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Gender and Differences in Travel Life Cycles

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Journal of Travel Research http://jtr.sagepub.com/

Gender and Differences in Travel Life Cycles

Darrian Collins and Clem Tisdell
Journal of Travel Research 2002 41: 133
DOI: 10.1177/004728702237413

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10.1177/004728702237413
NOVEMBER
JOURNAL OF2002
TRAVEL RESEARCH
Gender and Differences in
Travel Life Cycles
DARRIAN COLLINS AND CLEM TISDELL
This study examines life cycle travel patterns of outbound
Australian travelers according to both gender and the pur-
pose of travel. It finds that gender is a major influence on
travel demand. Life cycle travel patterns for men and women
vary considerably according to the purpose of travel. All
age-related travel functions were unimodal (one mode or
peak), except for travel for holiday purposes, which had two
peaks. It was found that men tended to travel more often than
women for business and work-related travel, but women
traveled more often for leisure purposes, including travel to
visit friends and relatives. Gender differences in the peak age
for travel only existed in business and work-related travel,
with travel for women tending to peak earlier than travel for
men. Therefore, the purpose of travel and gender are impor-
tant factors that need to be considered when predicting the
long-term demand for travel.
Collins and Tisdell (2000b) examined the importance of
specifying age-related travel patterns according to the pur-
pose of travel. Using Australian outbound travel data, it was
found that there were considerable differences in travel life
cycle patterns according to the purpose of travel. Holiday
travel displayed a bimodal (double-peaked) pattern, whereas
business travel and travel to a convention/conference were
both unimodal (one mode or peak). Travel for education and
to visit friends and relatives was also unimodal but skewed in
opposite directions, and travel for employment was almost
symmetrical.
The purpose of this study is to segment the Australian
outbound travel market by gender and further analyze out-
bound travel patterns to see if there are major gender differ-
ences in the cross-sectioned travel cycles. For example, is the
bimodal pattern of travel for holiday purposes more pro-
nounced for women? Do as many women travel for business
and work-related purposes as men, and does the peak of their
travel for these purposes occur at the same stage of the family
life cycle as for men?
This article examines these issues by using life cycle the-
ories and suggests hypotheses to explain the varied nature of
travel life cycles according to gender and purpose of travel.
This analysis is based on relative frequencies of male and
female overseas travel from Australia for various travel pur-
poses, each expressed as a function of age. In the short to
medium term, age and the family life cycle are highly corre-
lated; consequently, age can be used to speculate about the
connections between the family life cycle and the age-related
travel functions. The travel purposes considered are travel
for a holiday, travel to visit friends and relatives, travel for
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business or employment, travel to attend a convention or
conference, and travel for education. Inferential statistics
would be the preferred method for determining whether there
are gender variations for different age groups and purposes
for travel. Unfortunately, the data acquired were not raw
data. They were supplied in frequency tables and represented
the full population of Australian short-term outbound travel-
ers. For these reasons, inferential statistics were inappropri-
ate in many cases, so mainly descriptive statistics were used
in this study.
This article proceeds as follows: a short literature review
of travel demand with respect to age and family life cycle,
including previous empirical results about this cycle. This is
followed by a review of gender and tourism and the argu-
ments about the relevance of gender to tourist market seg-
mentation. The rationale for this study and links between the
age-related travel life cycle and the family life cycle are dis-
cussed, and the data and definitions used as well as their limi-
tations are specified. Using Australian data, descriptive sta-
tistics are used to show that there are gender differences in
travel patterns according to both age and the purpose of
travel. This allows the outbound age-related travel life cycles
for Australian male and female travelers by purpose of travel
to be specified. Explanations using various sociological and
economic theories are then provided on why gender differ-
ences exist for each purpose of travel.
AGE, THE FAMILY LIFE CYCLE,
AND TRAVEL
Collins and Tisdell (2000b) showed, using 1998 data on
short-term outbound travel from Australia, that travel for
business and to attend a convention was unimodal, with the
peak of travel being in the 45 to 54 age group. In 1998, how-
ever, men made 82% of outbound Australian business trips
and 67% of trips to attend a convention and conference. But
the aggregate pattern may hide differences for men and
women. For instance, the peak for women traveling for busi-
ness or to attend a convention/conference may occur at an
Darrian Collins is a doctoral student and Clem Tisdell is a pro-
fessor of economics at the University of Queensland in Brisbane,
Australia. Valuable comments from Petra Kuhnert and Fiona
Fidler were appreciated.
Journal of Travel Research, Vol. 41, November 2002, 133-143
DOI: 10.1177/004728702237413
© 2002 Sage Publications
134 NOVEMBER 2002
earlier age than for men (i.e., before they have children) or at
a latter age (i.e., after their children become independent).
It is generally understood that the demand for travel can
be affected by demographic and socioeconomic relationships
such as ethnic identity and nationality, age, family size, gen-
der, marital status, religion, income, occupation, and educa-
tion (Lawson 1994; Mieczkowski 1990). Zimmermann
(1982) introduced a “temporal dimensions of tourism”
approach to analyzing the generation of tourism. These
dimensions involved an extension of the demographic seg-
