 D+0.01 B=245.7535 kg
Ethanol 245.7535 5.3425 0.1436
Water 573.4249 31.8569 0.8564
Total 819.1784 37.1995 1.0000

Ethanol 241.0046 5.2392 0.4773
Water 103.2877 5.7382 0.5227
Total 344.2923 10.9774 1.0000

Ethanol 4.7789 0.1039 0.0039
Water 473.1072 26.2837 0.9961
Total 477.8861 26.3876 1.0000
Operating pressure
∑ x i Psati =Pt
98
sat sat
Pt =x 1 P1 + x 2 P 2
sat 3795.17
ln P1 =16.8958−
T + 230.918
sat 3885.70
ln P2 =16.3872−
T +230.17
3795.17 3885.70
16.8958− 16.3872−
T +230.918 T +230.17
Pt =x 1 e + x2 e
3795.17 3885.70
16.8958− 16.3872−
T +230.918 T +230.17
Pt =0.4773 e +0.5227 e

Pt (kPa) T (oC)
50 69.5557
60 73.9155
70 77.7015
80 81.0579
90 84.0796
100 86.8326
110 89.3648
120 91.7120
130 93.9018
140 95.9559
distillate and the cooling medium, which is water at 25°C.
At dew temperature;
yi P t
∑ Pi
sat
=1
0.4773 ×140 0.5227 ×140

3795.17
+ 3885.70
=1
16.8958 − 16.3872−
T +230.918 T +230.17
e e
Tdew = 102.4845 oC
For ethanol:
sat 3795.17
ln P1 =16.8958−
102.4845 o C+ 230.918
99
sat
P1 =247.8074 kPa
For water:
sat 3885.70
ln P2 =16.3872−
102.4845 o C+230.17
sat
P2 =110.6433 kPa
∑ x i Psati =Pt
3795.17 3885.70
16.8958− 16.3872−
T +230.918 T +230.17
0.0039 e +0.9961 e =140
Tbulb = 109.1828 oC
For ethanol:
sat 3795.17
ln P1 =16.8958−
109.1828 o C+ 230.918
sat
P1 =310.0841 kPa
For water:
sat 3885.70
ln P2 =16.3872−
109.1828 o C+230.17
sat
P2 =139.3441 kPa
Average volatility;
Component sat
Pi Pi
sat
α dew = sat
α bulb= sat
PHK P HK
Ethanol
α dew =
247.8074 kPa
α bulb=
310.0841 kPa α avg= √ 2.2397 × 2.2253
110.6433 kPa 139.3441 kPa
α avg=2.2325
α dew =2.2397 α bulb=2.2253

For a binary distillation column with distillate from the first distillation column entering the
second column as saturated liquid feed, the minimum reflux ratio is calculated from the equation;
Rm =
1
[
α avg −1 x F
−
1−x F ]
100
Rm =
1
2.2325−1 0.1436
− [
0.4773 2.2325(1−0.4773)
1−0.1436 ]
Rm =1.5913

Nm=
log
[( ) ( ) ]
x LK
x HK d
x HK
x LK b
log α Lk
Nm=
log
[( 0.4773
0.5227 d 0.0039 ) ]
) ( 0.9961 b
log 2.2325
N m =6.7885
f ( N )=
N −N m
=1−e
[ ( )]
1+54.4 ψ ψ −1
11+117.2 ψ ψ 0.5
N +1
R−1.5913
ψ=
R+1
f ( N )=1−e
[ ( )]
1+54.4 ψ ψ −1
11+117.2ψ ψ 0.5
N m + f (N )
N=
1−f (N )
R f(N) N
2 0.1362 0.5181 15.1607

2.5 0.2596 0.4117 12.2379
3 0.3522 0.3436 10.8652
3.5 0.4242 0.2957 10.0592
4 0.4817 0.2600 9.5254
4.5 0.5289 0.2322 9.1444
5 0.5681 0.2099 8.8580
5.5 0.6013 0.1916 8.6347
6 0.6298 0.1763 8.4553
6.5 0.6545 0.1633 8.3081
101
7 0.6761 0.1520 8.1850
7.5 0.6951 0.1423 8.0805
8 0.7121 0.1337 7.9907
8.5 0.7272 0.1261 7.9126
9 0.7409 0.1194 7.8441
N against R
16.0000
14.0000
12.0000
10.0000
8.0000
N
6.0000
4.0000
2.0000
0.0000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
R
N=8.6347 ≅ 9 stages
R = 5.5
Column internal diameter
An estimate of the column diameter can be obtained from the equation;
Dc =
√ 4Vw
π ρ v uv
equation;
102
[ ]
1
2 ρl −ρv 2
u v =(−0.171l +0.27 l t −0.047)
t
ρv
Liquid density
L=F + RD
L=819.1784 +344.2923 ×5.5 kg /day
RD=2712.786 kg /day
L=2712.7861 kg /day
Ethanol 245.7535 1325.5254 1571.2789 0.5792
Water 573.4249 568.0823 1141.5072 0.4208
Total 819.1784 1893.6077 2712.7861 1.0000
1 xi
=∑
ρ ρi
1 x1 x 2
= +
ρ ρ1 ρ2
1 0.5792 0.4208
= +
ρ 789 1000
3
ρl =865.8804 kg /m
Vapour density
Vapour flowrate=Distillate + Liquid reflux ¿ condenser
V =D+ RD
V =D ( 1+ R )
V =344.2923 ( 1+5.5 ) kg /day
V =2237.9 kg/day
103
Ethanol 241.0046 1325.5254 1566.5300 0.7
Water 103.2877 568.0823 671.3700 0.3
Total 344.2923 1893.6077 2237.9000 1.0
1 yi
=∑
ρ ρi
1 y1 y 2
= +
ρ ρ1 ρ2
1 0.7 0.3
= +
ρ 1.59 0.6
3
ρ v =1.06355 kg/m
Vapour flowrate
2237.9 kg
V w=
24 × 3600
V w =0.0259 kg/ s
[ ]
1
2 ρl −ρv 2
u v =(−0.171l +0.27 l t −0.47)
t
ρv
[ ]
1
2 865.8804−1.06355 2
u v =(−0.171× 0.5 +0.27 ×0.5−0.047)
1.06355
u v =1.29033 m/s
Column diameter
Dc =
√ 4Vw
π ρ v uv
Dc =
√ 4 × 0.0259 kg /s
π ×1.06355 kg/m3 × 1.29033 m/s
Dc =0.15502 m
Column height
104
following equation;
H c =( N −1 ) P s
H c =( 9−1 ) ×0.5 m
H c =4 m
Column thickness
Pi D i
t w= +t
4 Jf −1.2 Pi c
140 kPa ×0.15502 m −3
t w= + 0.8× 10 m
4 × 0.85 ×128931.96 kPa−1.2× 100 kPa
−4
t w =8.4952 ×10 m
Shell mass of the distillation column
Where;
ρ−Metal density
−4
Shell mass=π × 0.15502m × 4 ×8.4952 ×10 m× 7890
n
C e =a+b S
0.6
C e =−10000+600 ×124200
C e =$ 673320.1191
The shell mass of our design distillation column is 13.05714kg. We can use the six-tenths factor
105
( )
0.6
( )
0.6
13.05714
124200
( )
0.6
13.05714
124200
Design of the distillation column in the manufacture of spirit from pomace