ments by observing tourist patterns as a whole rather than as
separate market categories. This approach incorporated
demographic and sociological factors and viewed demand
for tourism as a broad event or life cycle, rather than as indi-
vidual segments. These temporal dimensions or time hori-
zons included the general changes over time due to seasonal
events or other specific events (period effects), a particular
characteristic of a travel cohort such as size or historic back-
ground, and changes across the life cycle, including the fam-
ily and destination area life cycles. Mieczkowski (1990) felt
that age and the family life cycle were the most important
segmentation variables and that long-term changes in the age
structure and its implications for travel are likely to be of
interest to many people, particularly tourism and recreation
planners.
The Family Life Cycle
The family life cycle is used to explain variations in travel
patterns through life, starting when individuals are young
and single and ending with the death of the last partner. This
pattern depends not only on age but also on other factors such
as marital status, family size, employment status, and dispos-
able income. The pioneers of family life cycle theory were
Wells and Gubar (1966). They divided the family cycle into
nine stages: bachelor, newly married, full nest I (preschool
children), full nest II (school-age children), full nest III
(older/dependent children), empty nest I (still working),
empty nest II (retired), solitary survivor in labor force, and
solitary survivor retired.
Wells and Gubar’s (1966) theory was based on a tradi-
tional or nuclear family (consisting of a couple with depend-
ent children). Recent studies using this definition have, how-
ever, had classification problems when attempting to classify
all cases into one of the stages of the family life cycle. For
example, Lawson (1991) found in a study on travel to New
Zealand that 40% of the cases in the study could not be classi-
fied into any of Wells and Gubar’s categories. In Australia,
the number of traditional or nuclear families has decreased
from 45.7% to 40.8% (expressed as a percentage of all fami-
lies) in the 10-year period to 1997. The percentage of single-
parent families and families without dependent children (this
includes childless families and those with independent chil-
dren), on the other hand, has increased from 8.0% to 10.4%
and 30.7% to 33.6%, respectively, in the same period (Aus-
tralian Bureau of Statistics 1998b).
Similar patterns are evident in other countries, so
attempts have been made to modernize the family life cycle
(Bojanic 1992; Oppermann 1995; Zimmerman 1982). All
modernized versions have included extra stages for single
parents (divorced/separated) and middle-aged couples with-
out children. Oppermann (1995) included an extra classifica-
tion for single people ages 15 to 25 still dependent on their
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parents. These individuals include those still living at home
and taking holidays with their parents. These modernized
versions have reduced the classification problem quite
significantly.
These changes are relevant to today’s world and will
affect travel life cycle patterns. For instance, a single person
with children will be less likely to travel overseas compared
to a middle-aged couple without children as the single-parent
family will have less discretionary income available for lux-
ury items such as travel. If anything, however, this may rein-
force the bimodal pattern for holiday travel observed by
Christoph Becker (1992). For example, single parents may
be just as tied down or even more so in the equivalent of the
full-nest II period by children and financial constraints as
nuclear parents. A study that allows the relationships
between a range of family types and each purpose of travel
would be ideal. Unfortunately, data of this type are not avail-
able in Australia and would be quite expensive and time-
consuming to compile. For these reasons, traditional families
closely following Wells and Gubar’s (1966) theory are
mostly assumed.
Generally, life cycle effects on travel have been empiri-
cally determined through cross-sectional (Bojanic 1992;
Lawson 1991; Rapoport and Rapoport 1975; Zimmermann
1982) and longitudinal (C. Becker 1992; Oppermann 1995)
surveys carried out by regional tourism councils and the
researchers themselves. Even though different methods have
been used, the studies all concluded that there are systematic
changes in the travel patterns of individuals throughout their
life cycles.
Lawson (1991) examined inbound travel to New Zealand
and concluded that expenditure patterns and types of holi-
days vary significantly across the family life cycle, with
expenditure being low in the full nest and solitary survivor
categories. This is consistent with the theory of Wells and
Gubar (1966). C. Becker (1992) studied German travel pat-
terns and found that the family life cycle is bimodal, with a
decline in the distance traveled in the 34- to 48-year-old age
group, followed by slight recovery and continuing decline as
a person grows older. This is consistent with Lawson’s con-
clusion. Oppermann (1995) raised the possibility that life
cycle patterns may alter in the long term. He felt that travel
destinations visited and thus experiences gathered by the
younger generations of today are different from those of a
few generations ago, and as younger generations get older,
they will display different patterns of travel to the older gen-
eration of today. Therefore, Oppermann was interested in
possible shifts in life cycle travel functions in the long term.
Furthermore, alterations in any unique characteristic associ-
ated with a population cohort will influence these future
travel patterns. For example, more comfortable and speedier
transport, as well as better health for older persons, may
mean that they retain their ability and motivation to travel for
a longer time.
GENDER AND TRAVEL
Prior to World War II, participation rates in leisure activi-
ties outside the home were differentiated with respect to gen-
der, with most female activities being indoors. Since then,
participation rates of women in the workforce and the num-
ber of childless women have increased, and women are

becoming more independent and more likely to undertake
outdoor recreational activities such as travel (Mieczkowski
1990). In fact, in modern times, the differences between the
travel patterns of men and women appear to be less pro-
nounced than previously. Lawson (1994, p. 313) suggested
that “since much travel and tourism behaviour is group
(especially family) and not individual in nature, sex is proba-
bly not such an important segmentation variable for the tour-
ism industry as for many other products.” Marshment (1997,
p. 18) claimed, “Unlike markets for so many other goods and
services (clothes, cosmetics, magazines and so on), the holi-
day market is not constructed along gender lines.”
Nevertheless, several gender-related travel differences
have been observed. Waters (1988) concluded from a U.S.
study that even though men still dominate the business travel
market, the same is not true for the leisure market, with
women taking as many and sometimes even more holidays
than men. Furthermore, preferences for travel experiences
differ by gender: men traditionally seek action and adventure
and are not scared of taking risks, while women are more
likely to be searching for cultural and educational experi-
ences with security being a priority (Mieczkowski 1990). For
example, a man is more likely to travel abroad to watch a
sporting event or to travel to Southeast Asia for “sex tour-
ism” (Hall 1992, 1994). In contrast, a woman is more likely
to travel on a package tour or visit a destination for shopping
or to visit friends and relatives (McGehee, Loker-Murphy,
and Uysal 1996).
Another area where gender travel differences have been
identified is in the holiday decision-making process. To our
knowledge, most studies in this area were completed prior to
the mid-1980s and concluded that husbands dominated the
decision-making process in families with children at home,
with a joint decision being made in families without children.
These studies also concluded that this male dominance was
stronger in families than among couples and that children
had little influence on such decisions (Cosenza and Davis
1981; Filiatrault and Ritchie 1980; Jenkins 1978). Cosenza
and Davis (1981) also found that women became more domi-
nant after the full nest III stage of the life cycle. A more
recent study by Fodness (1992) contradicted some of the ear-
lier results and found that women are more likely to be the
dominant decision maker in families with children at home.
In fact, it is generally accepted that in families, “women are
more likely to be the primary vacation planner among west-
ern couples and families” (McGehee, Loker-Murphy, and
Uysal 1996, p. 45).
Nichols and Snepenger (1988) found that a variety of
dominance relationships exist and used sociodemographic
variables and travel behaviors to compare joint dominant
male and dominant female decision-making families. They
found from a survey of visitors to Alaska that when the
woman was the dominant decision maker, there were fewer
sporting-related activities, shorter trips, and less money
being spent. They also found that the husband was the domi-
nant decision maker when there was a large age difference
between the spouses. When the decision was a joint male-
female decision, trips were planned well in advance using a
large number of information sources. However, the holiday
decision-making process is not the main focus of this article.
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JOURNAL OF TRAVEL RESEARCH 135
RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY
Using Australian short-term (up to 1 year) outbound
travel data for 1991-1994, Collins and Tisdell (2000a) found
that there is a distinct travel life cycle function that increases
at first with age, peaking for the 45 to 54 age group, before
steadily decreasing after that. This differs from the bimodal
type of function predicted by C. Becker (1992) and Lawson
(1991). However, when the purpose for travel is considered,
holiday travel is found to follow the bimodal pattern as
expected by Becker and Lawson, but travel for business,
convention/conferences, education, and employment pur-
poses does not (Collins and Tisdell 2000b). What happens
when purposes for travel are segmented into gender catego-
ries? Are bimodal patterns of travel only evident when exam-
ining women’s travel, and do female patterns of travel con-
form to a bimodal life cycle relationship for all purposes? An
aim of this article is to analyze the age-related travel life
cycles according to different purposes of travel and gender to
see if gender is a suitable segmentation variable.
Short-term travel overseas by Australians (for a duration
of less than 1 year) was broken down into groups based on
gender and the purpose of travel, enabling age-related life
cycles of each group to be examined separately. To our
knowledge, comparative studies of changing age-related
travel frequencies based on gender and the purpose of travel
have not been done. Past studies on gender have observed the
differences in the purpose for travel without taking age into
consideration (Waters 1988) or observed the family deci-
sion-making process throughout the family life cycle, irre-
spective of the purpose for travel (Cosenza and Davis 1981;
Filiatrault and Ritchie 1980; Fodness 1992; Jenkins 1978;
Nichols and Snepenger 1988).
Data Sources and Definitions for
Age and the Purpose of Travel
Unpublished travel data purchased from the Australian
Bureau of Statistics (ABS) for 1998 were used. The data
were based on the departure cards filled out by all short-term
Australian residents departing for less than 12 months. The
summary data supplied by the ABS used the whole popula-
tion of short-term Australian residents departing for less than
12 months and included age, gender, and the main purpose of
the journey. The data were split into seven age groups (in
years)—under 15, 15 to 24, 25 to 34, 35 to 44, 45 to 54, 55 to
64, and 65 and older—and each age group was split into
seven mutually exclusive reasons for travel: visiting friends
and relatives (VFR), holiday, convention/conference, busi-
ness, employment, education, and other. The data were then
split into gender categories. The materials acquired were not
raw data; they were displayed in frequency tables and repre-
sented the full population of short-term outbound travelers.
This poses two problems.
The first problem is due to the secondary nature of the
data. When dealing with secondary data, care needs to be
taken because errors may have been introduced when the
data were being compiled. For instance, the data that we
acquired were compiled using graduated random rounding to
obtain confidentiality. The second issue is the appropriate
statistical methods to use. Is it appropriate to use descriptive
statistics, inferential statistics, or a combination of both?
Descriptive statistics can be successfully applied to a sample
136 NOVEMBER 2002