Mass balance
Assuming that the spirit- pomace plant will run for 300 days, 24 hours daily in a year allowing
for a total of 60 days averagely of maintenance of equipment, the amount of alcohol solution
from the bioreactor utilized per day;
From material balance around the bioreactor in Pomace waste production line;
14117647 kg
Amount of alcohol solution produced= =47058.8233 kg/day
300 days
The solution from the bioreactor containing 1.84% alcohol is distilled to 30% alcohol in a
distillation column to form spirit. However some traces of alcohol may come out as bottom
product approximately 1%.
D+ B=47058.8233 Kg
Component balance;
0.3 D+0.01 B=0.0184 × 47058.8233 Kg
0.3 D+0.01 B=865.8823 kg
Ethanol 865.8823 18.8235 0.0073
Water 46192.9410 2566.2745 0.9927
Total 47058.8233 2585.0980 1.0000
106
Ethanol 408.9249 8.8897 0.1436
Water 954.1581 53.0088 0.8564
Total 1363.0830 61.8985 1.0000

Ethanol 456.9574 9.9339 0.0039
Water 45238.7829 2513.2657 0.9961
Total 45695.7403 2523.1996 1.0000
Operating pressure
∑ x i Psati =Pt
sat sat
Pt =x 1 P1 + x 2 P 2
sat 3795.17
ln P1 =16.8958−
T + 230.918
sat 3885.70
ln P2 =16.3872−
T +230.17
3795.17 3885.70
16.8958− 16.3872−
T +230.918 T +230.17
Pt =x 1 e + x2 e
3795.17 3885.70
16.8958− 16.3872 −
T +230.918 T +230.17
Pt =0.1436 e +0.8564 e
Pt (kPa) T (oC)
50 77.0888
60 81.6191
70 85.5548
80 89.0451
90 92.1883
100 95.0528
distillate and the cooling medium, which is water at 25°C. Additionally, this pressure threshold
107
does not necessitate a significant increase in column diameter. Consequently, we have selected
this pressure for utilization in our design.
At dew temperature;
yi P t
∑ Pi
sat
=1
0.1436 ×100 0.8564 ×100

3795.17
+ 3885.70
=1
16.8958 − 16.3872−
T +230.918 T +230.17
e e
Tdew = 97.3139 oC
For ethanol:
sat 3795.17
ln P1 =16.8958−
97.3139 o C +230.918
sat
P1 =207.1275 kPa
For water:
sat 3885.70
ln P2 =16.3872−
97.3139 o C+ 230.17
sat
P2 =92.0088 kPa
∑ x i Psati =Pt
3795.17 3885.70
16.8958− 16.3872−
T +230.918 T +230.17
0.0039 e +0.9961 e =100
Tbulb = 99.4932 oC
For ethanol:
sat 3795.17
ln P1 =16.8958−
99.4932 o C+ 230.918
sat
P1 =223.5416 kPa
For water:
sat 3885.70
ln P2 =16.3872−
99.4932 o C+230.17
sat
P2 =95.5163 kPa
108
Average volatility;
Component sat
Pi Pi
sat
α dew = sat
α bulb= sat
P HK P HK
Ethanol
α dew =
207.1275 kPa
α bulb=
223.5416 kPa α avg= √ 2.2512 ×2.3404
92.0088 kPa 95.5163 kPa
α avg=2.2954
α dew =2.2512 α bulb=2.3404

For a binary distillation column with the alcohol solution entering the column as saturated liquid
feed, the minimum reflux ratio is calculated from the equation;
Rm =
1
α avg −1 x F[
−
1−x F ]
Rm =
1
2.2954−1 0.0073
− [
0.1436 2.2954 (1−0.1436)
1−0.0073 ]
Rm =13.6568