or a population, but by definition, inferential statistics are the TABLE 1

conclusions drawn about a population using a sample. SHORT-TERM DEPARTURES FROM AUSTRALIA BY
Because we were dealing with a population, it was therefore AGE AND GENDER, 1998 (IN PERCENTAGES)
appropriate to use descriptive statistics in this study.
Lawson (1991) suggested that tourism businesses do not Departures Relative
adequately distinguish between the family life cycle and age to the Respective
when marketing tourist destinations. This may be the case in Populations of Each Gender
the long term, but in the short to medium term, one would ex- Age Group Age Groupa Compositionb
pect age and the family life cycle to be closely correlated. (years) Male Female Total Male Female
Consequently, age can be used to speculate about the family Younger than 15 7.6 7.9 7.8 50.3 49.7
life cycle. For instance, if a relatively large number of chil- 15-24 11.6 15.0 13.3 44.7 55.3
dren (younger than age 15 years) are traveling to a destina- 25-34 22.4 20.6 21.5 52.2 47.8
tion, they are most likely going on a family holiday, which 35-44 26.5 18.6 22.5 58.5 41.5
would be equivalent to the full nest I and II part of the family 45-54 30.6 22.7 26.7 58.0 42.0
life cycle. In addition, as already mentioned, in 1998, 40.8% 55-64 24.7 19.3 22.0 56.6 43.4
of families in Australia were of the nuclear type. In 1998, the 65 and older 10.8 8.1 9.2 51.0 49.0
median age at first marriage was 27.9 years for men and 26.2
Source: Derived from Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS
years for women. The median age of the mother at first birth 1998a) and unpublished ABS data on overseas arrivals and
was 27.3 (1997 statistic), and 79.2% of births were to moth- departures.
ers ages 20 to 35 (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2000). a. The respective populations are Australian male, female,
Combining these social statistics with those given earlier, and total for 1998.
b. Percentage of short-term departures in each age group.
Wells and Gubar’s (1966) family life cycle stages broadly
mirror the following age groups:
TABLE 2
Younger than age 15—no defined stage
15 to 24—bachelor/newly married COMPOSITION OF SHORT-TERM DEPARTURES FROM
AUSTRALIA BY GENDER, 1998 (IN PERCENTAGES)
25 to 34—newly married/full nest I
35 to 44—full nest I/full nest II Purpose of Travel Male Female
45 to 54—full nest III/empty nest I
55 to 64—empty nest I/empty nest II/solitary survivor Holiday 47.3 52.7
(working) Visiting friends and relatives 45.2 54.8
65 and older—empty nest II/solitary survivor (retired) Business 82.3 17.7
Convention/conference 67.0 33.0
Employment 71.4 28.6
To obtain relative frequencies of overseas travel patterns of
Education 49.3 50.7
Australian residents by age groups, gender, and the purpose Total 54.1 45.9
of travel, we needed to have the total Australian population
for each age group and the population for each age group Source: Derived from unpublished Australian Bureau of Sta-
based on gender (Australian Bureau of Statistics 1998a). The tistics (ABS) data on overseas arrivals and departures.
estimated Australian resident populations for June 1998 were
used. This allows relative frequencies of outbound travel to
be graphed as a function of age for all outbound residents. the 25 to 34 and 45 to 54 age groups. All departures
decreased after age 54. Therefore, the female travel pattern in
1998 displayed a similar pattern to the one described by
RESULTS C. Becker (1992) and Lawson (1991), declining in the equiv-
alent full-nest stage of the family life cycle. But this is not the
case for the male pattern or the pattern for total departures.
Influences of Gender Differences on Table 1 also summarizes the percentage composition of
the General Outbound Travel Pattern the male and female short-term outbound departures in each
Before examining the age-related life cycles of travel by age group. Generally, there were more men than women
Australian male and female residents for each purpose of departing in all age groups in 1998, except for the 15 to 24
travel, the general gender travel pattern (irrespective of the age group, in which 55.3% of departures were made by
purpose of outbound travel) will be discussed. Table 1 sum- women. The largest excess of men departing was for the 35
marizes the total short-term departures from Australia as to 44 and 45 to 54 age groups, in which more than 58% in
well as the total male and female short-term departures in each age group were men.
1998. All departures are respectively expressed as a percent-
age of the total Australian population and the male and Gender Difference and the
female populations for each age group. Purpose for Travel
The maximum relative frequency for all short-term
departures (male, female, and total) occurred for the 45 to 54 Table 2 shows the percentage composition of the male
age group. The male pattern was similar to total departures, and female short-term departures for each purpose of travel
increasing steadily to ages 45 to 54 and then decreasing after in 1998. It can be seen from Table 2 that gender differences
that. Both of these functions were unimodal. By contrast, existed for each purpose of travel. Generally, more Austra-
female departures followed a bimodal pattern, peaking for lian women than men traveled for a holiday, to visit friends

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 JOURNAL OF TRAVEL RESEARCH 137

TABLE 3
BREAKDOWN OF EACH AGE GROUP BASED
ON GENDER AND PURPOSE OF TRAVEL,
AUSTRALIA, 1998 (IN PERCENTAGES)

Purpose of Travela
Convention/
Age Group (years) Holiday VFR Business Conference Employment Education
Younger than 15
Male 26.4* 19.5* 0 0 0 0.8*
Female 26.6* 19.0* 0 0 0 1.0*
15-24
Male 25.9* 9.9 2.1 0.7 1.1 2.2*
Female 34.2* 12.3 1.4 0.6 1.3* 2.8*
25-34
Male 23.6* 8.5 12.4 1.9 2.6* 0.6*
Female 26.5* 10.4 4.8* 1.5* 1.4* 0.5
35-44
Male 18.5 9.0 21.1* 3.8* 2.8* 0.4
Female 20.6 11.4 4.1* 1.9* 0.7* 0.2
45-54
Male 19.4 8.6 20.5* 3.8* 2.4* 0.4
Female 22.4 12.0 3.1* 1.5* 0.5 0.4
55-64
Male 23.0* 12.0* 13.9* 3.2* 1.0 0.3
Female 23.2 14.6* 1.6 1.0 0.4 0.1
65 and older
Male 27.1* 16.6* 3.1 1.1 0.2 0.1
Female 26.0* 19.2* 0.5 0.6 0.2 0.1
Total
Male 22.4 10.8 13.1 2.5 1.8 0.6
Female 24.9 13.0 2.8 1.2 0.7 0.7
Source: Derived from unpublished Australian Bureau of Statistics data on overseas arrivals and departures.
Note: Age groups that are above the percentages of total outbound departures for each purpose of travel are highlighted with
an asterisk. VFR = visiting friends and relatives.
a. “Other” purposes of travel have been excluded from the table but make up the remaining percentages for each age group.

and relatives, and for education, while more Australian men
than women traveled for business, employment, and to
attend conventions or conferences. This result supports the
conclusion of Waters (1988), who found that in the United
States, more women than men travel for leisure purposes and
more men than women travel for business-related purposes.
The results also support Mieczkowski (1990), who believes
that somewhat more women than men travel for educational
experiences.
Age-Related Life Cycles: Gender
Differences and the Purpose for Travel
Travelers in each age group are classified by gender and
the purpose of travel, as shown in Table 3. Table 3 specifies
the percentages of male and female short-term outbound
departures from Australia for each category in each age
group, allowing gender and the categories of travel to be
compared for each age group. Numbers are expressed as a
percentage of the total short-term departures of the respec-
tive age group. For each purpose of travel, the short-term out-
bound departures for men and women are shown as percent-
ages of the total outbound departures. Those age groups that
are above these percentages for each purpose of travel are
highlighted with an asterisk.
It can be seen from Table 3 that holiday travel accounted
for the largest proportion of female travelers in all age
groups, followed by VFR travel. Educational travel only
accounted for a very small proportion of short-term out-
bound departures from Australia in 1998 (1.3% of total
departures) but was the third most popular choice of travel
for ages up to 24. The third most popular choice was business
travel for women ages 25 to 64 and convention/conference
travel for those older than 65. Observing the male trend, holi-
day travel was the most common purpose for travel for men
in all age groups except for ages 35 to 54, for whom business
was the most common travel purpose. Holiday travel was the
second most popular purpose of travel in these age groups.
For men ages up to 24 and older than 65, the second most fre-
quent purpose of travel was VFR travel; for men in the 25 to
34 age group, it was business.
Table 4 displays the male to female ratios for each age
group and reason for travel. The 1998 Australian male and
female population for each age group is taken into consider-
ation when calculating the ratio, allowing for comparisons to
be made. Ratios that are less than unity are italicized, and the
ratios that indicate the largest difference are highlighted with
an asterisk. From these ratios, it is obvious that a larger pro-
portion of women than men traveled for the purpose of a holi-
day and to visit friends and relatives in all age groups except
for those older than age 65. The difference was the largest for