Nm=
log
[( ) ( ) ]
x LK
x HK d
x HK
x LK b
log α Lk
Nm=
log
[( 0.1436
0.8536 d 0.0039 ) ]
) ( 0.9961 b
log 2.2954
N m =¿ 4.62204
f ( N )=
N −N m
=1−e
[ ( )]
1+54.4 ψ ψ −1
11+117.2 ψ ψ 0.5
N +1
R−R m
ψ=
R+1
109
R−13.6568
ψ=
R+1
f ( N )=1−e
[ ( )]
1+54.4 ψ ψ −1
11+117.2ψ ψ 0.5
N m + f (N )
N=
1−f (N )
R f(N) N
14 0.0229 0.6535 15.2246

14.5 0.0544 0.6030 13.1614
15 0.0840 0.5703 12.0826
15.5 0.1117 0.5419 11.2728
16 0.1378 0.5165 10.6286
16.5 0.1625 0.4936 10.1026
17 0.1857 0.4728 9.6647
17.5 0.2077 0.4539 9.2945
18 0.2286 0.4365 8.9773
18.5 0.2484 0.4205 8.7022
19 0.2672 0.4058 8.4614
19.5 0.2850 0.3921 8.2486
20 0.3021 0.3794 8.0592
20.5 0.3183 0.3676 7.8894
21 0.3338 0.3565 7.7362
21.5 0.3486 0.3461 7.5974
22 0.3627 0.3363 7.4708
22.5 0.3763 0.3271 7.3550
23 0.3893 0.3184 7.2486
23.5 0.4018 0.3102 7.1504
24 0.4137 0.3024 7.0595
24.5 0.4252 0.2951 6.9752
25 0.4363 0.2881 6.8967
25.5 0.4469 0.2814 6.8234
26 0.4572 0.2750 6.7548
26.5 0.4670 0.2690 6.6905
27 0.4765 0.2632 6.6300
27.5 0.4857 0.2576 6.5731
28 0.4946 0.2523 6.5194
110
N against R
16.0000
14.0000
12.0000
10.0000
8.0000
N
6.0000
4.0000
2.0000
0.0000
12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
R
N=6.6905 ≅ 7 stages
R = 26.5
Column internal diameter
An estimate of the column diameter can be obtained from the equation;
Dc =
√ 4Vw
π ρ v uv
equation;
[ ]
1
2 ρl −ρv 2
u v =(−0.171l +0.27 l t −0.047)
t
ρv
Where;
Liquid density
111
L=F + RD
L=47058.8233+1363.083 ×26.5 kg /day
RD=36121.6995 kg /day
L=83180.5228 kg/day
Ethanol 865.8823 10836.5099 11702.3922 0.1407
Water 46192.9410 25285.1896 71478.1306 0.8593
Total 47058.8233 36121.6995 83180.5228 1.0000
1 xi
=∑
ρ ρi
1 x1 x 2
= +
ρ ρ1 ρ2
1 0.1407 0.8593
= +
ρ 789 1000
3
ρl =963.7375 kg /m
Vapour density
Vapour flowrate=Dsitillate + Liquid reflux ¿ condenser
V =D+ RD
V =D ( 1+ R )
V =1363.0830 ( 1+26.5 ) kg /day
V =37484.7825 kg/day
Ethanol 408.9249 10836.5099 11245.4348 0.3
Water 954.1581 25285.1896 26239.3477 0.7
Total 1363.0830 36121.6995 37484.7825 1.0
112
1 yi
=∑
ρ ρi
1 y1 y 2
= +
ρ ρ1 ρ2
1 0.3 0.7
= +
ρ 1.59 0.6
3
ρ v =1.35535 kg/m
Vapour flowrate
37484.7825
V w=
24 ×3600
V w =0.43385 kg/ s
[ ]
1
2 ρl −ρv 2
u v =(−0.171l +0.27 l t −0.47)
t
ρv
[ ]
1
963.7375−0.113775
u v =(−0.171× 0.52 +0.27 ×0.5−0.047) 2
0.113775
u v =4.1644 m/s
Column diameter
Dc =
√ 4Vw
π ρ v uv
Dc =
√ 4 ×0.43385 kg /s
π ×1.35535 kg/m3 4.1644 m/ s
Dc =0.31284 m
Column height
following equation;
H c =( N −1 ) P s
Where;
N−Number of theoretical plates
113
Ps −Plate spacing
H c =( 7−1 ) ×0.5 m
H c =3 m
Column thickness
The column thickness is an important parameter to consider in column design which is function
of the maximum allowable pressure, the working pressure of the construction material calculated
as:
Pi D i
t w= +t
4 Jf −1.2 Pi c
Where ;
Pi−Internal pressure
Di−Internal diameter
J−Joint efficiency
f −Design stress
t c −Corrosion allowance
100 kPa× 0.31284 m −3
t w= + 0.8× 10 m
4 × 0.85 ×128931.96 kPa−1.2× 100 kPa
−4
t w =8.71384 × 10 m
Shell mass of the distillation column

Where;
ρ−Metal density
−4
Shell mass=π × 0.31284 m× 3 ×8.71384 × 10 m ×7890
114
n
C e =a+b S
0.6
C e =−10000+600 ×124200
C e =$ 673320.1191
The shell mass of our design distillation column is 20.27122 kg. We can use the six-tenths factor
( )
0.6
( )
0.6
20.27122
124200
( )
0.6
20.27122
124200
Distillation column Shell Cost ($)

mass (kg)
Spirit manufacture from cider 10.0032 2354.1131
Aged spirit manufacture (1st) 10.0032 2354.1131
Aged spirit manufacture (2nd) 13.05714 2762.2149
Spirit manufacture from 20.27122 3596.471

pomace
Total 11066.9121
5.1.1.1.1.7 CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATORS

Centrifugal separators are preferred in apple products manufacture due to their high efficiency,
capable of separating large volumes of liquid in a relatively short amount of time.
Apple juice manufacture centrifugal separator
The throughput in a centrifugal separator is calculated as;
π 2
Q= D vε
4
Where ;
115
D−Daimeter of the centrifuge
v−Velocity of the centifuge(2 m/s for a standard separator )
ε −Separator efficiency (0.85 for most centrifuges)
2000000 kg −5 3
Q= =7.4015 × 10 m /s
300 x 24 x 3600 x 1042.5 kg /m3
−5 3 π 2
7.4015 ×10 m / s= D ×2 ×0.85
4
−3
Daimeter of the centrifuge=7.4454 ×10 m
From table 1, appendices the cost of a 0.26 diameter high-speed disk centrifuge in 2006;
n
C e =a+b S
0.8
C e =63000+260000 ×0.26
C e =$ 151501.7842
Using the six-tenths factor rule of equipment cost by scaling the cost of 7.4454 × 10−3 m;
( )
0.6
( )
−3 0.6
7.4454 ×10
Cost of centrifuge 0.007=Cost of centrifuge 0.26
0.26
( )
−3 0.6
7.4454 ×10
Cost of centrifuge 0.007=$ 151501.7842
0.26
Cider manufacture centrifugal separator

π 2
Q= D vε
4
6000000 kg 3
Q= =0.0222m /s
3 x 24 x 3600 x 1042.5 kg /m3
3 π 2
0.0222 m /s= D × 2× 0.85
4
Daimeter of the centrifuge=0.12895 m
From table 1, appendices the cost of a 0.26 diameter high-speed disk centrifuge in 2006;
n
C e =a+b S
116
0.8
C e =63000+260000 ×0.26
C e =$ 151501.7842
Using the six-tenths factor rule of equipment cost by scaling the cost of 0.12895 m;
( )
0.6
( )
0.6
0.12895
Cost of centrifuge 0.128=Cost of centrifuge 0.26
0.26
( )
0.6
0.12895
0.26
Centrifugal separator Diameter (m) Cost ( $)

Apple juice manufacture 7.4454 × 10
−3
17970.7648
Cider manufacture 0.12895 99468.33
Total 117739.0948
5.1.1.1.1.8 STORAGE TANKS

Data:
Component Density (kg/m3)
Apple juice 1042.5
Probiotic beverage 1040
Vinegar 1020
Cider 1050
Spirit 950
Apple juice storage tank

1945300
Mass of apple juice stored per batch= =6484.3333 kg
300
6484.3333 kg
Volume of apple juice stored per batch= 3
1042.5 kg /m
3
Volume of apple juice stored =6.21998 m
Allowing for a provision of 10% headspace;
3
Volume of apple juice storage tank=6.84198 m
117
From table 1, appendices the cost of a 10 m3 cone roof tank in 2006;
n
C e =a+b S
0.7
C e =5700+700 ×10
C e =$ 9208.3106
Using the six-tenths factor rule of equipment cost by scaling the cost of 6.84198 m3;
( )
0.6
( )
0.6
6.84198
Cost of storage tank 6.84=Cost of storage tank10
10
=$ 9208.3106 (
10 )
0.6
6.84198
Cost of storage tank 6.84
Cost of storage tank 6.84=$ 7333.1242
Probiotic beverage storage tank

2000000
Mass of probiotic bevarage stored per batch= =13333.3333 kg
150
13333.3333 kg
Volume of probiotic bevarage stored per batch= 3
1040 kg /m
3
Volume of probiotic bevarage stored=12.8205 m
3
Volume of probiotic bevarage storage tank=14.1026 m
From table 1, appendices the cost of a 14.1026 m3 cone roof tank in 2006;
n
C e =a+b S
0.7
C e =5700+700 ×14.1026
C e =$ 10162.8005
Cost of storage tank14.102 =$ 9208.3106
Vinegar storage tank

1983688.372
Mass of vinegar stored per batch= =661229.4573 kg
3
661229.4573 kg
Volume of vinegar stored per batch= 3
1020 kg /m
118
3
Volume of vinegar stored=648.2642 m
3
Volume of vinegar storage tank=713.0906 m
n
C e =a+b S
0.7
C e =5700+700 ×713.0906
C e =$ 75250.3529
Cost of storage tank713 =$ 75250.3529
Cider storage tank

1892570.22
Mass of cider stored per batch= =315428.37 kg
6
315428.37 kg
Volume of cider stored per batch= 3
1050 kg /m
3
Volume of cider stored =300.4080 m
3
Volume of cider storage tank=330.4487 m
n
C e =a+b S
0.7
C e =5700+700 ×330.4487
C e =$ 46294.8437
Cost of storage tank330 =$ 46294.8437
Spirit storage tank

261685.7412
Mass of spirit stored per batch= =43614.2902 kg
6
43614.2902 kg
Volume of spirit stored per batch= 3
950 kg/m
3
Volume of spirit stored=45.90978 m
3
Volume of spirit storage tank=50.5008 m
119
n
C e =a+b S
0.7
C e =5700+700 ×50.5008
C e =$ 16599.50615
Cost of storage tank50.5 =$ 16599.50615
Storage tanks Volume (m3) Cost ( $)