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138 NOVEMBER 2002
TABLE 4
MALE TO FEMALE RATIO FOR SHORT-TERM DEPARTURES FROM AUSTRALIA, 1998
Age Group (years) Holiday VFR
Younger than 15 0.94 0.97
15-24 0.72 0.77
25-34 0.89 0.81
35-44 0.90 0.80
45-54 0.85 0.70*
55-64 0.97 0.80
65 and older 1.34* 1.11
Source: Derived from Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS 1998a) and unpublished ABS data on overseas arrivals and
departures.
Note: Ratios that are less than unity are italicized, and the ratios that indicate the largest difference are highlighted with an
asterisk. VFR = visiting friends and relatives.
the 15 to 24 age group. Interestingly, the largest absolute dif-
ference for holiday travel was in the 65 and older age group.
The smallest ratio was for holiday travel in the 55 to 64 age
group and for VFR travel in the 15 and younger age group.
In contrast, more Australian men than women traveled
for business and convention/conference purposes in 1998.
The difference was the largest for the 55 to 64 age group and
smallest for the 15 to 24 age group. More men than women
traveled for employment purposes in all age groups except
for the 15 to 24 group. The largest male-female ratio for
employment travel was in the 45 to 54 age group, and the
smallest was in the 65 and older age group. Educational
travel was relatively more frequent for women younger than
age 25 than it was for men younger than age 25, but compara-
tively it was more frequent for men in all other age groups.
The largest difference for educational travel occurred for the
55 to 64 age group, and the smallest difference for the same
purpose was for the 25 to 34 age group.
Figures 1 to 4 show the 1998 male and female travel life
cycle patterns for the various purposes of travel. For each
purpose of travel, the male and female short-term departures
are expressed as a percentage of the respective male and
female population for each age group (rather than the male
and female departures for each age group as in Table 3).
These percentages are indicative of the propensity to travel
by men and women in each age group, based on the purpose
of travel. This enables comparisons of male and female travel
patterns for each purpose of travel to be made, as well as
comparisons between the travel patterns for each purpose of
travel (the exact values are of little interest, just the relative
shapes of the cycles). Hypothesis tests to examine whether
significant differences exist between the age and gender
groups would be beneficial but are not possible due to the
data limitations discussed earlier, that is, the supply of fre-
quency tables rather than raw data by the ABS.
Business and convention/conference travel (see Figures 1
and 2) displayed almost identical patterns for males. Both
patterns were very slightly skewed to the left, with most
travel for these purposes undertaken by the middle-aged
groups. They both started increasing steadily after the 15 to
24 age group, slowed down at the 35 to 44 group, and peaked
for the 45 to 54 age group. There was a considerable decrease
in travel after that. The female pattern for business travel, on
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Purpose of Travel (ratio)
Convention/
Business Conference Employment Education
— — — 0.77
1.45 1.02 0.81 0.74
2.56 1.27 1.79 1.09
5.11 2.02 3.98 1.62
6.53 2.57 4.63* 1.12
8.45* 3.05* 2.89 2.26*
7.33 2.47 1.09 1.33
the other hand, was slightly skewed to the right, with the peak
occurring for the 25 to 34 age group, followed by a gradual
decline. This is not surprising since the peak of male depar-
tures for business occurred for the full-nest family category
at a time when women tended to have and take care of chil-
dren and were less likely to be involved in business trips.
Convention/conference travel for women, however, was
more symmetrical, gradually increasing before peaking at 35
to 44 years of age, followed by a gradual decline.
The age-related travel pattern for holiday travel was
bimodal for both men and women, as illustrated in Figure 3.
The pattern supports Collins and Tisdell’s (2000b) hypothe-
sis that short-term outbound holiday travel from Australian
peaks at stages that parallel Wells and Gubar’s (1966) bache-
lor, newly married, and empty nest stages. There was an
increase in the relative frequency of holiday travel up to the
25 to 34 age group, followed by a decrease for the 35 to 45
age group, before increasing to an even higher peak for the
45 to 54 age group. It then declines quickly, interestingly, at a
faster rate for females. Surprisingly, VFR travel (see Figure
3) displayed a different pattern to holiday travel for both
males and females, being skewed to the left for both groups.
The relative frequency of female outbound travel to visit
friends and relatives increased with age up to the 45 to 54 age
group. It then continued increasing but at a decreasing rate,
before peaking for the 55 to 64 age group. The outbound
travel to visit friends and relatives for men steadily rose with
age until the 55 to 64 age group, where it peaked.
Traveling for educational purposes (see Figure 4) was
skewed right for both men and women, with the majority of
individuals traveling for this purpose in the 15 to 24 age
group. It dropped off sharply after that. Employment travel
(see Figure 4) for men was almost symmetrical. It peaked for
the 35 to 44 age group, with little difference occurring
between ages 25 and 54. Female outbound employment
travel showed a similar pattern to female travel for the pur-
pose of business, peaking for the 25 to 34 age group.
Before these results are discussed, a summary of gender
inequality in terms of the differences in the age-related Aus-
tralian outbound travel functions according to different pur-
poses of travel is presented. This illustrates the importance of
gender as a segmentation variable. Table 5 summarizes these
inequalities. When observing the whole-life short-term travel
 JOURNAL OF TRAVEL RESEARCH 139