Apple juice 6.84198 7333.1242
Probiotic beverage 14.1026 9208.3106

Vinegar 713.0906 75250.3529
Cider 330.4487 46294.8437
Spirit 50.5008 16599.50615
Total 154868.1376
5.1.1.1.1.9 OAK BARRELS

In our design we utilize the American oak based on its exceptional qualities, which include;
 American oak is more porous which allows for more oxygen transfer during the aging
process. This increased oxygenation can contribute to the development of desirable
flavors and aromas in the finished spirit.
 American oak tends to have a higher level of vanillin, a compound that imparts a sweet,
vanilla-like flavor to the spirit. This can be particularly desirable for aged spirits such as
whiskey or brandy, where vanilla notes can complement the other flavors in the finished
product.
 American oak is generally more abundant and less expensive which makes it a more cost-
effective choice for many distillers.
Cost of the oak barrels
103287.7056 kg
Mass of aged spirit produced per batch= =17214.6176 kg
6
3
Density of aged spirit=950 kg/m
17214.6176 kg
Volume of aged spirit produced per batch= 3
950 kg /m
3
Volume of aged spirit produced=18.12065 m ∨18120.65 litres
120
From Chris stamp (2015) Economics of wine barrels and using appreciation rate over the years,
the cost of 60-gallon American oak barrel including shipping in 2006;
Cost of 60−gallon ( 227.125 liters ) American oak barrel including shipping=$ 390
18120.65
Number of oak barrels required per batch= =80 barrels
227.125
Total cost of barrels required per batch=$ 390 ×80
Cost of oak barrels=$ 31200
5.1.1.1.1.10 TOTAL PURCHASED EQUIPMENT COST
Equipment Cost ( $ ¿
Hammer mill 11089.1496
Conveyors 32807.3374
Filter press 345302.5877
Heat exchangers 35587.3834
Bioreactors 5636529.324
Distillation columns 11066.9121
Centrifugal separator 117739.0948
Storage tanks 16599.50615
Oak barrels 31200
Total 6237321.295
5.1.1.1.2 PURCHASED EQUIPMENT INSTALLATION COST

Analysis of the total installed cost of equipment in a number of typical chemical plants indicate
that the installation cost of equipment can be estimated to be 25 – 55 % of the purchased
equipment cost, Peters S, Klaus D. (1991).
55
Total purchased installation cost= ×6237321.295
100
Total purchased installation cost=$ 3430526.712
5.1.1.1.3 INSULATION COST
When very high or very low temperatures are involved insulation factors can become important
and it may be necessary to estimate insulation cost. The total cost for the labor and material
required for insulating equipment is approximately 8 – 9 % of purchased equipment cost, Peters
121
S, Klaus D. (1991.
9
Total insulation cost = ×6237321.295
100
Total insulation cost =$ 561358.9166
5.1.1.1.4 INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL COST
Instrumentation costs, installation labor cost and expenses for auxiliary equipment and materials
constitute the major portion of the capital investment required for instrumentation. Total
instrumentation depends on the amount of control required and may amount to 6 – 30% of the
total purchased equipment cost, Peters S, Klaus D. (1991).
30
Total instrumentation∧control cost= ×6237321.295
100
Total instrumentation∧control cost=$ 1871196.389
5.1.1.1.5 PIPING COST
The cost of piping covers labor, valves, fittings, pipe, supports and other items involved in the
complete erection of all piping used directly in the process. For an apple products manufacturing
plant which is a solid – fluid, from table 6 – Appendices, Peters S, Klaus D. (1991).
31
Total piping cost = ×6237321.295
100
Total piping cost =$ 1933569.601
5.1.1.1.6 ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS COST
The cost for electrical installation consists primarily of installation labor and material for power
and lightning with building service lighting usually included. For ordinary chemical plants,
electrical installation costs amount to 10 – 15% of the value of all purchased equipment, Peters
S, Klaus D. (1991).
15
Total electrical installation cost= × 6237321.295
100
Total electrical installation cost=$ 935598.1943
5.1.1.1.7 BUILDING AND SERVICES COST
The cost of building and services consists of expenses of labor, materials and supplies involved
in the reaction of all buildings connected with the plant. From table 7 – Appendices, an apple
products manufacturing plant which is a solid – fluid plant installed at a new site, Peters S, Klaus
D. (1991).
47
Total building∧services cost= × 6237321.295
100
Total building∧services cost=$ 2931541.009
122
5.1.1.1.8 YARD IMPROVEMENTS COST
Yard improvements include the costs of fencing, grading, roads, sidewalks, railroad sidings,
landscape and similar items constitute to portion of the capital investment. For chemical plants,
yard improvements amount to 10 – 20% of the purchased equipment cost, Peters S, Klaus D.
(1991).
20
Total yard improvements cost= × 6237321.295
100
Total yard improvements cost=$ 1247464.259
5.1.1.1.9 SERVICE FACILITIES COST
Utilities for supplying steam, water, power and fuel are part of the service utilities of an
industrial plant including also waste disposal, fire protection, miscellaneous service items such as
first aid, cafeteria and shop equipment and facilities. The total cost of service facilities on
chemical plants generally ranges from 30 – 80% of the purchased equipment cost with 55%
representing an average for normal solid – fluid processing plant, Peters S, Klaus D. (1991).
55
Total service faciltities cost= ×6237321.295
100
Total service faciltities cost=$ 3430526.712
5.1.1.1.10 LAND COST
The cost of land and the accompanying surveys and fees depend on the location of the property
and as a rough average, land costs for industrial plants amount to 4 – 8% of the purchased
equipment cost, Peters S, Klaus D. (1991).
8
Total land cost= ×6237321.295
100
Total land cost=$ 498985.7036
5.1.1.1.10 TOTAL DIRECT COSTS
Direct costs Cost ( $ ¿
Purchases equipment 6237321.295
Purchased equipment installation 3430526.712
Insulation 561358.9166
Instrumentation and control 1871196.389
Piping 1933569.601
Electrical installations 6237321.295
Building and services 2931541.009
Yard improvements 1247464.259
Service facilities 3430526.712
Land 498985.7036
Total 28379811.89
123
5.1.1.2 INDIRECT COSTS
Indirect costs include; engineering and supervision, construction expense, contractors fee and
start up expense;
5.1.1.2.1 ENGINEERING AND SUPERVISION COST
The costs of construction design and engineering, drafting, purchasing, accounting, travel,
construction, communications, home office expense constitute the capital investment for
engineering and supervision. Engineering and supervision amount to 8% of the total direct cost
of the plant, Peters S, Klaus D. (1991).
8
Total engineering∧supervison Cost = × 28379811.89
100
Total engineering∧supervison Cost =$ 2270384.951
5.1.1.2.2 CONSTRUCTION EXPENSE
Construction expense includes construction and field expenses and for an ordinary chemical
process plant, the construction expenses average roughly 10% of the total direct costs for the
plant, Peters S, Klaus D. (1991);
10
Total construction expenseCost = × 28379811.89
100
Total construction expenseCost =$ 2837981.189
5.1.1.2.3 CONTRACTOR’S FEE
The contractors fee varies for different situations but can be estimated to be about 2 – 8% of the
direct plant cost, Peters S, Klaus D. (1991);
' 8
Total contractor s fee= × 28379811.89
100
'
Total contractor s fee=$ 2270384.951
5.1.1.2.4 CONTINGENCIES COST
Contingency factor is included to compensate for unpredictable events such as storms, flood,
price changes, errors in estimation, etc. Contingency factors are 8% of the total direct cost, Peters
S, Klaus D. (1991);
8
Total contingency Cost = × 28379811.89
100
Total contingency Cost =$ 2270384.951
5.1.1.2.5 STARTUP EXPENSE
These expenses are included to take into account of the changes that need to be made after plant
construction before the plant can operate at maximum design conditions and may be as high as
12% of the total direct costs, Peters S, Klaus D. (1991);
12
Total startup Cost = × 28379811.89
100
124
Total startup Cost =$ 3405577.427
5.1.1.2.6 TOTAL INDIRECT COSTS
Indirect costs Cost ( $ ¿
Engineering and supervision 2270384.951
Construction expense 2837981.189
Contractor’s fee 2270384.951
Contingencies 2270384.951
Startup expense 3405577.427
Total 13054713.47
5.1.1.3 TOTAL FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT

Total fixed capital investment = Direct costs + indirect costs
Total ¿ capital investment =28379811.89+ 13054713.47
Total ¿ capital investment =$ 41434525.36
5.1.2 WORKING CAPITAL INVESTMENT
The working capital investment refers to the capital necessary for the operation of the plant and
constitutes 10 – 20% of the total fixed capital investment, Peters S, Klaus D. (1991);
20
Total working capital investment = × 41434525.36
100
Total working capital investment =$ 8286905.072
5.1.3 TOTAL PLANT COST
Total plant cost is the sum of the fixed capital investment and the working capital investment.
Total plant cost in the year 2006;
Total plant cost=¿ capital investment + Workingcapital investment
Total plant cost=41434525.36+8286905.072
Total plant cost=$ 49721430.43
Current plant cost can be determined using the Chemical engineering plant cost index (CEPCI),
Table 3 – Appendices;
Present plant cost=Original cost ( Index valueIndex

at time originalcost was obtained )
value of present time
Plant cost index at 2006=499.6

Plant cost index at 2023=627.1
125
Present plant cost=$ 49721430.43 × ( 627.1
499.6 )
Present plant cost=$ 62410546.49
5.2 PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS
The primary goal of coming up with a chemical processing plant is to satisfy the need of the
society and also to realize profit. An economic analysis of the plant is therefore conducted to
determine the profitability of the production plant. Consequently, this makes it possible for
investors and other stakeholders to ascertain the viability of investing in the process plant.
Profitability analysis therefore refers to the process of analyzing whether investment projects are
worthwhile.
Some of the assumptions made are, (Peters S, Klaus D, 1991);
 Plant life of 10 years
 A salvage value of 5% of (FCI – cost of land)
 A uniform cash flow of $30,000,000 annually
The lending rate of Central Bank of Kenya as of March 2023 increased their rate to 9.5%, where
the bank is our source of capital. From the rule of thumb minimum acceptable rate of return
should be at least 5% higher than the bank rate borrowed capital. Therefore, we will use 15% as
the minimum acceptable rate of return
5.2.1 RATE OF RETURN ON INVESTMENT (ROR)
Depreciation is calculated using the straight-line method which is given by:
V −V s
d=
n
Where;
𝑑 = depreciation value
𝑉 = FCI (minus cost of land)
𝑉s = salvage value
n = plant life
( 40,935,539.66 )−( 0.05× 40,935,539.66 )
d= =$ 3,888,876.27
10
Annual profit = cash flow – depreciation
Annual profit = $30,000,000 – $3,888,876.27 = $26,111,123.73
Annual profit
ROR= × 100
FCI +WC
26,111,123.73
ROR= ×100
41,434,525.36+8,286,905.072
126
ROR = 52.51%
From the percentage obtained above, it can be seen that it is above the minimum acceptable rate
of return on investment which was 15%. This suggested that the investment is profitable (Peters
S, Klaus D, 1991)
6. HAZARD AND OPERABILITY ANALYSIS (HAZOP)