FIGURE 1 FIGURE 2
AGE-RELATED TRAVEL LIFE CYCLES FOR AGE-RELATED TRAVEL LIFE CYCLES FOR MALE AND
MALE AND FEMALE BUSINESS TRAVEL FEMALE TRAVEL TO ATTEND A CONVENTION OR
FROM AUSTRALIA IN 1998 CONFERENCE FROM AUSTRALIA IN 1998

Short-term Departures (%) 12 2.5

Male Female

Short-term Departures (%)

10 Male Female
2
8
1.5
6
1
4

2 0.5

0 0
Under 15–24 25–34 35–44 45–54 55–64 65 and Under 15–24 25–34 35–44 45–54 55–64 65 and
15 Age Group (Years) Over 15 Over
Age Group (Years)

Source: Derived from Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS Source: Derived from Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS
1998a) and unpublished ABS data on overseas arrivals and 1998a) and unpublished ABS data on overseas arrivals and
departures. departures.

FIGURE 3 FIGURE 4
AGE-RELATED TRAVEL LIFE CYCLES FOR MALE AND AGE-RELATED TRAVEL LIFE CYCLES FOR MALE
FEMALE TRAVEL FOR A HOLIDAY AND TO VISIT AND FEMALE TRAVEL FOR EDUCATION AND
FRIENDS AND FAMILY FROM AUSTRALIA IN 1998 EMPLOYMENT PURPOSES FROM AUSTRALIA IN 1998

1.4
14 Short-term Departures (%)
1.2
Short-term Departures (%)

12
1
10
0.8
8
0.6
6
4 0.4

2 0.2

0 0
Under 15–24 25–34 35–44 45–54 55–64 65 and Under 15–24 25–34 35–44 45–54 55–64 65 and
15 Age Group (Years) Over 15 Age Group (Years) Over
Holiday : Male Holiday : Female Education : Male Education : Female
Visiting friends/relatives : Male Visiting friends/relatives : Female Employment : Male Employment : Female

Source: Derived from Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS Source: Derived from Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS
1998a) and unpublished ABS data on overseas arrivals and 1998a) and unpublished ABS data on overseas arrivals and
departures. departures.

overseas by Australians, irrespective of the age group and

purpose of travel (see the male to female ratios in Table 5),
men generally traveled abroad more often than females. Con- EXPLANATIONS FOR DIFFERENT
sidering the purpose of travel, men dominated business and AGE-RELATED TRAVEL FUNCTIONS
work-related travel, and women were dominant in leisure ACCORDING TO GENDER
travel—namely, holiday and VFR travel. There was not a
great deal of difference between men and women with
respect to education travel. Factoring age into the equation, It can be concluded from the above discussion that in
women generally traveled overseas more than men for ages 1998, the age-related travel patterns for men and women dif-
up to 24. In terms of the purpose of travel, women traveled fered considerably according to the purpose for travel. The
more often than men for employment purposes in the 15 to 24 variations in these patterns may be explained by various eco-
age group and for educational purposes for ages up to 24, and nomic and sociological theories. Possible explanations for
men traveled more frequently than women for leisure travel the gender differences in the patterns for each purpose of
in the 65 and older age group. travel are now considered.

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140 NOVEMBER 2002
TABLE 5
GENDER INEQUALITY IN TERMS OF WHOLE-LIFE RELATIVE FREQUENCIES
OF SHORT-TERM DEPARTURES FROM AUSTRALIA BY PURPOSE OF TRAVEL, 1998
Whole-Life Relative
Frequenciesa (%)
Purpose of Travel Male Female
All short-term outbound 18.33 15.40
Holiday 7.58 8.35
Visiting friends and relatives 3.65 4.38
Business 4.43 0.95
Convention/conference 0.84 0.41
Employment 0.62 0.25
Education 0.22 0.22
Source: Derived from Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS 1998a) and unpublished ABS data on overseas arrivals and
departures.
a. Relative to the Australian male and female population in 1998.
b. Column 2 divided by column 3.
Business and Work-Related Travel
It is evident from this study that age differences occur in
the peak relative frequency of outbound travel of men and
women, depending on whether they are traveling for busi-
ness, to attend a convention or conferences, or for employ-
ment purposes. Data for short-term Australian outbound
travel show that the relative frequency of outbound travel for
women tends to peak for these purposes of travel at an earlier
age than for men. In particular, the peak for women occurs in
the 25 to 34 age group for business and employment travel
and in the 35 to 44 age group for those attending a convention
or conference. The life cycle hypothesis may be used to
explain the female peak for the 25 to 34 age group because
this group contains individuals with similar attributes to
Wells and Gubar’s (1966) bachelor stage of the family life
cycle.
A few decades ago, most women entered the workforce
for only a short period of time. Today, women are tending to
stay single and childless for longer periods of times, allowing
them to concentrate on their careers and thus stay in the
workforce for an extended time. In most developed coun-
tries, this is when they have completed their education,
whether it is high school or tertiary. This can be at any age,
from 15 up to their mid-20s. Traveling overseas for business,
employment, or even to attend a convention or conference
may be considered a business or work-related investment
(Hartley and Tisdell 1981), and this investment is most likely
to be done while a woman has few commitments.
As noted in the previous section, the male to female out-
bound ratio for travel for employment purposes is less than
unity for the 15 to 24 age group. The latter part of this age
group would account for most of the employment travelers in
this group. Females in this category would generally have
few commitments and also may possess a sense of adventure
or urgency to travel before they are tied down with family
commitments. They also have few skills, and those with any
higher education would have received little if any benefits
from their education through employment. There is a trend,
not only for females, to travel overseas on restricted working
visas (usually only available to individuals younger than age
30) to countries such as the United Kingdom/Ireland, Japan,
and some Asian countries to work in bars or often to teach
English as a second language. The casual work benefits them
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Male to Female Age Group(s) for Which More
Ratiob Females Than Males Travel
1.19 Younger than 15 and 15-24
0.91 All except 65 and older
0.83 All except 65 and older
4.68 None
2.05 None
2.52 15-24
0.98 Younger 15 and 15-24
financially and may even allow them to obtain contacts and
experience.
But this does not explain why there are more men than
women traveling for business and convention conference
purposes in the 15 to 24 age group. Traveling for these pur-
poses would generally be in relation to an existing job in
Australia. Women still only tend to work for a relatively
short period of their adult lives. Thus, some may lack the
incentive to invest time, energy, and other resources into
their jobs, missing out on the chance to travel for work-
related purposes (Mincer 1974).
Participation of women in the labor force changes signifi-
cantly once the full-nest stage of the family life cycle is
reached. Child care and housework demand time and energy
previously exerted in the workforce but now are taken up
mostly with domestic activities (G. S. Becker 1985). Even if
a woman chooses to continue working outside her domestic
duties, there would be even less time available for her to
travel overseas, even though her income may be higher,
because of child care and domestic duties (Sinclair and Sta-
bler 1997). This is evident from the decrease in travel for
work-related purposes by females after age 35.
At this stage, when female outbound travel declines, male
travel increases for work-related purposes. Employment
travel by men peaks for the 35 to 44 age group, and business
and convention/conference travel peaks for the 45 to 54 age
group. Globalization of the world economy and the increas-
ing presence of multinational companies have expanded the
global market for business skills and expanded the interna-
tional mobility of skilled labor. The international competi-
tiveness of many companies depends on the mobility of their
key staff (Södersten and Reed 1994). This may explain the
relatively large number of men traveling for work and busi-
ness-related purposes from ages 35 to 54. By this age, indi-
viduals have developed their skills and are likely to hold
senior or key positions in their place of employment.
At the empty-nest stage of the family life cycle, an
increase in female travel for work-related purposes might be
expected because women are no longer held down by child
care and domestic duties. However, this does not occur.
There are number of possible reasons for this. For example,
when women leave the workforce to rear children, they may
fail to accumulate further work skills (G. S. Becker 1985),