HAZOP analysis is important in apple products manufacturing process as it helps to identify
potential hazards and risks associated with the process, enabling risk-reducing measures to be
implemented. This ensures the safety and reliability of the production process, and helps to
prevent incidents that could lead to product losses, damage to equipment, and harm to personnel
or the environment. Here we consider the HAZOP analysis of the major equipment used in the
apple products biorefinery such as the heat exchangers, bioreactors and distillation columns.
<Attached>
127
7. PLANT LOCATION AND FACILITY LAYOUT
7.1 PLANT LOCATION
The strategic positioning of the final plant's geographical location can hold a profound impact on
the success of an industrial venture, alongside the profitability of the project. Hence, careful
evaluation is paramount when determining the most suitable location, with a comprehensive
analysis of a multitude of factors which include;
 Availability of raw material
 Availability of market
 Availability of labor
 Availability of utilities
 Availability of suitable land
 Transport facilities
 Government policy
 Environmental concern
Thus, the apple products manufacturing plant should be located in Limuru, Kiambu county due
to the following reasons;
Raw materials
The availability of raw materials will often determine the plant location with plants producing in
bulk located close to the source of the major raw material. Limuru is one of the largest apples
growing regions in the country with the royal Gala apple variety commonly grown, a high-
quality, sweet and crispy apple with a red and yellow skin. Other verities also grown include;
Red Delicious, Granny Smith, and Braeburn. By setting up the apple manufacturing plant in
Limuru, transport and storage costs will be mitigated since the apples will be easily and cheaply
accessible.
Market
Market availability is a major factor to consider when selecting a plant’s location. Kiambu is one
of the most populated counties in the country with an estimated population of approximately 2.4
million people according to the 2019 Kenya population and housing census which form a basis
for local market. Also, Kiambu borders, Nairobi to the south, which is the country's capital city
and a major economic center in East Africa. This proximity to Nairobi could make it easier to
access markets.
Labor
Labor will be needed for construction of the plant and its operation. Skilled construction workers
are usually brought in from outside the site area, but there should be an adequate pool of
unskilled labor available locally, and labor suitable for training to operate the plant. The
unemployment rate in Kiambu currently stands at 17%, which is significantly higher than
128
Kenya’s current average of 11% thus, making Limuru a more suitable place to establish apple
products manufacturing plant in terms of labor required.
Utilities
Water
Apple products manufacturing plant require water for cooling, steam generation, cleaning of
equipment among other uses, thus constant supply is a necessity for the operation of the plant.
Water availability in Limuru, Kiambu, is generally good due to the area's high rainfall and
proximity to several water sources. The area receives an average annual rainfall of between
1000mm to 2000mm, making it one of the wettest areas in Kenya. Additionally, Limuru is
located close to several water sources, including the Ndakaini Dam, which supplies water to
Nairobi and the surrounding areas. There are also several other rivers and streams in the area,
including the Limuru River and the Ngong River which supply water for use.
Electricity
Electrical power is needed in all the machines from offloading to packaging machines which
makes mandatory for any manufacturing plant. The Limuru area is served by the Kenya Power
and Lighting Company with most of the residential and commercial areas having access to
electricity, and the majority of households are connected to the national grid. Thus, the area is
suitable for a plant location.
Suitable land
Sufficient suitable land must be available for the proposed plant and for future expansion.
Although Limuru is generally characterized by rolling hills and valleys, there are relatively flat
areas in the region such as parts of the Limuru Plateau, that are relatively flat and could provide
suitable plant locations for construction or other activities.
Transport facilities
The transport of materials and products to and from the plant will be an overriding consideration
in site selection. Limuru has a relatively well-developed road network, with several major
highways passing through the area, including the Nairobi-Nakuru Highway, which connects the
area to other parts of Kenya and East Africa.
Government policy
The corporate tax rate in Kenya is currently 30% on gross profit, which applies to both domestic
and foreign companies operating in the country. This is relatively low compared to the huge
profits most of the companies realize in a year. Another policy is concerned with environmental
safety lies with the National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA). NEMA has
established guidelines for waste disposal and environmental conservation that businesses and
individuals must follow to ensure the protection of the environment. Adherence to these
guidelines is legally mandatory.
Environmental concern
129
The major waste in the production of apple products is the apple pomace which can be utilized as
animal feed where the residual nutrients are beneficial to livestock, used as fertilizer to increase
soil fertility or energy production where it is broken down by microorganisms to form biogas.
Limuru being an agricultural area, most the pomace wastes could be utilized as fertilizers.
7.2 PLANT LAYOUT
Pomace waste
storage
Offloading
Workshop dock
Expansion Processing
area plant
Weighing Security
Warehouse check
bridge
`
Side gate
Waste water Wash