their existing skills may become obsolete or be lost, and if
they are later able to rejoin the workforce (which is often dif-
ficult for them), they may be given a lower place in the
employment hierarchy than their male counterparts of a simi-
lar age (Tisdell 1996). This reduces their comparative possi-
bilities for business-related travel. Also, in many occupa-
tions, promotion is a function of the length of continuous
employment, and the discontinuity of employment of many
women due to childbearing can disadvantage them in this
regard. This is further emphasized by the increase in the male
to female ratio for business and convention/conference travel
up to the 55 to 64 age group and travel for employment pur-
poses in the 45 to 54 group.
Many people may disagree with these arguments, partly
for reasons mentioned already. In modern Australia, gender
equality, especially in the workplace, has become a conten-
tious issue. Women are deciding to postpone having children
to remain in the workforce, potentially allowing them to
receive the same benefits from a prolonged and uninter-
rupted working life as their male equivalent. If a woman
decides to have children, there is a trend, in Australia at least,
to begin childbearing at a later age and to have fewer children
(Department of Family and Community Services 2000).
There has also been a trend for women to make use of child
care facilities when their children are quite young, ensuring
that their absence from the workforce is as minimal as possi-
ble. While these issues are becoming more and more impor-
tant, their effect on the Australian female travel life cycles for
business and work-related travel is not, as yet, that apparent.
After age 54, there is a decline in the relative frequency of
male and female travelers for business, convention/conference,
and employment purposes. The decline in preretirement
years can be explained by considering the disadvantages to
an employer of sending an older person overseas for these
purposes. As discussed already, sending an employee over-
seas is a type of investment, with the employer/company
hoping to obtain returns on the investment on the employee’s
return. The time left to recoup this investment and obtain a
return on it falls as a person approaches retirement age,
which is a disadvantage to the employer. After age 65, most
individuals have retired (many before that), and these pur-
poses of travel have less, if any, relevance to their lives.
In the long term, these overall patterns are expected to
remain unimodal at least. Some variations in these life cycles
may occur if the proportion of women in the workforce con-
tinues to escalate due to their increasing tendency to have
fewer, if any, children and to take less time off work for child
rearing. Furthermore, the age for retirement is changing, and
medical breakthroughs and healthy eating are ensuring that
good health is being maintained later in life, so future life
cycles may differ, to some extent, from the present ones.
Holiday Travel
Travel for holiday purposes follows an obvious bimodal
pattern for both men and women. The peaks in its relative
frequencies can be explained by Wells and Gubar’s (1966)
theory and correspond to the bachelor, newly married, and
empty nest stages, respectively, of the family life cycle. Indi-
viduals in the bachelor and newly married categories are
young, energetic, and often prepared to improvise and have
no dependent children. Their discretionary income is likely
to be spent on holidays. The subsequent dip in holiday travel
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JOURNAL OF TRAVEL RESEARCH 141
can be attributed to Wells and Gubar’s full-nest stage: mar-
ried individuals have dependent children, and their net
savings position is at its lowest due to mortgage commit-
ments. The subsequent peak occurs when individuals enjoy a
positive net financial position and have no dependent chil-
dren. This peak is higher than the first one because most indi-
viduals have a strong net financial position, including the
accumulation of assets and savings (Ando and Modigliani
1963; Modigliani 1986). As individuals age, even though
they have more time available for activities such as travel,
their number of journeys may decline due to failing health
and dissaving.
There are more women than men traveling for holiday
purposes in all age groups except for the 65 and older group.
Mieczkowski (1990) suggested that this might be because
men are more concerned with their jobs or sporting interests,
obtaining more satisfaction from these than a holiday abroad.
This may explain why the largest difference between men
and women occurs in the 15 to 24 group, shown by the small-
est male to female ratio. In the other groups up to 54 years of
age, the difference could be partly due to women accompa-
nying their partners on a business or work-related trip, indi-
cating the purpose for travel as a “holiday” on the departure
card. In the long term, as birth and marriage rates decline, the
dip for the full-nest group may become less marked, espe-
cially for men. To some extent, the number of increasing
single-female parents may offset the likelihood of this occur-
ring for women.
Traveling to Visit Friends and Relatives
Travel to visit friends and relatives follows a different
pattern from holiday travel for both men and women. It
shows a definite skew to the left, with the majority of individ-
uals traveling for this purpose in the older age groups, with
the age-related curve peaking for 55 to 64 age group. The left
skew may be partly explained by observing past immigration
patterns to Australia. Between 1961 and 1980, more than
60% of the total migration to Australia was from Europe. In
1998, 43.5% of individuals older than age 55 who departed
from Australia for a short-term trip traveled to Europe to visit
friends and relatives. Migrants and their families often return
to their country of origin to visit friends and relatives or to
seek information on their heritage.
A family would usually find it expensive to travel over-
seas. Even though accommodation and some tourist attrac-
tions follow a marginal pricing policy (Lawson 1994), the
overall cost of an overseas trip is expensive. Unlike holiday
travel, there is not a decline in the 35 to 44 age group for
travel to visit friends and relatives. This age group parallels