Power Administration
treatment Utilities rooms
plant block
plant
Dispensary Cafeteria Security Fire

assembly
check
Main gate
130
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https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/food-science/apple-juice
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How Apple Juice Is Made In Factory - Modern Apple Sauce Processing Line Technology,
Matrix farm, YouTube, watched 27th February 2023. https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=Brx-4HQn0sk
Apple juice as a medium for fermentation by the probiotic Lactobacillus plantarum PCS 26
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process/
Production and Composition of Cider Spirits Distilled in “Alquitara” accessed 3 rd March 2023
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133
9. APPENDICES
Table 1: Purchased Equipment Cost for Common Plant Equipment
134
For the particular type of equipment the purchased equipment cost is calculated as:
n
C e =a+b S
Where ;
C e −purchased equipment cost on a U . S . Gulf Coast basis , January 2006 , $
a∧b−Cost constants
S−Characteritic ¿ ¿
n−exponent for that type of equipment
The prices are all for carbon steel equipment except where noted in the table.
135
Table 2: Materials Cost Factors, fm , Relative to Plain Carbon Steel
Table 3: Chemical engineering plant cost index (CEPCI)

Year CEPCI
2000 394.1
2001 394.3
2002 395.6
2003 397.9
2004 444.2
2005 468.2
2006 499.6
2007 525.4
2008 575.4
2009 521.9
2010 550.8
2011 585.7
2012 584.6
2013 567.3
2014 567.1
2015 538.6
2016 542.6
2017 567.5
2018 603.1
2019 622
2020 579.7
2021 607.5
136
2022 609.3
2023 627.1
Table 4: Estimated cost of piping
Table 5: Estimated cost of building and services
Table 6: Commonly used heating fluids
137
Table 7: Overall heat trasfer coefficients
Table 8: Sinnott, R.K. (2005) Reactor bundle tube diameter constants
138
Figure 1: Power number versus Reynolds number for various agitation impellers
Power number for agitation impellers. (a) Marine impellers, (b) Flat-blade turbines, (c) Disk flat-
blade turbines, (d) Curved-blade turbines, (e) Pitched blade turbines and (g) Flat-blade turbine no
baffles, no vortex.
Figure 2: Correaction factor plot for a shell and tube: two shell passes and multiple tube
pases
139
Figure 3: Gerken I, Wetzel T, Jürgen J. (2021) energy loss and mass flowrate correlation
140
Figure 4: Rong F. Mehrdad E. Peter C. (2007) Operating pressure of lactic acid
fermentation in a bioreactor
141

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SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT: CHEMICAL AND PROCESSING ENGINEERING

Amount of crude apple juice required per batch

Probiotic beverage 13333.33 kg

Crude apple juice 2000000 kg Clear juice + Galacturonic acid monomers

Total amount of crude apple juice fed per annum=2000000 kg

Clear juice + Clear apple juice

solid products + Galacturonic acid monomers

C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O6

Apple juice – high sugar Batch

Crude apple juice fine apple juice

Apple juice – high sugar Batch

Total amount of sugars at the start of the second bioreaction

Distillate Mass(kg)/ day Moles/day Mole fraction

Bottoms Mass(kg)/ day Moles/day Mole fraction

Distillate Mass(kg)/ day Moles/day Mole fraction

Bottoms Mass(kg)/ day Moles/day Mole fraction

2.1.7 AGED SPIRIT PRODUCTION

Distillate Mass(kg)/ day Moles/day Mole fraction

Bottoms Mass(kg)/ day Moles/day Mole fraction

Second distillation column

Distillate Mass(kg)/ day Moles/day Mole fraction

Q=0.46296 ×3.86 ×(71.7−25)

Saturated steam at temperatures between 100 – 180 oC is recommended as a heating medium,

83.4541=0.13 ×4.2 ×(180−T h 2)

2.2.2 APPLE JUICE PRODUCTION

Q=0.07716 ×3.86 ×(37−25)

Saturated steam at temperatures between 100 – 180 oC is recommended as a heating medium,

2.2.3 PROBIOTIC BEVERAGE PRODUCTION

Q=0.15432× 3.86 ×(37.5−25)

Saturated steam at temperatures between 100 – 180 oC is recommended as a heating medium,

7.44598=0.0348 ×4.2 ×(180−T h 2 )

2.2.4 VINEGAR PRODUCTION

Q=7.71605 × 3.86 ×(30−25)

Saturated steam at temperatures between 100 – 180 oC is recommended as a heating medium,

148.9198=0.232× 4.2 ×(180−T h 2)

2.2.5 CIDER PRODUCTION

Q=11.34259 ×3.86 ×(33−25)

Saturated steam at temperatures between 100 – 180 oC is recommended as a heating medium,

2.2.6 SPIRIT PRODUCTION

Q=0.00948× 3.6689 ×(148−25)

Fig 2.1 Batch bioreactor

Crude apple juice

3.1.1.2 REACTION TIME

Di−Inside diameter S F−Straight flange ,(0.15∈¿ 0.0381m standard )

Inside diameter of the vessel=2.4682 m

3.1.1.4 REACTOR AGITATOR

Speed of the impeller

ρ−Density of the crude apple juice

S−Working stress of stainless steel−316=128931.96 kPa

The maximum allowable pressure is calculated ¿the formula;

P0=100 kPa(¿ figure 4 , Appendices): Rong F . Mehrdad E . Peter C .(2007)

3.1.2.3 REACTOR COOLING SURFACE

∆ r H 2=∆ r H 1+∫ ∆r Cpm dT

∆ r H 2=∆ r H 1+(T 2−T 1 )∆r Cpm

∆ r Cpm=∑ v Cpm p −∑ v Cpm R

(Sugars) (Lactic acid)

∆ r H 2=−694 +(310.5−298)0. 2941

Outlet temperature of cooling water ;

5.9185=0.04 × 4.2×(T −298 K )

L=10 √ 7.75412 × 0.246822

3.1.3 REACTOR VISUAL DISPLAY

3.2.1 PROCESS DESIGN