Wells and Gubar’s (1966) full-nest stage of the family life
cycle, in which expenditure on luxury items such as overseas
trips decreases. But when an individual or family travels
abroad to visit friends and relatives, they can usually stay
with them, saving on accommodation and even meals by not
having to eat out as much, making an overseas trip more
affordable.
Possible explanations of the larger number of women rel-
ative to men traveling to visit friends and relatives up to age
65 may be as follows: women traveling overseas by them-
selves may prefer to travel somewhere that is secure, with
family and friends offering the best kind of security. This
would be a plausible explanation for the low male to female
142 NOVEMBER 2002
ratio in the 15 to 24 age group. Women in the full-nest and
single-parent group, if traveling with children, may also
appreciate personal assistance from friends and relatives.
Females with young children often return to their countries
of origin as well to introduce their children to their extended
families.
Educational Travel
The skew for educational travel for both men and women
is to the right, with the majority of people being younger than
25 years of age. The peak occurs for the 15 to 24 age group,
which would include individuals traveling for full-time study
at the secondary or tertiary level. Their characteristics would
parallel that of the bachelor stage of the family life cycle.
They would usually be financially dependent, meaning
financial backing would be required through their parents or
other sources such as a scholarship or grants.
Human capital theory (Blaug 1972; Mincer 1974; G. S.
Becker 1975; Psacharopoulos 1994; World Bank 1995) sug-
gests that the lifetime return on investment in education is
likely to be greater the earlier in life the investment is made.
This may influence Australian outbound travel for education,
even more so with women, as there are more women travel-
ing for educational purposes who are younger than age 25.
Women have an extra incentive to invest in education while
they are young since they need to reap economic benefits
from their acquired knowledge in the workforce before they
reach latter stages of the family life cycle. This makes it
important not to unduly delay their entry into the workforce.
Also, women may obtain security and safer contacts when
they travel for education.
CONCLUSIONS
This study highlights the importance of specifying travel
cycles both according to purpose of the journey and gender.
The demand for Australia outbound travel was segmented by
purpose of travel and gender, enabling the male and female
patterns to be observed and compared.
Gender differences were found in relation to business and
work-related travel functions in relation to both the volume
or relative frequency of outbound travel and the age when
these peak. The male to female ratio was greater than unity
for all age groups for these purposes of travel. All functions
were unimodal, but the peak for business, convention/
conference, and employment travel occurred earlier for
women than men. The holiday travel pattern was bimodal
both for men and women, with more women generally travel-
ing for this purpose. The relative frequency of outbound vis-
its to friends and relatives for both men and women was
unimodal and skewed to the left, with generally more women
traveling for this purpose. Educational travel for men and
women was almost unimodal but skewed in the opposite
direction to travel to visit friends and relatives, with more
women traveling only for ages up to 25.
Economic and sociological variations will inevitably
cause the age-related travel functions to shift in the future. In
particular, the increasing participation of women in the
workforce and the tendency for them to remain single and
childless for a longer period may have an impact in the
future, mainly with respect to female business and work-
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related travel. But such changes are likely to be slow and may
only bring minor variations in the observed patterns. Gen-
erally, however, it is to be expected that ages for the peak of
outbound travel and the differences in the comparative pur-
poses of outbound travel will be maintained in the foresee-
able future.
This article therefore concludes that gender has an impor-
tant influence on travel demand, contrary to the contentions
of Lawson (1994) and Marshment (1997). It also finds that
life cycle travel patterns vary significantly according to the
purpose of travel. Both purpose and gender are important for
predicting long-term demand for travel.
As mentioned earlier, raw data were unavailable from the
ABS, thereby limiting the statistical analysis used. Instead,
secondary data were supplied in the form of frequency tables
and represented the full population of short-term Australian
residents departing for less than 12 months. This meant that
inferential statistics were inappropriate, so only descriptive
statistics were used. Further studies could therefore be
enhanced if raw data were supplied, enabling the use of infer-
ential statistics. Whether these life cycle cross-sectional
travel functions have shifted or are likely to shift over time
would also be a worthy addition to knowledge. A longitudi-
nal survey similar to C. Becker (1992) and Oppermann
(1995) would be ideal in this case, enabling one to see if these
shifts are occurring. A survey of this nature would also con-
tribute to existing research by seeing to what extent these
age-related travel functions change when other demographic
and socioeconomic variables are taken into consideration.
For instance, do these travel life cycles vary according to an
individual’s nationality or ethnicity? Longitudinal studies
such as this are very expensive and time-consuming to col-
lect but would make a very valuable contribution to travel
literature.
Note that although Australian data were used for this
study, it is expected that the general age and gender-related
travel patterns observed for Australia would at least apply to
other countries with a similar cultural background (e.g., Can-
ada, New Zealand, and the United States). In fact, general
patterns of life cycle travel for holiday and business purposes
may be widely applicable.
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